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Dodonaea viscosa
Dodonaea viscosa
Dodonaea viscosa
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Dodonaea viscosa
Flowers of Dodonaea viscosa
Scientific classification Edit this classification
Kingdom: Plantae
Clade: Tracheophytes
Clade: Angiosperms
Clade: Eudicots
Clade: Rosids
Order: Sapindales
Family: Sapindaceae
Genus: Dodonaea
Species:
D. viscosa
Binomial name
Dodonaea viscosa

Dodonaea viscosa, also known as the broadleaf hopbush, is a species of flowering plant in the Dodonaea (hopbush) genus that has a cosmopolitan distribution in tropical, subtropical and warm temperate regions of Africa, the Americas, southern Asia and Australasia. Dodonaea is part of Sapindaceae, the soapberry family.[3]

This species is notable for its extremely wide distribution, which it achieved only over the last 2 million years (from its region of origin in Australia) via oceanic dispersal. Harrington and Gadek (2009) referred to D. viscosa as having "a distribution equal to some of the world's greatest transoceanic dispersers".[4]

Description

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D. viscosa is a shrub growing to 1–3 m (3.3–9.8 ft) tall,[5] rarely a small tree to 9 m (30 ft) tall. The leaves are variable in shape: generally obovate but some of them are lanceolate, often sessile,[6] 4–7.5 cm (1.6–3.0 in) long and 1–1.5 cm (0.39–0.59 in) broad, alternate in arrangement, and secrete a resinous substance. Many specimens have a pointed or rounded apex. Leaf base is extended. Leaf texture is leathery, tough, but also pliable. Midribs are medium becoming less visible close to the apex. Secondary veins are thin, generally indistinct; Veins: often 6 to 10 pairs, indifferently opposite, subopposite, and alternate, camptodrome. Venation branches from the midrib at different angles, which may vary from 12° to 70°. The basal veins are very ascending in some plants: the angle of divergence may be close to 45°. The basal secondary venation branches from a point near the base of the main vein and becomes parallel with the leaf margin, with the distance of 1 millimeter to 2 millimeters from the edges. Margins are usually toothed or undulating. The remaining secondary veins lay at regular intervals with flowers usually growing at the branches' ends.

The flowers are yellow to orange-red and produced in panicles about 2.5 cm (0.98 in) in length. The flowers may be only male or female ones, and one plant bears either male or female flowers. However, sometimes they are observed to bear flowers of both sexes. The pollen is transported by anemophily. It is believed that the flowers lack petals during evolution to increase exposure to the wind. The fruit is a capsule 1.5 cm (0.59 in) broad, red ripening brown, with two to four wings.[7]

Fruits

Common names

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The common name 'hopbush' is used for D. viscosa specifically and also for the genus as a whole.

Australian common names include broad leaf hopbush, candlewood, giant hopbush, narrow leaf hopbush, sticky hopbush, native hop bush, soapwood, switchsorrel, wedge leaf hopbush, and native hop.[8] The Wiradjuri people of New South Wales use the name bururr.[9]

Other common names include: ʻaʻaliʻi and 'a'ali'i-ku ma kua and 'a'ali'i ku makani in the Hawaiian language; akeake (New Zealand);[10] lampuaye (Guam); mesechelangel (Palau); chirca (Uruguay, Argentina); xayramad (Somalia); romerillo (Sonora, Mexico); jarilla (southern Mexico); hayuelo (Colombia); ch'akatea (Bolivia); casol caacol (Seri);[11] ghoraskai (Afghanistan); vassoura-vermelha (Brazil); virāli (Tamil Nadu).[12]

Taxonomy

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Phylogenetic evidence supports D. viscosa being the sister species to D. camfieldii, a species endemic to a small portion of coastal New South Wales in Australia.[13]

Subspecies and synonyms

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There are several subspecies as follows:[14]

  • Dodonaea viscosa subsp. angustifolia (L.f.) J.G.West
  • Dodonaea viscosa subsp. angustissima (DC.) J.G.West
  • Dodonaea viscosa subsp. arizonica (A.Nelson) A.E.Murray
  • Dodonaea viscosa subsp. cuneata (Sm.) J.G.West
  • Dodonaea viscosa subsp. elaeagnoides (Rudolphi ex Ledeb. & Adlerstam) Acev.-Rodr.
  • Dodonaea viscosa subsp. mucronata J.G.West
  • Dodonaea viscosa subsp. spatulata (Sm.) J.G.West
  • Dodonaea viscosa L. subsp. viscosa

Botanical synonyms

  • D. eriocarpa Sm.
  • D. sandwicensis Sherff
  • D. stenocarpa Hillebr.

Systematics

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It has been identified that D. viscosa split into two intraspecific groups, known as groups I and II, in the Pleistocene, about 1.1–2.1 Ma (million years ago) (95% Highest Posterior Density, HPD).[3] These two intraspecific groups are distributed differently within Australia. Group I plants are strandline shrubs growing from northeastern Queensland to the New South Wales border. This clade has a number of genetically divergent lineages (I:a, b, c, d, e, f, g,). It is identified that subclade Ib shared a last common ancestor with subclade Ia in the mid-Pleistocene, 0.5–1.2 Ma.

  • Group I a: D. viscosa Pagan, D. viscosa ssp viscosa Yorkeys Knob Beach, D. viscosa ssp viscosa Trinity Beach, D. viscosa ssp viscosa Clifton Beach, D. viscosa ssp viscosa Wonga Beach, D. viscosa Tanzania2, D. viscosa ssp viscosa Airlie Beach, D. viscosa Virgin Islands.
  • Group I b: D. viscosa Maui Ulupalakua, D. viscosa, Hawaii Pohakuloa, D. viscosa Maui PoliPoli, D. viscosa Hawaii Kona, D. viscosa Hawaii Kauai.
  • Group I c: D. viscosa Arizona 1, D. viscosa Arizona 2, D. viscosa Mexico, D. viscosa Brazil, D. viscosa Columbia, D. viscosa Bolivia
  • Group I d: D. viscosa Taiwan 1, D. viscosa Taiwan 2, D. viscosa Japan, D. viscosa China, D. viscosa Tanzania1.
  • Group I e: D. viscosa Oman, D. viscosa South Africa1, D. viscosa India
  • Group I f: D. viscosa South Africa 3, D. viscosa South Africa 4, D. South Africa 2, D. viscosa New Caledonia 1, D. viscosa New Caledonia 2, D. viscosa Papua New Guinea
  • Group I g: D. viscosa ssp burmanniana 1, D. viscosa ssp burmanniana 2
Fruit
Leaves
Form

The Group II of D. viscosa is present almost everywhere on the continent. Group II has at least three evolutionary lineages (II a, b and c), which distributions generally overlap. According to West[15] these subspecies have morphological intergradation, particularly in the higher-rainfall regions of Australia, but not in the arid zone, where they generally overlap. There is also a hypothesis of ongoing gene flow between D. procumbens and D. viscosa's Group II resulting from hybridization events of two populations in central regions of South Australia.[3] The Group II members are believed to have dispersed in the mid-Pleistocene (0.5–1.2 Ma) from mainland Australia to New Zealand.

  • Group II a: D. viscosa New Zealand South Island 2, D. viscosa New Zealand South Island 3, D. viscosa New Zealand South Island 1, D. viscosa New Zealand North Island 4, D. viscosa ssp angustissima 1, D.viscosa ssp angustissima 3, D. viscosa ssp angustissima 2.
  • Group II b: D. viscosa ssp spatulata, D. viscosa ssp cuneata, D. viscosa ssp angustifolia, D. procumbens, D. procumbens 2.
  • Group II c: D. biloba, D. viscosa ssp mucronata.

Uses

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The wood is extremely tough and durable. In New Zealand, where it is the heaviest of any native wood, the Māori have traditionally used it for making weapons, carved walking staves, axe-handles, and weights on drill shafts.[10] D. viscosa is used by the people from the western part of the island of New Guinea, Southeast Asia, West Africa and Brazil for house building and as firewood. Its leaves may also be used as plasters for wounds.[16]

Native Hawaiians made pou (house posts), laʻau melomelo (fishing lures), and ʻōʻō (digging sticks) from ʻaʻaliʻi wood and a red dye from the fruit.[17]

The cultivar 'Purpurea', with purple foliage, is widely grown as a garden shrub. Dodonaea viscosa easily occupies open areas and secondary forest, and is resistant to salinity, drought and pollution.[16] It can be used for dune stabilization, remediation of polluted lands and for reforestation. The plant is tolerant to strong winds, and therefore is commonly used as hedge, windbreak, and decorative shrub.

The Seri use the plant medicinally.[11] It was also used to stimulate lactation in mothers, as a dysentery treatment, to cure digestive system disorders, skin problems and rheumatism in Africa and Asia. In New Guinea, people use it as incense for funerals. In the past D. viscosa was used instead of hops for beer brewing by Australians (as reflected in the name "hopbush").[16]

Cultivation

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Dodonaea viscosa can be grown from seeds. However, pre-treatment of the seed in very hot water may be needed.[16] The plant can also be cultivated by taking cuttings. Sometimes this method is also used to obtain female plants with their winged fruits for the aesthetic value. Hopbush can survive long dry periods and is easily cultivated without heavy feeding. Due to it being frost sensitive, it grows best under shelter in well-drained, moist soil with full sun.[18][19] It can grow in a variety of areas but should not be planted in places prone to fire because it burns quite easily.[20]

Ecology

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Dodonaea viscosa is a shrub, with a wide distribution in tropical and subtropical regions around the world.[21] D. viscosa leaves secrete a white resinous substance with allelopathic effects.[22] In coastal regions of Brazil, D. viscosa reduced the abundance of other native species by five times compared to open sites and exhibited a strong negative interaction strength, indicating an interfering interaction pattern.[23]

References

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[edit]
Revisions and contributorsEdit on WikipediaRead on Wikipedia

Dodonaea viscosa

View on Grokipedia
from Grokipedia
Dodonaea viscosa is a of in the soapberry family , commonly known as hopbush, varnish leaf, or aalii. This or small typically grows 1.5–5 meters (5–16 feet) tall, occasionally reaching 8 meters, with multiple upright stems forming a dense canopy of sticky, resinous leaves that provide . It produces small, inconspicuous greenish-yellow flowers in terminal clusters during spring and fall, followed by distinctive papery capsules that are initially green, turning pink to red and then tan, each featuring three or four prominent wings measuring 1–2 cm long. Native to tropical and subtropical regions worldwide, including parts of , , , the , and the Pacific islands, D. viscosa has achieved a over the past two million years through natural dispersal and human introduction. In the United States, it is native to , , and , where it thrives in dry, rocky, or sandy soils on slopes, coastal areas, and disturbed sites at elevations up to 1,600 meters. The plant is highly adaptable, tolerating full sun, poor soils, , salt spray, and , making it a resilient in arid and semi-arid ecosystems. D. viscosa holds ecological and practical significance, serving as a stabilizer on eroded slopes and a provider in dryland communities. It is widely cultivated as an for hedges, screens, and due to its fast growth and attractive foliage and fruits, with cultivars like 'Purpurea' prized for their purple-tinged leaves. Additionally, it has traditional uses in for treating wounds and fevers, as fuelwood, and for extracted from its leaves, which contain up to 18% content. The species propagates easily from seeds or cuttings and is generally resistant to pests and diseases.

Botanical Profile

Morphology

Dodonaea viscosa is an or small with a variable growth habit, typically reaching 1–3 m in height but capable of growing up to 9 m under optimal conditions. The plant often exhibits a dense, rounded or spreading form, with branches that can be erect or somewhat twisted, contributing to its adaptability in diverse environments. The leaves are simple, alternate, and variable in shape, ranging from obovate to lanceolate, measuring 4–7.5 cm in length and 1–1.5 cm in width. They are leathery in texture, with entire margins that may appear wavy or crinkled, and a glossy surface due to a resinous that renders them sticky to the touch. This secretion is particularly prominent on young leaves and branches, giving the its name viscosa, derived from the Latin for "sticky." Flowers are small, inconspicuous, and colored yellow to orange-red, occurring in unisexual or bisexual arrangements within terminal panicles up to 2.5 cm long. Each flower features five sepals but lacks petals, with male flowers typically having eight stamens and female flowers bearing a superior . Plants are usually dioecious, though hermaphroditic individuals occur, and flowering takes place primarily in spring and fall. The fruit is a distinctive three-lobed, winged capsule approximately 1.5 cm broad, initially green and maturing to a vibrant before drying to . These papery capsules are samara-like, with wings aiding in wind dispersal, and each contains three seeds. production in D. viscosa is a key morphological trait, with glandular structures on leaves, stems, and ovaries exuding a viscous that serves as a physical and against herbivores and environmental stress. This sticky likely deters feeding and invasion, enhancing the plant's resilience in arid or exposed habitats.

Common Names

Dodonaea viscosa is widely recognized by the common English name "hopbush," derived from the resemblance of its winged seed capsules to the fruiting structures of hops (), a naming convention that emerged in early botanical descriptions of the plant's distinctive fruits. Other English variants include "Florida hopbush," particularly in North American contexts where it has naturalized, "hopseed bush," emphasizing the seed-bearing capsules, "" due to the glossy coating on its foliage, and "switch sorrel" in Australian usage, reflecting its flexible branches suitable for switches. In the Pacific Islands, indigenous names highlight the plant's cultural significance and adaptability. In , it is known as ʻaʻaliʻi, with variations such as ʻaʻaliʻi kū makani (referring to its wind-resistant form) and kūmakani, underscoring its role in local ecosystems and traditional practices. In , the Māori name "ake ake" translates to "forever and ever," symbolizing the plant's enduring resilience and hard wood, a term rooted in Polynesian linguistic traditions. Across and , regional names further illustrate its pantropical distribution. In , , it is called virāli, a term used in local floras to denote its sticky leaves and ecological presence in dry regions. In , the Somali name xayramad identifies it in arid habitats, as documented in regional botanical surveys. Australian indigenous and colonial names include "sticky hopbush" and "native hops," tying back to the hop-like fruits while noting the viscous on the leaves. These diverse nomenclatures reflect the plant's global adaptability and the influence of its morphological traits, such as the winged fruits, on human perception across cultures.

Taxonomy

Classification and Systematics

Dodonaea viscosa is classified within the family , order , in the subfamily Dodonaeoideae. The genus comprises approximately 68 species of flowering plants, primarily shrubs or small trees, with the majority endemic to . The genus name Dodonaea honors the Flemish and physician Rembert Dodoens (1517–1585), latinized as Dodonaeus, who contributed significantly to early herbal literature. The species was first described by in 1753 in , though the currently accepted name is attributed to Nikolaus Joseph von Jacquin in 1760, based on Linnaean material. Phylogenetic analyses place Dodonaea viscosa within a monophyletic clade, supported by molecular markers such as nuclear ribosomal ITS and ETSf sequences, as well as chloroplast matK and rbcL. Within the genus, D. viscosa forms part of a that is sister to Dodonaea camfieldii, an endemic Australian species restricted to coastal , with this divergence estimated at 1.4–2.7 million years ago (95% highest posterior density interval). The broader genus is closely related to genera like Diplopeltis and Distichostemon, forming a well-supported in the Dodonaeoideae subfamily. Evolutionary studies indicate that Dodonaea originated in , with the genus stem age dated to approximately 10.4 million years ago (95% HPD 6–15.4 Mya), coinciding with increasing aridity in the . D. viscosa itself evolved in during the to , subsequently achieving a cosmopolitan distribution through long-distance dispersal events, such as to in the early and to oceanic islands like and in the Pleistocene (0.5–1.2 Mya). Within D. viscosa, divergence into two intraspecific lineages—Groups I (widespread, including strandline forms) and II (arid-adapted Australian taxa)—occurred during the Pleistocene, approximately 1.1–2.1 million years ago (95% HPD). These findings from Bayesian relaxed clock analyses confirm the Australian origins and subsequent global radiation of the species.

Subspecies and Synonyms

Dodonaea viscosa is recognized as a highly variable encompassing several , primarily differentiated by morphological traits such as width and , capsule dimensions, and patterns of geographic isolation across its range. These distinctions were formalized in the comprehensive taxonomic revision of the in by J.G. West (1984), which identified seven based on detailed and field observations, emphasizing the polymorphic nature of the . Subsequent studies have largely upheld this infraspecific , with molecular analyses confirming genetic differentiation aligned with morphological variants while highlighting ongoing in some regions. The accepted subspecies, as recognized by authoritative floras such as the and , include the following, with key distinguishing features noted:
SubspeciesKey CharacteristicsPrimary Region
subsp. angustifolia (L.f.) J.G.WestNarrow leaves (5–10 mm wide), linear-lanceolate; smaller fruit wings, southern Africa, southwestern U.S. (as former subsp. arizonica)
subsp. angustissima (DC.) J.G.WestVery narrow leaves (<5 mm wide), rigid; adapted to arid conditionsArid
subsp. cuneata (Sm.) J.G.WestCuneate leaf base, obovate to elliptic leaves; broader fruit wingsSoutheastern
subsp. mucronata J.G.WestMucronate leaf tips, spatulate to obovate leaves (10–25 mm wide), (as subsp. mucronulata)
subsp. spatulata (Sm.) J.G.WestSpatulate leaves, tapering base; variable fruit size
subsp. viscosaBroad leaves (up to 30 mm wide), orbicular capsules with wide wingsMediterranean, Pacific Islands, introduced areas; includes former subsp. latifolia and subsp. gracilis in some regions
Additional subspecies or varieties recognized in regional treatments, such as subsp. elaeagnoides for and populations, reflect local adaptations but are sometimes subsumed under subsp. viscosa or angustifolia in global classifications. Historical synonyms for D. viscosa include Ptelea viscosa L., Dodonaea dioeca Roxb., Dodonaea polyandra L., and Dodonaea arizonica A. Nelson, many of which were resolved through West's 1984 revision and later synonymy based on overlapping morphology. Varietal names like D. viscosa var. purpurea have been applied to purple-fruited forms but are not upheld in modern , as color variation is environmentally influenced. Post-2010 molecular studies, including phylogenetic analyses using and nuclear markers, have supported the morphological criteria for subspecies delimitation while revealing D. viscosa as part of a broader with low among some variants, suggesting potential for further revision in light of hybridization. For instance, a 2025 study on in Kenyan populations using ITS1 and rbcL markers revealed low genetic diversity and short genetic distances among highland and coastal populations, supporting morphological distinctions of two despite their close genetic relatedness. No major taxonomic reclassifications have occurred since West's work, but ongoing genomic research emphasizes the role of geographic barriers in maintaining infraspecific diversity.

Distribution and Habitat

Geographic Range

Dodonaea viscosa originates primarily in , where it is native across all states and territories, exhibiting high variability with seven recognized adapted to diverse arid and semi-arid environments. Beyond , its native range extends to parts of the including , , , , northeastern , and ; ; (particularly in regions like and under the variety D. viscosa var. angustifolia); Pacific Islands including and (where it occurs from coastal dunes to subalpine shrublands); and parts of such as southern regions including , , , , , and the of . The species has a widespread introduced range in subtropical and tropical areas globally, facilitated by its adaptability to disturbed and dry habitats. In the , it has naturalized in , , and other dry regions where it was not native. It has also been introduced to the Mediterranean Basin (e.g., , , and ), various Indian Ocean islands like , and other tropical locales such as parts of the and . Historically, D. viscosa spread naturally from its Australian center of origin over the past 2 million years, primarily through or dispersal of its winged seeds and possibly aided by birds and currents, achieving a distribution before significant human influence. Human-mediated introductions, often for ornamental, medicinal, or erosion-control purposes, date back to at least the , coinciding with its description from specimens and subsequent cultivation in and beyond. Currently, the plant occurs in over 100 countries across tropical and subtropical zones, with particularly dense populations in dry tropical areas, reflecting its success as both a native and an introduced element in altered landscapes.

Environmental Preferences

Dodonaea viscosa thrives in tropical and subtropical climates, exhibiting notable tolerance for arid to semi-arid conditions. It prefers annual rainfall ranging from 300 to 1500 , though it can endure lower amounts down to 125 in drought-prone areas while still establishing in regions up to 1600 . This adaptability allows it to persist in warm temperate zones as well, with optimal growth occurring at daytime temperatures between 18°C and 38°C and tolerance extending from 7°C to 45°C. The species favors well-drained soils, particularly sandy or rocky substrates, and performs well in poor, saline, or coastal dune environments. It accommodates a of 6 to 8, though broader tolerance spans mildly acidic to alkaline conditions from 5.5 to 8.5. Once established, it demonstrates high drought resistance, making it suitable for low-moisture settings without supplemental . However, it shows sensitivity to , with young growth damaged below -5°C and mature plants hardy only to around -10°C under . Dodonaea viscosa occupies an altitudinal range from to 2500 m, enabling its presence across diverse elevations in suitable climates. It requires full sun exposure for optimal development and vigor. Common types include open woodlands, scrublands, disturbed areas, and coastal zones, where it often acts as a facilitating on bare or eroded substrates.

Ecology

Ecological Role

Dodonaea viscosa serves as a in various disturbed environments, rapidly colonizing open lava flows, post-fire landscapes, and degraded soils to facilitate . Its ability to establish on nutrient-poor substrates, such as rocky areas following , aids in and restoration of vegetation cover in arid and semi-arid regions. Additionally, it contributes to dune stabilization in coastal habitats, helping to prevent erosion in dynamic sandy environments. The plant exhibits allelopathic effects through secondary metabolites in its resinous leaves and root exudates, which inhibit seed germination and growth of neighboring species, often leading to reduced abundance of native plants in invaded areas. For instance, in ecosystems where it has been introduced, these compounds—such as , glycosides, and —promote the formation of dense stands by suppressing vegetation. This interference mechanism enhances its but can limit overall plant diversity in affected habitats. Interactions with wildlife include seed dispersal primarily by ants, which are attracted to the small aril on the seeds, though birds and small mammals also remove and potentially disperse them in semi-arid settings. Leaves are browsed by various herbivores, including native and feral species such as deer, goats, sheep, and rabbits, influencing seedling survivorship and recruitment patterns. Pollination occurs mainly via wind, with anemophilous flowers, although insects like bees occasionally visit to collect pollen, providing secondary support. Dodonaea viscosa exhibits invasive tendencies in some disturbed sites, outcompeting native by forming monocultures that alter local ecosystems, including increased fire frequency due to its flammable resin and post-fire regeneration capabilities. In Hawaiian dry forests, it can contribute to shifted fire regimes by resprouting vigorously and germinating from heat-exposed seeds, perpetuating cycles of disturbance. While Dodonaea viscosa provides habitat structure and in arid ecosystems, supporting some faunal shelter, its tendency to dominate through and rapid growth often results in decreased by favoring monocultures over diverse native assemblages. In and semi-arid restoration sites, mixed plantations including this species show improved soil stability but lower diversity compared to natural succession.

Conservation Status

Dodonaea viscosa is globally assessed as Least Concern on the , based on its extensive distribution across tropical and subtropical regions and high adaptability to diverse environmental conditions. This status was determined in 2019, with no significant updates or declines reported through 2025. Regionally, certain native subpopulations in face threats, particularly from habitat loss due to urbanization, agriculture, and climate change impacts on coastal and arid areas. For instance, subspecies such as D. viscosa subsp. procumbens (trailing hop-bush) is listed as vulnerable under Australian legislation, primarily due to weed invasion, grazing, and altered fire regimes that disrupt natural regeneration cycles. The species exhibits invasive tendencies in some regions, forming dense thickets in disturbed sites and requiring management to control spread. In native ranges like , it is protected within national parks and reserves, such as those managed by the Department of Conservation, contributing to stability. Conservation efforts include propagation programs for habitat restoration in degraded native sites and ongoing monitoring of invasive populations, with recent studies (as of 2023) emphasizing integrated management to balance ecological roles and threat mitigation. Legally, while promoted for and revegetation in many areas,

Uses and Applications

Traditional Uses

Dodonaea viscosa has been valued by indigenous communities for its hard, durable wood, which is used to craft tools, weapons, and structural elements, as well as fuelwood and production. In , the traditionally fashioned the wood into spears, clubs, and walking sticks due to its toughness. In and , the timber serves as fence posts and tool handles, prized for its resistance to decay. Indigenous groups across various regions employ the plant medicinally, particularly through leaf preparations for topical applications. In the Pacific Islands, including , leaf poultices treat wounds, sprains, bruises, and skin irritations such as rashes. In , leaf and stem infusions address fever, sore throats, and , while root decoctions manage colds and digestive issues; these practices are documented among East African communities, including in . In , particularly among the Irula tribes of , leaf pastes and boiled infusions alleviate diseases, wounds, headaches, pain, and , reflecting pre-20th century ethnobotanical . Australian Aboriginal people chew leaves for relief and apply leaf or root juices to stings, wounds, and . The plant holds cultural significance in several traditions, with its parts used for dyes, tanning, and rituals. In , the colorful fruit capsules provide yellow and red hues for dyeing textiles and are incorporated into for ceremonies. The leaves contain up to 18% and are used for tanning . in incorporate leaves and seeds into perfumes and pot-pourri for cultural practices. Historically, Dodonaea viscosa contributes to food and beverage traditions during scarcity. Young leaves are consumed as a in regions like and the Pacific, though bitterness limits regular use. The fruits, resembling hops, have been used as a substitute in beer-like beverages.

Medicinal and Pharmacological Properties

Dodonaea viscosa contains a variety of bioactive phytochemicals, including such as viscosine (7,4′-dihydroxy-3,6-dimethoxyflavone) and , along with , , phenolic acids like vanillic and gallic acids, and essential oils primarily in its leaves, flowers, and fruits. These compounds contribute to the plant's pharmacological potential, with and phenolic acids serving as key antioxidants that scavenge free radicals, as demonstrated by assays showing up to 76.58% inhibition in leaf extracts. The plant exhibits notable activity, particularly through inhibition of COX-2 pathways, with viscosine reducing levels via mPGES-1 suppression in preclinical models. effects are evident against bacteria such as , where leaf extracts achieve minimum inhibitory concentrations below 1.00 mg/mL. Antidiabetic properties include lowering blood glucose levels in streptozotocin-induced diabetic models, with extracts reducing by up to 48% at doses of 250 mg/kg. Hepatoprotective effects protect against (CCl4)-induced liver damage in mice, restoring enzymes like ALT and AST while enhancing antioxidant defenses such as and at 300 mg/kg doses. Recent research highlights the genus's metabolites for and anti-cancer applications; for instance, a 2023 study on flavonoid-rich fractions from the leaves showed accelerated contraction by upregulating COL3A, VEGF, and bFGF in models, while flower extracts show antiproliferative effects on cells with values around 19.4 μg/mL. A 2024 study on leaf extracts demonstrated neuroprotective effects in the brain during ischemic conditions, such as , by mitigating , reducing infarct volume through anti-apoptotic and mechanisms. Regarding toxicity and safety, D. viscosa is generally safe at traditional doses, with dermal applications showing no toxicological effects in preclinical tests, though high resin content may cause mild and sub-acute in rats alters protein and enzyme levels without lethality. No major contraindications are reported, but has been noted in high-dose animal studies. Clinical evidence remains limited, relying predominantly on and animal models, with traditional Omani uses for ailments supported by anecdotal rather than rigorous trials.

Cultivation

Propagation Methods

_Dodonaea viscosa can be propagated through several methods, including , cuttings, and , with seed and vegetative approaches being the most common for horticultural and restoration purposes. Seed propagation begins with collecting mature capsules, which contain small black , typically in late summer or fall when the capsules dry and split open. To break , a common pretreatment involves scarifying the seeds by immersing them in hot water at 80–90°C for 30 seconds to 10 minutes, followed by rapid cooling under running water; this method achieves up to 90% success compared to 30% for untreated seeds. Seeds are then sown in a sterile, well-draining medium such as a mix of and , at a depth of 3–5 mm, and maintained at 20–25°C under , with occurring in 2–4 weeks. Vegetative propagation via semi-hardwood cuttings is reliable for maintaining desirable traits, such as ornamental foliage color in cultivars. Cuttings of 10–15 cm are taken from healthy branches in spring or , with the basal end treated with a rooting hormone like (IBA) at 1000–3000 ppm, then inserted into a moist or sand medium under intermittent mist. Rooting typically occurs in 4–6 weeks, with success rates of 70–90% in controlled environments like shade houses. Layering can also be used for difficult-to-root clones by wounding a low branch and burying it partially in until roots form. Other methods include division of suckers from established , which can be separated and replanted directly during the , and for conserving rare . In vitro techniques, such as from leaf explants on supplemented with auxins and cytokinins, have been developed since the 2020s to produce disease-free for restoration efforts. Without pretreatment, rates drop below 50%, emphasizing the need for in practical applications. is best timed for spring in temperate regions or immediately after the rainy in native arid or semi-arid habitats to align with natural establishment cues.

Growing Conditions

_Dodonaea viscosa thrives in full sun, requiring at least six hours of direct daily to promote vigorous growth and optimal seed capsule production. It performs best in well-drained soils, including sandy or rocky types, to avoid from waterlogging, and shows tolerance for low-fertility conditions while benefiting from occasional applications of a balanced, slow-release during the . Once established, the plant exhibits strong , requiring minimal supplemental water in suitable climates, though newly planted specimens need regular —such as two to three times per week—during the first year to support root development. It is suited to USDA hardiness zones 9 through 11, where frost protection is advisable for young plants, and applying a 2- to 3-inch layer of organic mulch around the base helps conserve and suppress weeds. Dodonaea viscosa demonstrates resistance to most pests and diseases under optimal conditions, though it can be susceptible to and scale insects on stressed , as well as fungal issues like in humid environments. Regular enhances air circulation, maintains shape, and reduces risk, making it a low-maintenance option for landscapes. Popular ornamental cultivars include 'Purpurea', valued for its striking foliage that adds color to gardens year-round. This is widely used in for hedges, screens, and due to its fast growth and adaptability to challenging sites like coastal dunes or windy exposures. In commercial settings, Dodonaea viscosa is cultivated in regions such as for extraction of bioactive compounds with potential properties, supporting sustainable production through its resilience in dryland agriculture.

References

  1. https://tropical.theferns.info/viewtropical.php?id=Dodonaea%2Bviscosa
  2. https://edis.ifas.ufl.edu/publication/FP181
  3. https://plants.usda.gov/plant-profile/DOVI
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  38. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC4314263/
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  46. https://www.malleeconservation.com.au/blog/hopbush-the-good-and-bad
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