Hubbry Logo
DezfulDezfulMain
Open search
Dezful
Community hub
Dezful
logo
8 pages, 0 posts
0 subscribers
Be the first to start a discussion here.
Be the first to start a discussion here.
Dezful
Dezful
Dezful
View on Wikipedia
from Wikipedia

Dezful (Persian: دزفول; pronounced [dɛzˈfuːl])[a] is a city in the Central District of Dezful County, Khuzestan province, Iran, serving as capital of both the county and the district.[5]

Key Information

History

[edit]

Dezful is one of Khuzestan province's oldest cities. According to Walther Hinz excavations, Awan (capital of the first dynasty of Elam, the Awan dynasty) was located in Dezful.

The name Dezfūl is believed to be associated with a Sasanian bridge constructed over the Āb-e Dez by Shapur II. The Sasanians also built a fortress in close proximity to protect the bridge. This area, encompassing the bridge and the fortress, eventually evolved into the city of Dež-Pol or Dezfūl, although this name was not commonly used until the 12th century.[6] In the 10th century, the writer Eṣṭaḵrī referred to it as Qanṭarat-al-Andāmeš. It was also known as Qaṣr al-Rūnāš. The stone foundation of the bridge is still visible, while the upper part underwent several brick reconstructions during the early Islamic, Saljuq, and Qajar periods. In the 14th century, Ḥamd-Allāh Mostāwfī described it as 520 paces long and 15 paces wide, with forty-two arches. Šaraf-al-Dīn Yazdī, who visited the area in 795/1393, also provided a detailed description.[6]

According to George Curzon, who visited the area in the late 19th century, the principal local industry in Dezfūl was indigo, with 120 factories in the town. The cultivation of indigo was introduced in the early 19th century. Dezfūl was also renowned for its fine reed pens.[6]

Etymology

[edit]

The name Dezful has been derived from the two words dej (fortress) + pul (bridge), which in combination could stand for 'the bridge to the fortress' or 'fortified bridge' in Persian language.[7][8] The original name of the city was Dezhpul, but after the Muslim conquest of Persia, the city was renamed Dezful,[7] since the Arabic language does not have 'p' and 'zh' sounds. The city is also known as Dizful and Desful.[9]

Demographics

[edit]

Language

[edit]

The people of Dezful, known as Dezfuli, Dezfoolian or Dezfulian, speak Dezfuli – a dialect distinct to Dezful – and Shushtari, a dialect of Shushtar that is sometimes considered to be one of the most archaic dialects spoken in the Iranian plateau, and by others as a dialect of the Persian language.[10][11] These dialects belong to the Southwest Iranian language group. However, they differ significantly from standard Persian in terms of pronunciation, word formation, and vocabulary. The most notable distinctions are found in the structure of verbs. Although they share some similarities with nearby Lor dialects, they are still distinct. The differences between Dezfuli and Shushtari are mainly a result of variations in the detailed sound patterns of the language.[12]

Historically, Dezful was home to a Mandaean community for many centuries.[13] One of Dezful's best-known residents was the Mandaean priest Ram Zihrun.[14]: 140 

Population

[edit]

At the time of the 2006 National Census, the city's population was 228,507 in 55,711 households.[15] The following census in 2011 counted 248,380 people in 66,715 households.[16] The 2016 census measured the population of the city as 264,709 people in 78,348 households.[2]

Geography

[edit]

Dezful is 650 kilometers away from the national capital of Tehran and 155 kilometres away from Ahvaz, the provincial capital of Khuzestan. The city is located 300 kilometres from the Persian Gulf and is at an altitude of 143 meters.

The city lies at the foot of the Zagros Mountains and has a history that dates back to the Sasanian era. The area around Dezful has been home to civilizations for 5000 years.[17]

Dezful sits on the main north-south highway from Tehran to Ahvaz. The main rail line from Tehran to the Persian Gulf is 15 km (9 mi) from Dezful, on the opposite side of the Dez River.

Climate

[edit]

Dezful has a hot semi-arid climate (Köppen climate classification BSh) with extremely hot summers and mild winters. Rainfall is higher than most of southern Iran, but is almost exclusively confined to the period from November to April, sometimes with thunderstorms, though on occasions it can exceed 250 millimetres (9.8 in) per month or 600 millimetres (24 in) per year.[18] Dust is quite common in the region and happens most frequently in summer.[19]

Snowfall in this city is a very rare event. But in 2020, for the first time, the city of Dezful witnessed snowfall.[20]

Climate data for Dezful (extremes for 1961-2010)
Month Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Year
Record high °C (°F) 28.5
(83.3) 		29.0
(84.2) 		37.5
(99.5) 		42.5
(108.5) 		48.4
(119.1) 		50.0
(122.0) 		53.6
(128.5) 		52.0
(125.6) 		49.8
(121.6) 		43.5
(110.3) 		35.0
(95.0) 		30.2
(86.4) 		53.6
(128.5)
Mean daily maximum °C (°F) 17.2
(63.0) 		19.6
(67.3) 		24.1
(75.4) 		30.0
(86.0) 		37.5
(99.5) 		43.7
(110.7) 		46.0
(114.8) 		44.9
(112.8) 		41.7
(107.1) 		34.8
(94.6) 		26.2
(79.2) 		19.3
(66.7) 		32.1
(89.8)
Daily mean °C (°F) 10.8
(51.4) 		13.2
(55.8) 		17.3
(63.1) 		22.8
(73.0) 		29.9
(85.8) 		35.1
(95.2) 		37.0
(98.6) 		35.8
(96.4) 		32.0
(89.6) 		25.6
(78.1) 		17.9
(64.2) 		12.5
(54.5) 		24.2
(75.5)
Mean daily minimum °C (°F) 5.3
(41.5) 		6.8
(44.2) 		10.0
(50.0) 		14.7
(58.5) 		20.5
(68.9) 		23.8
(74.8) 		26.2
(79.2) 		25.5
(77.9) 		21.1
(70.0) 		16.2
(61.2) 		10.8
(51.4) 		6.8
(44.2) 		15.6
(60.2)
Record low °C (°F) −9.0
(15.8) 		−4.0
(24.8) 		−2.0
(28.4) 		3.0
(37.4) 		10.0
(50.0) 		16.0
(60.8) 		19.0
(66.2) 		16.5
(61.7) 		10.0
(50.0) 		6.0
(42.8) 		1.0
(33.8) 		−2.0
(28.4) 		−9.0
(15.8)
Average rainfall mm (inches) 100.6
(3.96) 		60.0
(2.36) 		50.2
(1.98) 		34.5
(1.36) 		9.2
(0.36) 		0.0
(0.0) 		0.2
(0.01) 		0.0
(0.0) 		0.0
(0.0) 		7.4
(0.29) 		39.1
(1.54) 		83.2
(3.28) 		384.4
(15.14)
Average rainy days 9.9 8.1 8.1 6.5 3.0 0.0 0.1 0.0 0.0 2.1 6.2 8.0 52
Average relative humidity (%) 75 68 59 49 32 22 24 28 29 40 59 73 47
Average dew point °C (°F) 5.7
(42.3) 		6.4
(43.5) 		7.9
(46.2) 		9.7
(49.5) 		9.1
(48.4) 		7.8
(46.0) 		11.1
(52.0) 		12.2
(54.0) 		9.0
(48.2) 		8.7
(47.7) 		8.4
(47.1) 		7.0
(44.6) 		8.6
(47.5)
Mean monthly sunshine hours 131.6 158.4 192.3 217.7 272.5 325.6 322.7 317.0 291.3 234.8 158.2 121.9 2,744
Source 1: NOAA (1961-1990) [19]
Source 2: IRIMO[21]
Climate data for Dezful [19]
Month Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Year
No. of days with minimum temperature≤ 0.0 °C (32.0 °F) 3.0 0.7 0.4 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0.9 5.0
Mean number of days with thunder 1.6 1.6 2.7 3.0 2.0 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.0 1.6 2.7 2.1 17.6
Mean number of days with Dust 2.2 4.4 8.2 9.5 14.6 17.5 19.2 16.7 10.8 8.9 3.7 2.2 118

Economy

[edit]

Sugarcane, which has been cultivated in the Dezfūl region for more than a thousand years, is still an important economic factor; a modern sugar refinery with a capacity of more than 300 tons has been built in Haft Tappa near the town of Dezfūl. Other major agricultural products of the šahrestān include wheat, barley, clover, alfalfa, sesame, maize, and grass peas; sheep are the most important livestock[22]

Artisan work

[edit]

The Dezful reed pen is one of the important commercial products that has been cultivated in Dezful for the past three hundred years and is recognized as the finest reed pen at the national and global levels.[23] In the past, the Dezful reed pen was exported to countries like Turkey and China, and it is still exported to most cities in Iran.[24]

Dezful is also known for its handmade wooden tools, including hookah bases, hookahs, candlesticks, coat hangers, and salt shakers. Additionally, the city's handicraft traditions encompass metalwork, such as varshoosazi (crafting items from a Nickle Silver), engraving on gold and silver, and goldsmithing.

In the varshoosazi workshops of Dezful's old bazaar, artisans craft tools for tea drinking and other purposes. The craft of varshoosazi (the making of varsho items) in Iran dates back to the Safavid era, but its peak occurred during the Qajar era and continued into the Pahlavi era. Varsho metal sheets, also known as German silver or Nickle Silver, were imported from Germany, particularly from Poland. This is why Iranian artisans named the metal varsho (Warsaw), after the city of Warsaw, the capital of Poland, and the craft became known as varshoosazi. Artisans from Isfahan, Borujerd, and Dezful were the first to learn how to produce varsho crafts by observing Russian samovars and other products. The varshoosazi industry reached its height in Iran, particularly in the cities of Dezful and Borujerd, during the late Qajar and early Pahlavi eras. Many individuals adopted the surname Varshoochi or Varshabi in Dezful because it was closely associated with their profession as varsho craftsmen.[25][26]

Higher Education

[edit]

Dezful is home to various higher education institutions, each offering various academic and professional programs. These institutions have played an integral role in promoting education, research, and professional development in khuzetsan, significantly contributing to Dezful's academic and cultural richness.

  • Dezful University of Medical Sciences
  • Jundi-Shapur University of Technology (Dezful)
  • Islamic Azad University of Dezful
  • University of Applied Science and Technology (Dezful Applied Science and Technology Center)
  • Payame Noor University of Dezful
  • Khadijeh Kobra Higher Education Center (Farhangian University)
  • Sheikh Morteza Ansari Higher Education Center (Farhangian University)

Historic monuments

[edit]
Dezful Jame' Mosque

In an area with a history that extends back to ancient civilization, the city houses a bridge that dates back to 300 AD.[27]

Transportation

[edit]

There are direct flights from Tehran to Dezful (and reverse) at least twice a day. There are also weekly flights from Dezful to Mashhad (mawhad or mašhad). Dezful can also be reached by the Iranian railways.

Buses are available from almost all Iranian major cities to Dezful or one of its adjacent cities. Trains of the Trans-Iranian Railway serve the neighbouring town of Andimeshk.

Twin towns – sister cities

[edit]

Contemporary people

[edit]

See also

[edit]

Notes

[edit]

References

[edit]

Sources

[edit]
[edit]
Revisions and contributorsEdit on WikipediaRead on Wikipedia

Dezful

View on Grokipedia
from Grokipedia
Dezful is an ancient city in southwestern , located in the northern part of on the left bank of the Dez River at coordinates 32°23′N 48°24′E, serving as the capital of Dezful County. The name "Dezful" derives from "Dez-pol," meaning "fortress bridge" in Persian, referring to its historic Sasanian-era bridge constructed around 263 CE by King using approximately 70,000 Roman prisoners of war as laborers; this structure, one of the world's oldest surviving bridges, spans 385 meters and exemplifies ancient engineering. As of the 2016 Iranian national census conducted by the Statistical of Iran, the city's population was 264,709 residents in 78,348 households, with the broader county totaling 443,971 people; projections estimate the sub-province population at approximately 285,200 as of 2021. Geographically, Dezful sits at an elevation of 143 meters near the foothills, encompassing a hot semi-arid climate characterized by scorching summers (up to 49°C), mild winters (down to 3°C), and average annual precipitation of 250 mm, supporting diverse terrain from plains to nearby highlands. The city's economy revolves around agriculture, leveraging the fertile Dez River valley for major production of vegetables (over 1 million tons annually from 20,000 hectares) and wheat (accounting for 75% of Khuzestan's output in key areas), alongside livestock rearing, , and its role as a key winter trade hub connecting nomadic Lorestān tribes to urban markets via roads and the . Notable infrastructure includes the upstream Dez Dam, a 203-meter-high arch dam completed in 1963 that provides irrigation for 140,000 hectares and generates hydroelectric power, underscoring Dezful's strategic importance in regional water management and development.

Geography

Location and Topography

Dezful serves as the capital of Dezful County in , located in southwestern at the foothills of the . The city is situated approximately 650 kilometers southwest of and 155 kilometers north of , positioning it as a key regional hub along major transportation routes connecting central to the . Its geographical coordinates are 32°23′N 48°24′E, with an elevation of about 143 meters above , placing it within a transitional zone between the rugged mountain terrain to the northeast and the expansive lowlands to the southwest. The topography of Dezful is characterized by its placement on the high left bank of the Dez River, a major waterway originating in the and flowing through the region. This riverine setting defines the city's landscape, with the surrounding area forming part of the Susiana Plain, a broad alluvial expanse shaped by sediment deposition from the Dez and nearby Karkheh Rivers. The plain features gentle undulations and modest anticlinal highs, typically rising only tens of meters above the flat terrain, reflecting the broader structural patterns of the Dezful Embayment within the . This embayment creates a relatively subdued topographic profile compared to the more intensely folded zones to the northeast, facilitating agricultural development while exposing the city to seismic influences from ongoing tectonic activity. The region is seismically active, with occasional earthquakes, though no major events have been recorded in Dezful since the as of 2025. The Dez River has played a pivotal role in shaping Dezful's settlement patterns, providing a reliable source that supported early human occupation and sustained long-term habitation. Historical hydraulic systems, including ancient watermills and canals derived from the river, underscore this environmental influence, enabling efficient for agriculture and daily needs in the arid surroundings. The city's proximity to ancient sites, such as Chogha Mish approximately 40 kilometers southeast, highlights its deep cultural roots, with the site evidencing occupation from around 6800 BCE amid the fertile Susiana landscape. These features collectively establish Dezful's foundational spatial context as a river-dependent oasis at the edge of Iran's mountainous southwest.

Climate

Dezful has a hot (Köppen BSh), characterized by scorching summers and mild winters. Summer temperatures routinely exceed 45°C on average, with marking the peak at highs around 46°C and lows near 32°C; the all-time record high reached 53.0°C on 29 1946. Winters remain mild, with averages of 17°C highs and 5°C lows, though rare snowfall events have occurred, such as the unusual instance in 2020. The hot season spans from late May to late , while the cool period lasts from late to early . Annual rainfall totals about 250 mm, concentrated in winter from to March, when frontal systems bring the majority of ; this pattern is enhanced by the from the to the north. Summers are virtually rainless, contributing to the arid conditions. Extreme heat significantly impacts by increasing and water demand, while the city's location near expansive plains results in occasional dust storms, particularly in spring and summer. The Dez River provides some moderation to the local through evaporative cooling along its banks.

History and Etymology

The name Dezful derives from the "Dež-Pol," meaning "fortress bridge," where "dež" denotes a fortress and "pol" refers to a bridge, highlighting the city's foundational association with a strategic Sasanian-era structure spanning the Dez River. Following the in the 7th century CE, the name evolved phonetically to "Dezful" to align with pronunciation, as the language lacked the "p" sound and substituted it with "f," while preserving the original reference to the bridge's defensive significance. Historically, the area is linked to Awan, identified as the capital of the ancient Elamite Awan dynasty through excavations by Assyriologist Walther Hinz, underscoring its deep prehistoric roots. In contemporary Persian usage, the name remains "Dezful," consistently evoking its bridged heritage.

Historical Development

Dezful's historical roots trace back to the ancient Elamite civilization in the Susiana plain, with settlements dating over 5,000 years to the BCE, where it served as a key hub linked to the Awan dynasty, possibly as its capital known as Avan. The city's strategic location along the Dez River facilitated early agricultural and trade activities in the fertile lowlands, contributing to the region's role as a center of prehistoric and proto-urban development. During the Sasanian era, Dezful emerged prominently around 260 CE when King ordered the construction of a monumental bridge over the Dez River using 70,000 Roman prisoners captured after his victory over Emperor Valerian; this structure, known as the "fortress bridge" (Dezh-pol), became the foundational element tying the city's to its defensive and connective role. The bridge not only enhanced connectivity across the Susiana plain but also spurred settlement growth, with Dezful emerging as a vital node in the region. In the early Islamic period, it served as a subordinate town to the nearby center of Jundishapur. Following the Muslim conquest of Khuzestan in the mid-7th century CE as part of the broader invasions of Persia (circa 640–651 CE), Dezful transitioned into an Islamic hub, with its riverine location aiding growth amid the decline of nearby . The early Islamic period saw the construction of the Jame' Mosque around the 3rd–4th century AH (9th–10th century CE), marking the city's integration into the caliphate's architectural and religious framework while its flourished as a conduit for regional exchange. In the medieval period, Dezful endured the disruptive Mongol invasions of the 13th century, which devastated Khuzestan through widespread destruction and depopulation, as seen in the razing of nearby in 1218 CE; the destruction of centers like Jundishapur further shifted commerce and population toward Dezful, yet the city recovered by leveraging its resilient river-based economy. Under the (16th–18th centuries), Dezful prospered as a production center for and reed pens (), capitalizing on its agricultural output and artisanal skills to support broader Persian networks. This era of flourishing continued into the Qajar period (18th–20th centuries), where the city maintained its status as a bustling node with active indigo workshops, water mills, and a population of around 15,000, amid fertile plains that sustained economic vitality despite regional instabilities. The 20th century brought severe challenges during the Iran-Iraq War (1980–1988), when Dezful faced direct Iraqi assaults, including aerial bombings and ground operations like Operation Dezful in 1980, resulting in significant infrastructure damage, such as to its historic bridge, and widespread disruption in Khuzestan. Post-war reconstruction efforts in the late 1980s and prioritized rebuilding urban and rural areas in Khuzestan, with Dezful benefiting from national initiatives to restore housing, utilities, and economic facilities, though challenges like material shortages persisted. In recent decades up to 2025, Dezful has focused on recovery through upgrades, including ongoing river management projects along the Dez to mitigate flooding and enhance , alongside initiatives in its historical core to preserve texture while promoting tourism and development. These post-2020 efforts emphasize integrated regeneration, addressing war legacies and modern growth to revitalize the city's role in southwestern .

Demographics

Population

According to the 2016 national conducted by the Statistical Center of , the population of Dezful stood at 264,709 residents living in 78,348 households. The broader Dezful , which includes the urban core and surrounding metropolitan areas, recorded 443,971 inhabitants across 125,351 households during the same . These figures highlight the distinction between the densely populated urban center and the more expansive rural and suburban peripheries within the county. Historical data illustrates steady urban growth in Dezful. In 2006, the city was 228,507, rising to 248,380 by the 2011 , reflecting an annual growth rate of approximately 1.7% over that period. This trend aligns with broader patterns in , where urban centers have experienced elevated growth rates compared to national averages, driven by internal dynamics. By 2016, the city's annual growth rate from 2011 had moderated to about 1.3%, yet the as a whole grew at 0.96% annually between 2011 and 2016. Projecting forward based on Iran's national urban rate of around 1.8% annually from 2016 onward, Dezful's city population is estimated to have reached approximately 300,000 by 2025. The likely exceeds 500,000, incorporating suburban expansions. As of the 2022 Iranian , updated detailed figures for Dezful are pending full release, but estimates from 2023 suggest around 513,000 for the metropolitan region. Key factors contributing to this growth include ongoing rural-to-urban migration within Khuzestan and the return of populations displaced during the Iran-Iraq War (1980–1988), which had temporarily reduced urban numbers but spurred rebound through repatriation and resettlement. The county's overall stands at 95 inhabitants per square kilometer, with higher concentrations in the urban core underscoring these migratory influences.

Language and Ethnicity

The inhabitants of Dezful primarily speak the Dezfuli and Shushtari dialects, which belong to the Southwestern Iranian group and form a closely related to both Luri and Persian. These dialects exhibit features inherited from , including simplified verb conjugations and vocabulary influenced by ancient regional substrates, distinguishing them from standard while maintaining in urban contexts. Persian serves as the throughout , used in , administration, and media, reinforcing its dominance in daily life. Dezful's population is ethnically diverse and mainly Persian-speaking, including significant communities of Lurs (an Iranian group native to the region, with subgroups like the Bakhtiari), , and . Historically, Dezful hosted a notable Mandaean community, a Gnostic tracing origins to ancient , who resided there for centuries as artisans and priests until their numbers diminished significantly by the late 20th century due to emigration and assimilation pressures. Bilingualism is prevalent in Dezful's urban areas, where residents commonly alternate between local dialects and standard Persian for professional and educational purposes, fostering a hybrid linguistic environment. In border regions near the frontier, the influence of —spoken by local Arab minorities—manifests in loanwords and phonetic shifts within Dezfuli and Shushtari, reflecting centuries of cross-cultural exchange in Khuzestan's diverse ethnic mosaic. The Iran-Iraq War (1980–1988) profoundly affected Dezful's ethnic dynamics, as the city endured heavy bombardment and served as a frontline hub, prompting internal displacements and migrations that altered community compositions, particularly among vulnerable minorities like who faced compounded religious and wartime hardships. Post-war reconstruction efforts in Khuzestan, including Dezful, led to influxes of Persian-speaking migrants for rebuilding projects, subtly shifting the balance toward greater Persian cultural influence while straining Lur and Arab enclaves. Preservation of minority languages such as Luri dialects remains challenging amid Iran's policy of Persian linguistic dominance in public spheres, though grassroots initiatives by Lur communities— including documentation and cultural festivals—aim to sustain these tongues against assimilation.

Economy

Agriculture and Industry

Dezful's agricultural sector is predominantly supported by the fertile plains along the Dez River, which provides essential for crop cultivation. has been a cornerstone crop in the region for over a thousand years, serving as a vital economic resource and enabling large-scale farming activities. Other key crops include and as primary winter staples, alongside and during the summer season, which benefit from the river's water distribution systems. These crops are grown using traditional and modern methods, including pumping stations that draw from the lower Dez River to sustain approximately 50,000 acres of experimental farmland. The Dez Irrigation Project, initiated in the mid-20th century, has enhanced water management through dams and reservoirs that regulate floods and supply consistent irrigation, boosting productivity for these grains and cash crops. Recent efforts from 2023 to 2025 emphasize sustainable farming practices in Khuzestan Province, including optimized water allocation and community gardens in Dezful to mitigate environmental degradation and water scarcity. However, national economic pressures, including sanctions, have constrained growth, leading to limited expansion in agricultural output despite self-reliance in food production. As of 2025, renewed UN sanctions have intensified these pressures, contributing to a projected 1.7% GDP contraction and challenges in agricultural expansion. In terms of industry, Dezful hosts significant agro-processing facilities, notably the Sugar Agro-Industrial Company located along the Shush-Dezful , which processes and beets with a current capacity of 5,000 tons of beets and 700 tons of raw per day, planned to expand to 10,000 tons daily by the end of 2025. The region also engages in oil-related activities as part of the broader Dezful Embayment in Khuzestan, a major province with multiple fields contributing to Iran's sector. Small-scale complements these efforts, focusing on basic processing of agricultural products amid challenges from sanctions that hinder imports and . Trade in Dezful revolves around agricultural outputs, with the city serving as a key winter for nomadic groups from Lorestān, facilitating exchanges of and during seasonal migrations. Exports include -based products such as ardeh ( paste), derived from local cultivation and processed for regional and international markets, underscoring the area's role in agro- networks.

Artisan Crafts

Dezful's artisan crafts are deeply rooted in the city's natural resources and historical trade networks, particularly those derived from the Dez River's . Local reeds and wild grasses have long provided materials for handcrafted items that blend functionality with artistic expression, sustaining communities through generations of skilled labor. Among the most renowned crafts is the production of reed pens, known as Dezfuli , using reeds harvested from the banks of the Dez River. These pens are prized for their flexibility and precision in Persian and , particularly the Nastaʿliq script, and were historically exported to countries including , , , and . Artisans select mature reeds, cure them for months to enhance durability, and shape them by hand into nibs of varying widths to suit different writing styles. Varshoosazi, a traditional metal filigree technique that flourished in Dezful during the late Qajar and early Pahlavi eras, with roots in earlier periods and development notably in , peaking in the late Qajar and early Pahlavi eras. Artisans work with varsho, an of , , and imported historically from and —to create intricate, high-luster items such as tea sets, trays, and decorative utensils sold in the city's old . The process involves hammering the alloy into thin sheets, cutting patterns by hand, and delicate motifs, often featuring floral or geometric designs inspired by local . This craft draws on Dez River-sourced water for cooling during , ensuring the metal's characteristic shine. Indigo dyeing represents another pillar of Dezful's artisanal heritage, utilizing wild Indigofera plants growing along the Dez River to produce a vibrant blue pigment known as wasmeh. In the 19th century, approximately 120 factories operated in the city, where artisans fermented leaves in river-water ponds, extracted the dye through oxidation, and applied it to textiles and ceramics via immersion techniques for shading from sky-blue to deep indigo. This method supported the production of dyed yarns for traditional tents and garments, with over 150 machines active until recent decades, processing up to 140 kg daily during the four-month harvest season. These crafts play a vital economic role in Dezful, contributing to local markets and through sales in the historic and a permanent handicrafts established in 2023, which showcases 38 traditional fields. In 2023, Dezful was registered by the World Crafts Council as a of handicrafts, highlighting its coiled (kapu) weaving alongside metalwork and textiles, boosting artisan visibility and exports that reached approximately $400 million nationally for Iranian handicrafts over the first ten months of the prior Iranian . Post-2020, the Dezful Handicrafts Cooperative has supported sustainability by organizing training, material sourcing from river ecosystems, and marketing to counter modernization pressures, preserving techniques amid urban growth while generating income for over 20 active workshops in varshoosazi and indigo processing.

Culture and Heritage

Historic Monuments

Dezful's historic monuments reflect its deep-rooted architectural heritage, spanning from the Sasanian era to the Qajar period, with structures that demonstrate advanced engineering and adaptation to the local environment. The most prominent is the Old Bridge, constructed around 260 CE by Sasanian King using approximately 70,000 Roman prisoners of war following the . Spanning the Dez River with 14 arches, of which 11 are original stone and brick from the Sasanian era and three are later concrete additions, this 385-meter-long structure, built from dressed stone, mortar, and baked clay bricks, served as a critical transportation link between eastern and western parts of the city and remained in use for vehicular traffic until the early . Recognized as one of the world's oldest surviving bridges, it exemplifies Sasanian hydraulic expertise in bridging rivers while accommodating water flow. The Jameh Mosque stands as another cornerstone of Dezful's Islamic architectural legacy, originating in the early Islamic period and evolving through subsequent restorations. Its present form, featuring four iwans enclosing a spacious courtyard, draws from Sasanian influences and was finalized during the Safavid era, with the entrance portal and twin minarets dating to the 12th century AH (18th century CE). Constructed primarily of stone with brick accents and a large dome employing cob-and-brick walls for , the mosque incorporates intricate tilework bearing inscriptions and Qajar-era on the altar, blending functionality with aesthetic refinement suited to the region's hot . Registered as a in 1936, it highlights the continuity of Persian mosque design principles. Complementing these are Qajar-era residences and ancient water systems that underscore Dezful's vernacular and hydraulic traditions. Houses like the Suzangar House, erected in 1338 AH (circa 1920 CE) in the late Qajar style, feature inward-oriented layouts with a central courtyard, basement cooling areas, verandas, and distinctive "Khoon Chini" brickwork for decoration and ventilation, embodying privacy and climate-responsive design. Designated a in 2000, it now functions as a craft workshop, preserving artisanal techniques. Similarly, the Choqabafan Qomesh , dating to about 400 years ago, channels surface water from the Dez River through an 8,100-meter tunnel over 50 meters deep to irrigate 1,200 hectares of farmland, innovating on ancient Persian methods by utilizing river rather than sources. This system, named after a local martyr from the Iran-Iraq War, illustrates enduring water management ingenuity tied to Dezful's millennia-old settlement history. Preservation efforts have been vital following wartime damage, with the Old Bridge restored multiple times—including during the Safavid, Afsharid, Qajar, and modern periods—and converted to pedestrian use in 2011 to protect its integrity. Targeted 543 times during the Iran-Iraq War (1980–1988), Dezful's historical core has benefited from 2023 agreements between the municipality and cultural heritage authorities to restore at-risk monuments and repurpose them for tourism, fostering economic revitalization. These sites now anchor Dezful's tourism, attracting visitors to experience the city's layered history through guided walks, nearby bazaars, and water mills, while contributing to cultural education and local heritage pride.

Traditions and Festivals

Dezful's traditions reflect a rich woven from Persian, Luri, and historical Mandaean influences, shaped by its diverse ethnic communities including , Bakhtiaris, and . Luri music and dance, prominent among the Bakhtiari subgroups in the region, feature rhythmic performances with instruments like the and dohol during weddings and social gatherings, emphasizing communal harmony and vitality. These elements blend with river-centric folklore tied to the Dez River, where local narratives celebrate the ancient bridge as a of endurance, drawing from Sassanid-era legends of by Roman captives to highlight themes of resilience and ingenuity. Sesame-based cuisine holds deep ritual significance, particularly in religious observances. Ardeh, a tahini-like paste from ground sesame seeds, is a staple in Dezful, renowned as a production center, and features in communal offerings during Muharram mourning rituals, where sesame halva (halva konji) accompanies processions to honor Imam Hussein. The Chub-zani ceremony, a distinctive Dezful practice during Muharram, involves rhythmic chest-beating with wooden clubs while distributing such sweets, fostering collective grief and solidarity; this ritual was nationally recognized as intangible heritage in 2023. Mandaean legacies, from former communities in Dezful, subtly influence water-related customs, echoing their baptismal rites along rivers, though integrated into broader Shiite practices post their decline. Annual festivals underscore Dezful's cultural revival, especially after the Iran-Iraq War. Nowruz celebrations incorporate bridge rituals, with families gathering at the historic Dez Bridge for picnics and visits to ancient watermills along the Dez River, symbolizing renewal amid the spring floodwaters; such events, as seen on the first day of in recent years, draw visitors to the Sassanid-era sites. harvest fairs, tied to Khuzestan's agricultural heartland, feature communal feasts and traditional in rural Dezful areas, registered in Iran's national tourism calendar since 2021 to promote local heritage. Dezful Day on commemorates wartime resistance, with processions, , and reviving crafts and , evolving in the 2020s into heritage tourism draws like the 2025 Pomegranate Festival in nearby Dezpart county, blending local culture with product showcases.

Education

Higher Education

Dezful hosts several higher education institutions that play a vital role in regional development, with key centers including the Dezful University of Medical Sciences (DUMS) and Jundi-Shapur University of Technology (JSUT). DUMS, affiliated with Iran's Ministry of Health and , focuses on medical and health sciences training, while JSUT emphasizes and disciplines. Other notable institutions include the Islamic Azad University Dezful Branch, which offers a broad range of programs, and smaller centers such as facilities. These institutions collectively serve thousands of students, with JSUT enrolling approximately 2,300 and DUMS around 1,000 to 2,000. The primary programs at these universities align with local and national needs, including , , and at DUMS; civil, mechanical, electrical, and at JSUT; and , environmental sciences, and at Dezful. JSUT's programs particularly address regional challenges like water management through specialized courses in engineering and , reflecting Dezful's location in the water-scarce . Post-2016, these institutions have experienced steady enrollment growth amid Iran's landscape, though national tertiary enrollment declined from 68.8% in 2016 to 58.7% in 2022. Research efforts have increasingly targeted local issues, such as climate adaptation and economic ; for instance, JSUT's , , and Environment Research Center conducts studies on sustainable water use and , contributing to regional agricultural and industrial resilience. DUMS supports health-related research on endemic diseases influenced by the local environment. Recent expansions up to 2025 include infrastructure upgrades and digital integration, with universities like JSUT and DUMS adopting online learning platforms and virtual labs as part of Iran's National Digital Iran Plan (2020-2025), which promotes e-learning and digital skills training across higher education to enhance and research collaboration. These initiatives have facilitated hybrid programs and remote access to resources, addressing post-pandemic educational needs while boosting enrollment in technical fields.

Primary and Secondary Education

Primary and secondary education in Dezful operates under Iran's national system, administered by the Ministry of Education, with compulsory attendance from ages 6 to 18. Primary education spans six years, focusing on foundational skills in Persian language, mathematics, sciences, and Islamic studies, while secondary education is divided into three years of lower secondary (guidance cycle) and three years of upper secondary, where students select streams such as theoretical, technical-vocational, or humanities. This structure aligns with national reforms that extended primary schooling from five to six years in 2013 to enhance early literacy and numeracy. As of 2014, Dezful hosted 271 public schools serving around 50,177 students, providing access to elementary and high school across urban and rural areas. Facilities include standard brick-and-mortar buildings in central districts, though some peripheral regions, particularly in Sardasht, rely on temporary trailer schools due to ongoing limitations. The emphasizes STEM subjects, reflecting the city's industrial economy tied to and , with technical and vocational schools preparing students for local industries through hands-on training in and . Post-Iran-Iraq War (1980-1988) reconstruction posed significant challenges, as Dezful endured heavy bombardment that damaged numerous schools and displaced communities. Rebuilding efforts in the prioritized restoring educational infrastructure, yet disparities persist, with some facilities still substandard and requiring further investment to meet modern standards. Gender parity initiatives have advanced enrollment, achieving near-universal primary attendance for both boys and girls, supported by national policies promoting , though rural access and retention remain hurdles in . Recent integrations of into curricula, from 2023 to 2025, include digital platforms and AI training programs rolled out nationally, with Dezful schools adopting online learning tools and adaptive software to enhance STEM instruction amid post-pandemic shifts. For ethnic minorities, including communities in Khuzestan, education is conducted primarily in Persian, but limited local programs and reform proposals since aim to incorporate as a supplementary in elementary schools to address cultural gaps. These early education stages serve as a pathway to higher education through national entrance exams, fostering skills for Dezful's evolving workforce.

Transportation

Road and Rail

Dezful's road network integrates seamlessly with Iran's national system, positioning the city as a vital link between the central highlands and the southwestern lowlands. The primary route is the north-south connecting , approximately 640 kilometers to the north, to , about 150 kilometers to the south, facilitating both passenger travel and the movement of goods from Khuzestan's agricultural heartland. This , part of the broader infrastructure supporting regional trade, passes through nearby Andimeshk before reaching Dezful, ensuring efficient connectivity to the capital and the provincial hub. Within the city, the Dez River is crossed by key local bridges essential for daily mobility. The modern Shariati Bridge, constructed in 1951, serves as the main vehicular crossing, linking the eastern and western parts of Dezful and accommodating traffic along Shariati Street. In contrast, the historic Old Bridge, a Sassanid-era structure, has been closed to motor vehicles since 2010 to preserve its integrity, now functioning primarily as a pedestrian pathway and tourist site. These bridges underscore Dezful's role as a "bridge city," balancing heritage preservation with practical transportation needs. Rail connectivity bolsters Dezful's integration into the national transport grid, with the city lying along the line that extends from through the to the ports via . The local Dezful Railway Station provides access to passenger services, while the nearby Andimeshk station, roughly 15 kilometers away, handles much of the freight volume, including agricultural exports like dates and grains that are crucial to the regional economy. This rail infrastructure supports the export of local produce, enhancing economic ties with northern and coastal areas. Bus services from the Dezful Bus Terminal offer affordable and frequent connections to surrounding cities such as , , and Andimeshk, as well as longer routes to and other major destinations, complementing the road and rail options for regional mobility. Recent national investments in rail upgrades, including new locomotives and wagons added since 2020, have improved freight capacity along these lines, aiding trade in Khuzestan's agricultural sector.

Air and Water Transport

Dezful Airport, officially designated as DEF and also known as Vahdati Air Base, serves as the primary hub for the city, accommodating both and operations. The airport primarily offers domestic flights, with regular service to (THR) operated by and , consisting of 10 flights per week as of November 2025, providing convenient connectivity to the capital. Historically, the facility has played a significant role in Iran's military aviation, established as Vahdati Air Base by the Imperial Iranian Air Force and later integrated into the Islamic Republic of Iran Air Force. During the Iran-Iraq War in the , the base was a key tactical asset, housing fighter squadrons that conducted operations despite Iraqi encirclement and attacks in 1980, underscoring its strategic importance near the border. Today, while military activities continue, civilian usage has expanded to meet growing demand from and , with the airport integrating seamlessly with local road networks for efficient ground access. Water transport in Dezful centers on the Dez River, which historically facilitated along ancient routes intersecting the region, enabling the movement of and contributing to the city's economic vitality as a crossroads between and the . The river's navigability has always been limited due to its seasonal flow and rocky terrain, restricting commercial to small-scale operations in the past. In contemporary times, remains minimal, with the river primarily supporting recreational activities such as and waterside parks that attract visitors amid the area's burgeoning potential.

International Relations

Twin Towns and Sister Cities

Dezful has a sister city agreement with , established in 2012. It also engages in limited formal agreements, with efforts centered on informal cultural exchanges, particularly with neighboring following the Iran-Iraq War (1980–1988). These exchanges have contributed to post-war reconciliation, alleviating regional marginalization in by promoting mutual understanding between communities. The primary purposes include fostering trade ties, heritage preservation through shared historical narratives, and diplomatic cooperation amid ongoing regional dynamics. As of November 2025, this represents the primary formal partnership, presenting opportunities for Dezful to pursue additional official twin city links, such as with Iraqi municipalities, to expand these initiatives.

Notable People

Dezful has produced several notable figures in religion, , , and , contributing to Iranian cultural and historical narratives. In the , Ram Zihrun emerged as a pivotal and religious scholar based in Dezful and nearby , where he played a key role in reviving the Mandaean priesthood following a devastating in the that decimated the community's clergy. Working alongside his cousin Yahya Bihram, Zihrun transcribed and preserved sacred texts, including a notable completed in Dezful in 1857–1858 CE, ensuring the continuity of Mandaean rituals and scholarship amid persecution and decline. His efforts helped sustain the faith's priestly lineage in Khuzestan, influencing Mandaean communities into the . In the 20th and 21st centuries, Dezful natives have made impacts in politics and military leadership. , born in Dezful in 1955, rose to become Iran's First from 2021 to 2024 and briefly served as following President Ebrahim Raisi's death in May 2024, overseeing key economic and administrative policies during a period of international sanctions. Gholam Ali Rashid, born in Dezful in 1953 and deceased in 2025, was a senior (IRGC) commander who led the Khatam al-Anbiya Central Headquarters, coordinating major defense operations and infrastructure projects throughout his career. Cultural contributions include activism from Sepideh Gholian (also known as Qolian), from Dezful, who has been a prominent labor journalist and defender since the 2010s, documenting workers' rights abuses and protesting in Khuzestan; she endured multiple imprisonments, including a two-year sentence ending in June 2025, for her reporting on protests and regime interrogations. Sports figures from Dezful include volleyball player Seyed Mohammad Mousavi Eraghi, born in 1987, a middle blocker who captained Iran's national team to multiple titles and Olympic appearances, earning recognition as one of Asia's top players.

References

  1. https://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/dezful/
  2. https://en.irna.ir/news/84152657/Dezful-historical-Bridge-World-s-most-ancient-brick-bridge
  3. https://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/dezful-02-population/
  4. https://iranpress.com/content/17969/dezful-vegetable-production-center-iran
  5. https://www.ajbasweb.com/old/ajbas/2011/November-2011/1444-1449.pdf
  6. https://www.visitiran.ir/destination/Dezful-%28World-Kapubafi-City%29
  7. https://www.britannica.com/topic/Dez-Dam
  8. https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/geological-magazine/article/structural-variation-along-the-zagros-and-the-nature-of-the-dezful-embayment/D50BD735A17B397CF27416D25338AFCE
  9. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/309286107_Geomorphic_and_Tectonic_Evolution_of_the_Dezful_Embayment_Zagros_Fold_and_Thrust_Belt_Iran
  10. https://newspaper.irandaily.ir/7327/4/3100
  11. https://financialtribune.com/articles/travel/17786/mishandling-cultural-heritage
  12. https://isac.uchicago.edu/sites/default/files/uploads/shared/docs/oip101_text.pdf
  13. https://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/coga-mis-protohistoric-site/
  14. https://www.weather-atlas.com/en/iran/dezful-climate
  15. https://weatherspark.com/y/104599/Average-Weather-in-Dezful-Iran-Year-Round
  16. https://www.climatestotravel.com/climate/iran
  17. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/225332749_Effect_of_the_Zagros_Mountains_on_the_spatial_distribution_of_precipitation
  18. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC9903032/
  19. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/34819734/
  20. https://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/dezful
  21. https://www.iraniantours.com/city/dezful
  22. https://www.visitiran.ir/attraction/historical-bridge-dezful
  23. https://www.presstv.ir/Detail/2025/05/25/748608/discover-iran-dezful-bridge-city-rivers-heritage-history-flow-together
  24. https://www.randwickresearch.com/index.php/rissj/article/download/222/153
  25. https://surfiran.com/mag/dezful-old-bridge/
  26. https://www.ancient-origins.net/ancient-places-asia/dezful-bridge-oldest-usable-bridge-world-was-built-70000-roman-prisoners-006995
  27. https://en.icro.ir/Harare-News/Dezful-Mosque:-An-example-of-Persian-Architectural-Mastery
  28. https://iqna.ir/en/news/3481556/jameh-mosque-of-dezful-oldest-mosque-of-city
  29. https://surfiran.com/mag/susa/
  30. https://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/iran-ix22-mongol-and-timurid-periods/
  31. https://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/commerce-vi/
  32. https://etheses.whiterose.ac.uk/id/eprint/4266/1/DX088264_1.pdf
  33. https://core.ac.uk/download/pdf/30267507.pdf
  34. https://etheses.whiterose.ac.uk/id/eprint/4266/2/DX088264_2.pdf
  35. https://www.isau.ir/article_167169.html?lang=en
  36. https://jgs.khu.ac.ir/article-1-4256-en.pdf
  37. https://www.academia.edu/110815267/Evaluation_of_Urban_Form_in_Historic_Cores_of_War_Affected_Cities_Warsaw_Dezful_Mostar
  38. https://www.demographia.com/db-worldua.pdf
  39. https://www.macrotrends.net/global-metrics/countries/irn/iran/urban-population
  40. https://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/dezful-03-dialect/
  41. https://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/lori-language-ii/
  42. https://www.persiscollection.com/khuzestan-province/
  43. https://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/mandaeans-4/
  44. https://www.iranchamber.com/provinces/15_khuzestan/15_khuzestan.php
  45. https://iranatlas.net/module/language-distribution.khuzestan_ancestral
  46. https://minorityrights.org/resources/language-discrimination-in-iran/
  47. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=rfZ3e4oOZ1E
  48. https://documents1.worldbank.org/curated/en/254631468254367039/pdf/multi-page.pdf
  49. https://documents1.worldbank.org/curated/en/633221468253520234/pdf/multi0page.pdf
  50. https://associationforiranianstudies.org/content/eroding-communities-water-development-modern-irrigation-khuzestan
  51. https://www.crisisgroup.org/middle-east-north-africa/gulf-and-arabian-peninsula/iran/241-irans-khuzestan-thirst-and-turmoil
  52. https://wanaen.com/iranian-agriculture-neutralizes-snapback-sanctions-threat/
  53. https://www.reuters.com/world/middle-east/un-sanctions-raise-risk-severe-recession-renewed-unrest-iran-2025-10-21/
  54. https://middleeastsugar.com/en/about-us/
  55. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S026481722200349X
  56. https://iranfocus.com/general/51393-iran-female-farm-workers-in-khuzestan-with-lowest-wages-and-no-insurance/
  57. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/367943631_History_of_Dezful_City
  58. https://iranatour.com/souvenirs-of-dezful/
  59. https://www.arcalliq.com/products/dezfouli-reed-pen-cut
  60. https://www.tehrantimes.com/news/468125/Persian-handicrafts-Varsho-Sazi
  61. https://www.wikiwand.com/en/articles/Dezful
  62. https://www.tehrantimes.com/news/482522/Handicrafts-market-opens-in-Dezful
  63. https://www.tehrantimes.com/news/488047/Kashan-Dezful-named-world-crafts-cities
  64. https://shishdong.com/blog/detail/Dezful
  65. https://www.tehrantimes.com/news/482351/Iran-s-handicraft-exports-stand-at-400m-in-10-months
  66. https://www.presstv.ir/doc/Detail/2025/05/25/748608/discover-iran-dezful-bridge-city-rivers-heritage-history-flow-together
  67. https://www.tehrantimes.com/news/501529/Dezful-Mosque-an-example-of-Persian-architectural-mastery
  68. https://www.eavartravel.com/blog/2024/10/7/161015/suzangar-house/
  69. https://newspaper.irandaily.ir/7725/3/12883
  70. https://www.tehrantimes.com/news/481125/Dezful-historical-core-to-undergo-restoration
  71. https://wikidefa.ir/en/?id=rs3to1nz
  72. https://vistaisatis.com/portfolio/tahini/
  73. https://www.tehrantimes.com/news/481388/Chub-zani-a-local-mourning-ritual-made-national-heritage
  74. https://ifpnews.com/ancient-watermills-iran-dezful-nowruz/
  75. https://en.sugarcane.ir/director-general-of-khuzestan-cultural-heritage-announced-registration-of-sugarcane-harvest-festival-in-the-national-calendar-of-tourism-events/
  76. https://www.letsgoiran.com/iran-travel-blog/celebrate-iran-a-calendar-guide-to-city-festivals
  77. https://www.tehrantimes.com/news/519151/Dezpart-Pomegranate-Festival-to-boost-local-tourism
  78. https://www.unirank.org/ir/uni/dezful-university-of-medical-sciences-and-health-services/
  79. https://edurank.org/uni/jundi-shapur-university-of-technology/
  80. https://www.unirank.org/ir/uni/islamic-azad-university-dezful/
  81. https://search.wdoms.org/home/SchoolDetail/F0006740
  82. https://jsu.ac.ir/en/about
  83. https://www.phdportal.com/universities/12020/islamic-azad-university-of-dezful.html
  84. https://en.icro.ir/University/Jundi-Shapur-University-of-Technology%252C-Dezful
  85. https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SE.TER.ENRR?locations=IR
  86. https://www.adscientificindex.com/university/Dezful%2BUniversity%2Bof%2BMedical%2BSciences/
  87. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/344521079_Digital_Iran-_National_Roadmap_Executive_Summary_2020-2025
  88. https://cistc.ir/en/5677/iran-expands-ai-education-in-universities-beyond/
  89. https://www.nuffic.nl/en/education-systems/iran/primary-and-secondary-education
  90. https://acei-global.org/iran-an-update-on-primary-and-secondary-education-system/
  91. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC4877718/
  92. https://iranfocus.com/life-in-iran/46319-irans-deprived-students-where-is-their-money-spent/
  93. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1877042811029582
  94. http://www.us-iran.org/resources/2016/10/10/education
  95. https://education-profiles.org/central-and-southern-asia/iran-islamic-republic-of/~technology
  96. https://www.tehrantimes.com/news/514973/Iran-Digital-program-kicks-off-focusing-on-AI-in-schools
  97. https://www.theguardian.com/world/iran-blog/2014/jun/24/iran-arab-khuzestan-education-politics-minorities
  98. https://www.britannica.com/place/Dezful
  99. https://www.eavartravel.com/blog/2024/8/16/160956/dezful-old-bridge/
  100. https://newspaper.irandaily.ir/7538/3/8349
  101. https://www.eavartravel.com/blog/2023/11/19/140745/iran-national-railway/
  102. https://financialtribune.com/articles/travel/91333/trans-iranian-railroad-in-line-for-global-status
  103. https://www.hipersia.com/en/post/1622
  104. https://www.tehrantimes.com/news/518712/Over-280-domestically-manufactured-rebuilt-rail-units-added
  105. https://www.flightconnections.com/flights-from-def-to-thr
  106. https://www.globalsecurity.org/military/world/iran/vahdati.htm
  107. https://www.atlanticcouncil.org/blogs/iransource/how-the-iranian-air-force-turned-the-tide-of-the-iran-iraq-war-in-1980/
  108. https://www.tehrantimes.com/news/486349/Dezful-holds-potential-to-develop-water-tourism
  109. https://toiran.com/en/city-dezful
  110. https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/21520844.2024.2374656
  111. https://www.journals.uchicago.edu/doi/10.1086/731529
  112. https://dokumen.pub/the-great-stem-of-souls-reconstructing-mandaean-history-9781463213022.html
  113. https://www.voanews.com/a/who-is-iran-s-acting-president-mohammad-mokhber-/7619065.html
  114. https://iranwire.com/en/politics/142046-profile-gholamali-rashid-irans-former-war-commander/
  115. https://www.bbc.com/news/world-middle-east-64225902
  116. https://www.frontlinedefenders.org/en/case/sepideh-gholian-released-prison
  117. https://iranwire.com/en/news/141961-activist-sepideh-gholian-is-released/
  118. https://www.ranker.com/list/famous-people-from-iran/reference?page=7
Add your contribution
Related Hubs
User Avatar
No comments yet.