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Collared kingfisher
Collared kingfisher
Collared kingfisher
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Collared kingfisher
Todiramphus chloris humii
Laem Phak Bia, Phetchaburi, Thailand
Scientific classification Edit this classification
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Chordata
Class: Aves
Order: Coraciiformes
Family: Alcedinidae
Subfamily: Halcyoninae
Genus: Todiramphus
Species:
T. chloris
Binomial name
Todiramphus chloris
(Boddaert, 1783)
Synonyms
  • Halcyon chloris
  • Todirhamphus chloris

The collared kingfisher (Todiramphus chloris) is a medium-sized kingfisher belonging to the subfamily Halcyoninae, the tree kingfishers. It is also known as the white-collared kingfisher, black-masked kingfisher or mangrove kingfisher. It has a wide range extending from the Red Sea across southern Asia to Melanesia. A number of subspecies and subspecies groups have been split from this species including the Pacific kingfisher, the Islet kingfisher, the Torresian kingfisher, the Mariana kingfisher, and the Melanesian kingfisher.

Taxonomy

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The collared kingfisher was described by the French polymath Georges-Louis Leclerc, Comte de Buffon in his Histoire Naturelle des Oiseaux in 1780.[2] The bird was also illustrated in a hand-coloured plate engraved by François-Nicolas Martinet in the Planches Enluminées D'Histoire Naturelle. This was produced under the supervision of Edme-Louis Daubenton to accompany Buffon's text.[3] Neither the plate caption nor Buffon's description included a scientific name but in 1783 the Dutch naturalist Pieter Boddaert coined the binomial name Alcedo chloris in his catalogue of the Planches Enluminées.[4] The type locality is the island of Buru within Indonesia.[5] The current genus Todiramphus was introduced by the French surgeon and naturalist René Lesson in 1827.[6] The specific epithet chloris is modern Latin for 'green' or 'greenish'.[7]

List of subspecies

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There are numerous subspecies in the species' largely coastal and insular range from the Red Sea to Polynesia:[8][9]

Red Sea and Arabian coasts

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India and Indian Ocean

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South East Asia

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Wallacea, New Guinea

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Micronesia

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  • T. c. teraokai (Nagamichi Kuroda, 1915) – Palau

Description

[edit]
Juvenile, T. c. humii from Sundarbans National Park, West Bengal, India

The collared kingfisher is 23 to 25 cm (9.1 to 9.8 in) long and the male weighs 51 to 90 g (1.8 to 3.2 oz), while the female weighs 54–100 g (1.9–3.5 oz).[10] It varies from blue to green above while the underparts can be white or buff. There is a white collar around the neck, giving the bird its name. Some races have a white or buff stripe over the eye while others have a white spot between the eye and bill.[10] There may be a black stripe through the eye. The large bill is black with a pale yellow base to the lower mandible. Females tend to be greener than the males. Immature birds are duller than the adults with dark scaly markings on the neck and breast.

It has a variety of calls which vary geographically. The most typical call is a loud, harsh and metallic "kee-kee-kee" repeated several times.[10]

Skeleton of a collared kingfisher

Distribution and habitat

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It is most commonly found in coastal areas, particularly in mangrove swamps. It also inhabits farmland, open woodland, grassland and gardens. In some parts of its range, especially on islands, it can be seen further inland, ranging into forest or into mountain areas. Birds often perch conspicuously on wires, rocks or bare branches.

T. c. humii at Sunderbans, West Bengal

The subspecies that occurs furthest west in the Eurasian/African landmass is T. c. abyssinica of north-east Africa, which is found in patches of mangroves in Eritrea and has also been recorded from Sudan and Somalia. Further east in Arabia is the endangered race T. c. kalbaensis with a population of 55 pairs or fewer; these are almost entirely restricted to Khor Kalba in the United Arab Emirates, but breeding has also occurred recently at Khor Shinas in Oman. Further subspecies occur locally around the coasts of India and Bangladesh and on the Andaman and Nicobar Islands. In Southeast Asia and Indonesia as well as Philippines, the species is widespread and common, occurring far inland in some regions.

T. c. collaris in Bataan, Philippines

Feeding

[edit]
An individual at Zuari River, Goa, India

Small crabs and shrimps are the favoured food in coastal regions but a wide variety of other animals are eaten including insects (including beetles, cicadas, stick-insects, grasshoppers, moths and butterflies), spiders, earthworms, snails, frogs, lizards, small snakes, small fish, and sometimes small birds and mice.[10] The collared kingfisher perches almost motionless for long periods waiting for prey. When it spots something it glides down to catch it and then flies back to the perch where larger items are pounded against the branch to subdue them.[10] Any indigestible remains are regurgitated as pellets.

Reproduction

[edit]

The nest is a hole, either a natural tree hole or a burrow excavated by the birds themselves in a rotten tree, arboreal termite nest or earth bank.[10] They will also occupy old woodpecker holes. A clutch of usually two to five rounded, whitish eggs are laid directly on the floor of the burrow with no nest material used. Both parents take part in incubating the eggs and feeding the chicks. The young birds leave the nest about 44 days after hatching.[10] Two broods are often raised in a year.

Conservation status

[edit]

With a very wide distribution and common to abundant population,[10] the collared kingfisher is classed as least concern on the IUCN Red List.[1]

References

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Further reading

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[edit]
Revisions and contributorsEdit on WikipediaRead on Wikipedia

Collared kingfisher

View on Grokipedia
from Grokipedia
The Collared kingfisher (Todiramphus chloris) is a medium-sized bird in the Alcedinidae, measuring 22–29 cm in length and weighing 51–100 g, with striking featuring a greenish-blue crown and upperparts, a brighter blue rump, white underparts, and a prominent white collar that contrasts with a black mask extending across the hindneck. It is distinguished by a white spot above the lores and a heavy, straight bill adapted for catching prey, with males typically showing bluer tones than the duller females and juveniles. This species exhibits remarkable versatility in habitat preferences, primarily occupying coastal environments such as mangroves, tidal creeks, beaches, and mudflats, but also venturing into inland woodlands, rural gardens, urban parks, and riverine areas up to 40 km from the sea, at elevations from to 1,500 m. Its diet is carnivorous and opportunistic, focusing on , , and crabs in coastal zones, while inland populations consume , frogs, small reptiles, , and even bird eggs or chicks. Behaviorally, it is solitary and strongly territorial, perching motionless to scan for prey before making short dives or sallies to capture it, and it communicates with a characteristic repetitive "kek-kek-kek-kek" call. The Collared kingfisher boasts one of the widest distributions among kingfishers, spanning approximately 47,800,000 km² from the coasts of and Arabia, through southern , the , , , the , , , and numerous Pacific islands including and , with around 50 reflecting regional variations in and size. It is non-migratory and breeds monogamously from to in the northern parts of its range, excavating nests in mounds or tree hollows and laying 2–5 eggs that hatch after about 19 days of incubation. Although classified as Least Concern on the due to its extensive range and large population, the faces localized declines from in mangroves, coastal development, and , with no comprehensive monitoring programs currently in place.

Taxonomy

Naming and classification

The collared kingfisher (Todiramphus chloris) was first described by the French naturalist in 1780 within his Histoire Naturelle des Oiseaux, drawing from illustrations in the Planches Enluminées d'Histoire Naturelle. The binomial name was formalized as Alcedo chloris by Dutch naturalist Pieter Boddaert in 1783, based on a type specimen from the island of in the Moluccas, . Initially classified in the Alcedo, the species was later moved to Halcyon as Halcyon chloris in recognition of its affiliation with tree in the Halcyoninae of the Alcedinidae. Molecular phylogenetic analyses, however, revealed that Halcyon as traditionally defined was polyphyletic, prompting its reclassification into the Todiramphus—erected by Primevère in 1827 for Australo-Papuan with distinct vocal and morphological traits. This encompasses the tree adapted to forested and island environments across the . Phylogenetically, T. chloris belongs to a radiation of Todiramphus species that originated in (Australia-New Guinea) and diversified rapidly . Molecular studies show T. chloris is paraphyletic, with the (T. sanctus) nested within its Australian and New Guinean populations ( G), and the crown clade divergence estimated at 0.57–0.85 million years ago during the mid-Pleistocene, driven by Pleistocene sea-level changes and island colonization. Commonly known as the white-collared kingfisher, the has historical synonyms such as Sauropatis chloris, reflecting earlier taxonomic arrangements before the adoption of Todiramphus.

Subspecies

The collared kingfisher (Todiramphus ) encompasses approximately 47–50 recognized under the broad species concept, reflecting its extensive distribution from the across Asia to the western Pacific; however, recent taxonomic revisions by authorities such as the IOC World Bird List have elevated many island forms to full status (e.g., Pacific Kingfisher T. sacer, Torresian Kingfisher T. torresianum, Melanesian Kingfisher T. reichenowi), reducing the count for T. chloris sensu stricto to around 14–17 as of v15.1 (2025). These are typically grouped by geographic regions, with variations driven by isolation on islands and continental adaptations. In the western part of the range, T. c. abyssinicus (described by Pelzeln in 1856) inhabits the coasts of the from northeastern to northwest and western Arabia, while T. c. kalbaensis (Cowles, 1980; type locality: Khawr , ) is restricted to the southern coasts in the UAE and northern , distinguished by subtle plumage tones adapted to habitats. Across South and Southeast Asia, key subspecies include T. c. humii (Sharpe, 1892; from northeastern and to and the Thai-Malay ), T. c. armstrongi (Sharpe, 1892; interior to Indochina), and T. c. chloris (the nominate form, Boddaert, 1783; from eastward to northwestern and the Lesser Sundas). In island settings, forms like T. c. occipitalis (Blyth, 1846) occupy the , T. c. collaris (Scopoli, 1786) the , and T. c. azelus (Oberholser, 1910) Enggano Island off , each showing localized traits. Further east in and , T. c. lafresnayanus (Lesson, 1827) ranges from Sulawesi through the Moluccas to , while Micronesian and Palauan populations include T. c. orii (Takatsukasa and Hachisuka, 1931; and nearby islands). Although T. c. peronii has been associated with and Indian populations in some older classifications, current recognition aligns such forms under T. c. humii or related continental . Subspecies differ primarily in , with back coloration ranging from bright blue in continental forms to greener or olive tones in populations, underparts varying from pure white to buffy, and bills that may be longer or more robust in some groups; overall body size is smaller in remote taxa, such as those in . Vocalizations also vary, with some forms exhibiting distinct calls that support taxonomic debates. Recognition relies on these combined traits, as outlined in taxonomic checklists like Clements (v2024) and HBW/BirdLife (v6, 2022). As of IOC World Bird List v15.1 (2025), discussions continue on splitting additional peripheral populations based on genetic, vocal, and morphological evidence, particularly for Wallacean and Oceanian isolates.

Description

Morphology

The Collared kingfisher (Todiramphus ) is a medium-sized measuring 23–25 cm in body length, though ranges of 22–29 cm are reported across and populations. Its wingspan measures approximately 40 cm. Adults weigh 51–100 g, with males averaging 51–90 g and females 54–100 g, reflecting slight sexual size dimorphism where females are larger. Measurements from ornithological accounts, such as those in Birds of the World (published 2020), confirm these averages and ranges, with variation linked to geographic populations. Structurally, the species has a large head, a strong straight black bill with a pale base on the lower , short legs, and syndactyl feet suited for perching on branches and . is minimal beyond the size difference, with no pronounced variations in overall form between sexes. Juveniles exhibit duller bills and less defined collars compared to adults.

Plumage variation

The adult collared kingfisher displays a striking featuring a greenish-blue crown and upperparts, a supraloral spot, a black mask extending to the hindneck, and a prominent collar. Underparts are , occasionally buffier in some forms, while the wings and tail show to tones, with a brighter rump. Plumage variation across subspecies is notable, with upperparts ranging from azure blue in continental populations to greener or olive-toned in island races; these differences are primarily driven by subspecies distinctions, such as the extension of the white loral spot into a supercilium in certain groups. Sexual dimorphism is subtle, with females generally duller overall, exhibiting more olive-brown tones on the crown, mantle, and back compared to the bluer hues in males, though both sexes share the white collar and underparts pattern. Juveniles resemble adults but are duller and slightly darker, with browner tones, thin dusky mottling on , and fringing on the upperwing secondary coverts; the collar is often less distinct. The species lacks a preformative molt, retaining juvenile until the first complete definitive prebasic molt, which occurs post-breeding annually (typically December to August in studied populations) and results in brighter to blue by the second year. Some exhibit delayed molting aligned with non-breeding seasons.

Vocalizations

The collared kingfisher (Todiramphus chloris) employs a range of vocalizations for communication, primarily consisting of sharp, repetitive calls that function in territorial defense and signaling. The most characteristic call is a loud, harsh, metallic series of "kee-kee-kee-kee" or "kek-kek-kek-kek" notes, typically delivered in bouts of 3 to 5 repetitions, though occasionally extending to 7 notes. This vocalization is frequently uttered from a or in flight, serving to assert boundaries and deter potential intruders during disputes. In addition to the primary call, the species produces other distinct sounds, including a more liquid "tchurr" or rattling sequence, which some incorporate during and mating interactions. These softer, chattering notes may also occur in relaxed contexts, contrasting with the harsher alarm calls. Juvenile birds emit high-pitched, repetitive begging calls to solicit food, often described as sharp "tseep" sounds during parental provisioning. Vocalizations exhibit geographic variation across the species' wide range, with the core "kee-kee" structure maintained but differences in tempo, volume, and phrasing noted among populations. For instance, calls from dense forest habitats tend to be louder and more emphatic for propagation through vegetation, while those from island in the Pacific may feature a slightly slower delivery rate. In Micronesian populations (e.g., such as T. c. orii), recordings indicate a more deliberate pacing compared to continental forms. These vocal traits are particularly prominent in defending breeding territories, where repeated calls reinforce pair bonds and exclude rivals.

Distribution and habitat

Geographic range

The collared kingfisher (Todiramphus chloris) occupies an extensive geographic range covering approximately 47.8 million km², stretching from the coasts of and the , through the and , across and , to , , , and . This distribution includes countries such as , , , , , the , , and , where it is native and primarily resident. The species is notably absent from and the interiors of larger Indonesian islands, favoring coastal and peripheral regions instead. Vagrant individuals have been recorded outside this core range, including in , , , , and . Subspecies distribution patterns vary across these areas, with nearly 50 recognized adapting to local conditions from the Arabian T. c. kalbaensis to Pacific island variants. The exhibits mostly sedentary behavior throughout its range, with limited post-breeding dispersal and local movements observed in monsoon-influenced regions such as . Genomic studies indicate historical expansions dating back around 100,000 years, facilitating colonization of island archipelagos following glacial periods. In the , the endemic T. c. kalbaensis, formally described in 2017, is critically endangered with a of fewer than 55 pairs, primarily restricted to Khor Kalba amid ongoing habitat alterations.

Habitat preferences

The Collared kingfisher (Todiramphus chloris) primarily occupies mangroves, coastal forests, estuaries, and riversides, extending into inland woodlands, plantations, and urban parks at elevations up to 1,500 m. These habitats provide essential access to water bodies, with the species typically found in close proximity to streams, creeks, or tidal areas for foraging opportunities. It favors perches at heights of 1–3 m on branches, wires, or exposed structures overlooking open ground or shallow water, combined with an that offers partial cover rather than dense vegetation. This demonstrates notable adaptations to varied environmental conditions, including tolerance for saltwater in swamps and estuarine zones along coastlines. It readily exploits human-modified landscapes, such as rice paddies, arable fields, and gardens in Asian regions, where it perches on artificial structures amid altered terrain. However, it generally avoids dense interiors, preferring more open or edge habitats that allow for unobstructed hunting from elevated vantage points.

Behavior and ecology

Feeding

The collared kingfisher (Todiramphus ) exhibits a diet dominated by arthropods, particularly and , supplemented by and smaller s such as shrimps. In habitats of the , , comprise approximately 62% of the diet, with (minnows) at 12% and shrimps at 9%, based on observations of 91 feeding events. Dietary composition varies by ; in Malaysian areas, account for 57% of prey items, followed by worms at 19% and bivalves at 4%. Regurgitation pellet analyses from nests in the further confirm dominance, with brachyuran present in 92% of pellets by frequency and 98% by mass, alongside (39% frequency) and (19% frequency). In contrast, inland populations have a broader diet, including (such as cicadas, beetles, and grasshoppers), spiders, earthworms, frogs, , small snakes, and occasionally small mammals, eggs, or nestlings. employs a classic perch-and-wait strategy, where the scans for prey from elevated perches such as exposed branches overlooking or mudflats, using keen for detection. Upon spotting prey, it performs short dives or aerial drops to capture it, with average bouts lasting about 33 seconds in mangroves and 2.6 minutes in mudflats. Larger prey items, especially crabs, are subdued by repeatedly beating them against the perch before consumption. Feeding frequency shows seasonal variation, increasing during periods (2.43 events per day) compared to winter (2.31 events per day) in coastal . These insights derive from direct observations, trail camera recordings, and pellet analyses in studies spanning 2017–2022 across and the , highlighting the species' adaptability as a specialist forager in coastal and wetland environments.

Breeding

The breeding season of the collared kingfisher varies by location but is generally tied to the in tropical regions, occurring year-round in some equatorial areas with peaks during monsoons, such as March to August in parts of and . In , it aligns with spring and summer from September to February. Pairs form through territorial displays involving aerial chases and vocalizations, including duets, with males offering food such as fish to females. Nesting sites are typically self-excavated burrows in earthen banks, arboreal mounds, or rotten tree trunks, with tunnels measuring 15–90 cm in length and 5–7.5 cm in diameter, leading to a chamber about 10–15 cm wide and high. Pairs may start multiple burrows in a season, completing two or three, and often reuse successful sites in subsequent years. No nesting material is used, and eggs are laid directly on the chamber floor. Clutches consist of 2–5 white eggs, typically three in regions like and , with an exceptional record of seven. Incubation lasts 18–21 days and is performed by both parents, with hatchlings emerging naked, blind, and dependent on biparental brooding for warmth. Nestlings after 30–44 days, with the total period from laying to fledging around 44 days; pairs may raise 1–2 broods per season. Both parents share feeding duties, provisioning chicks primarily with , small , mudskippers, and , with one often guarding the nest while the other forages. Juveniles remain dependent on parents for 2–4 weeks post-fledging. Breeding success varies, with about 70% of eggs fledging young at monitored sites in over three seasons, and ringing studies in indicating longevity of 6–11 years.

Conservation

Status and population

The collared kingfisher (Todiramphus chloris) is classified as Least Concern by the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN), with the most recent assessment confirming this status in 2025. This classification reflects its extensive geographic range across , Australasia, and parts of the Indian Ocean, where it remains common to abundant in suitable habitats despite localized declines. The global population size has not been quantified but is reported to be common to abundant throughout its range and does not approach the thresholds for under IUCN criteria. Overall population trends are considered stable due to the species' wide distribution, though declines are suspected in fragmented or isolated populations, particularly where mangrove habitats are under pressure. Citizen science data from platforms like eBird indicate range stability across much of its core distribution, with consistent reporting of occurrences in coastal and inland wetlands from India to the Pacific islands. Densities vary by region but are typically described as common, reaching up to several pairs per square kilometer in optimal mangrove and estuarine environments. One notable exception is the rare subspecies T. c. kalbaensis, endemic to the southern Arabian coast in the , where recent surveys estimate a of 55-90 pairs, primarily confined to Khor mangroves; this appears stable as of 2023-2025 monitoring efforts. Longevity records from studies in show individuals surviving 6–11 years, providing insights into adult survival rates that support the ' overall resilience.

Threats and conservation measures

The primary threat to the collared kingfisher (Todiramphus chloris) is habitat loss, particularly the ongoing destruction of mangrove forests driven by coastal development, urbanization, and aquaculture expansion. In Southeast Asia, a key region within its range, mangrove cover declined by approximately 4.8% between 2000 and 2020, with significant contributions from land conversion for shrimp farming and infrastructure. Human disturbance in coastal areas disrupts nesting and hunting activities. Rare subspecies, such as the Arabian collared kingfisher (T. c. kalbaensis) in the United Arab Emirates, face heightened vulnerability to stochastic events, including climate-induced changes like altered hydrology and increased flooding that threaten their limited mangrove refuges. Local population declines are exacerbated by indirect effects in modified landscapes. On islands, pose risks through nest predation and potential competition; for instance, black rats (Rattus rattus) have been documented preying on T. c. kalbaensis nests in UAE mangroves, while invasive predators affect island populations elsewhere in the range. Conservation efforts focus on habitat protection and targeted monitoring to mitigate these pressures. The species benefits from inclusion in protected mangrove reserves, such as in , where it forages in intact coastal ecosystems, and similar areas in like those in that safeguard regional populations. In the UAE, the Khor Kalba Conservation Reserve, managed by the Environment and Protected Areas Authority, supports T. c. kalbaensis through and breeding programs, including the first successful in 2020. The collared kingfisher is not listed under , indicating no significant international trade concerns. Looking ahead, poses a growing risk through accelerated sea-level rise, which could inundate habitats by 2050 under high-emission scenarios, potentially leading to widespread habitat submergence if mangroves fail to migrate inland. Recommendations emphasize restoration, such as replanting mangroves and controlling invasives, to enhance resilience; studies show improved breeding success in protected areas compared to degraded sites.

References

  1. https://ebird.org/species/colkin1
  2. https://animalia.bio/collared-kingfisher/1000
  3. https://datazone.birdlife.org/species/factsheet/collared-kingfisher-todiramphus-chloris
  4. https://birdsoftheworld.org/bow/species/colkin1/cur/introduction
  5. https://avibase.bsc-eoc.org/species.jsp?avibaseid=5DA28D375F27F00A
  6. https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/10.1098/rsos.140375
  7. https://www.worldbirdnames.org/new/
  8. https://avibase.bsc-eoc.org/species.jsp?avibaseid=23F0841EC3482881
  9. https://avibase.bsc-eoc.org/species.jsp?avibaseid=2746FFC9C958E4FB
  10. https://earthlife.net/collared-kingfishers/
  11. https://avibase.bsc-eoc.org/species.jsp?avibaseid=F93E228FE684D95E
  12. https://avibase.bsc-eoc.org/species.jsp?avibaseid=154774FE5258277B
  13. https://avibase.bsc-eoc.org/species.jsp?avibaseid=36DA8E1CCA61FF72
  14. https://avibase.bsc-eoc.org/species.jsp?avibaseid=F1C64C1854570561
  15. https://worldbirdsblog.wordpress.com/collared-kingfisher-todiramphus-chloris/
  16. https://sundarbantravel.com/collared-kingfisher-todiramphus-chloris/
  17. https://app.birda.org/species-guide/10385/Collared_Kingfisher
  18. https://absa.asn.au/wp-content/uploads/2015/01/Collared-Kingfisher-1.pdf
  19. https://www.birdpop.org/docs/pubs/Pyle_et_al_2016_Molt_Patterns_In_Samoan_Landbirds.pdf
  20. https://www.nlb.gov.sg/main/article-detail?cmsuuid=d0c3e074-56d6-4b79-b05b-57e8b1a12fe3
  21. https://xeno-canto.org/species/todiramphus-chloris
  22. https://indianbirds.thedynamicnature.com/2017/04/collared-kingfisher-todiramphus-chloris.html
  23. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC9635628/
  24. https://osme.org/wp-content/uploads/2019/10/9_Sandgrouse_31_1_Pages_38-39_Stanton.pdf
  25. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S2352249625000060
  26. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fooweb.2025.e00391
  27. https://doi.org/10.3329/bjz.v49i2.56269
  28. https://doi.org/10.1088/1755-1315/736/1/012015
  29. https://doi.org/10.4081/rio.2025.863
  30. https://dlnr.cnmi.gov/assets/docs/dfw/coki.pdf
  31. https://news.mongabay.com/2022/11/mangrove-forest-loss-is-slowing-toward-a-halt-new-report-shows/
  32. https://gulfnews.com/uae/environment/habitat-loss-threatens-only-kingfisher-species-in-uae-1.983182
  33. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/335189214_Black_Rat_Rattus_rattus_predation_on_an_Arabian_Collared_Kingfisher_Todirhamphus_chloris_kalbaensis_nest
  34. https://www.keybiodiversityareas.org/site/factsheet/18333
  35. https://www.emiratesnaturewwf.ae/page/khor-kalba
  36. https://www.thenationalnews.com/uae/environment/sharjah-breeds-rare-arabian-collared-kingfisher-in-captivity-for-first-time-1.1074174
  37. https://www.rutgers.edu/news/mangrove-trees-wont-survive-sea-level-rise-2050-if-emissions-arent-cut
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