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Reconstructed drawing room of Sir William Burrell; part of the Burrell Collection in Glasgow, Scotland

A drawing room is a room in a house where visitors may be entertained, and an alternative name for a living room. The name is derived from the 16th-century terms withdrawing room and withdrawing chamber,[citation needed][dubious – discuss] which remained in use through the 17th century.[citation needed] The term "drawing room" made its first written appearance in 1642.[1] In a large 16th- to early 18th-century English house, a withdrawing room was a room to which the owner of the house, his wife, or a distinguished guest who was occupying one of the main apartments in the house could "withdraw" for more privacy. It was often off the great chamber (or the great chamber's descendant, the state room) and usually led to a formal, or "state" bedroom.[2]

In modern houses, the term may be used as a convenient name for a second or further reception room, but no particular function is associated with the name.

History and development

[edit]
Middle-class drawing room in Blackheath, London, 1841, painted by James Holland

In 18th-century London, the royal morning receptions that the French called levées were called "drawing rooms", with the sense originally that the privileged members of court would gather in the drawing room outside the king's bedroom, where he would make his first formal public appearance of the day.

During the American Civil War, in the White House of the Confederacy in Richmond, Virginia, the drawing room was off the parlor where CSA President Jefferson Davis greeted his guests. At the conclusion of these greetings, the men remained in the parlor to talk politics and the women withdrew to the drawing room for their own conversation. This was common practice in the affluent circles of the Southern United States.

In 1865, an architectural manual in England defined "drawing room" in this way:[3]

This is the Lady's Apartment, essentially, being the modern form of the Lady's Withdrawing-room, otherwise the Parlour, or perfected Chamber of mediaeval plan. If a Morning-room be not provided, it is properly the only Sitting-room of the family. In it in any case the ladies receive calls throughout the day, and the family and their guests assemble before dinner. After dinner the ladies withdraw to it, and are joined by the gentlemen for the evening. It is also the reception room for evening parties. There is only one kind of drawing room as regards purpose: there is little difference, except in size and evidence of opulence, between that of the duchess and that of the simplest gentlewoman in the neighborhood. ... In size, a small drawing room will be about 16 feet wide by from 18 to 20 feet long: 18 by 24 feet is a good size: 20 by 30 to 26 by 40 is enough for a very superior apartment.

An Indian drawing room

Until the mid-twentieth century, after a dinner the ladies of a dinner party withdrew to the drawing room, leaving the gentlemen at table, where the tablecloth was removed. After an interval of conversation, often accompanied by brandy or port and sometimes cigars, the gentlemen rejoined the ladies in the drawing room.

The term drawing room is not used as widely as it once was, and tends to be used in Britain only by those who also have other reception rooms, such as a morning room, a 19th-century designation for a sitting room, often with east-facing exposure, suited for daytime calls, or the middle-class lounge, a late-19th-century designation for a room in which to relax. Hence the drawing room is the smartest room in the house, usually used by the adults of the family when entertaining. This term is widely used in India and Pakistan, probably dating from the colonial days, in the larger urban houses of the cities where there are many rooms.

The term parlour initially designated the more modest reception rooms of the middle classes, but usage changed in the UK as homeowners sought to identify with the grander homes of the wealthy. Parlor remained the common usage in North America into the early 20th century. In French usage the word salon, previously designating a state room, began to be used for a drawing room in the early part of the 19th century, reflecting the salon social gatherings that had become popular in the preceding decades.

Railway usage

[edit]

The term drawing room was historically also applied to certain passenger train accommodations, designating some of the most spacious and expensive private accommodations available on board a sleeping car or private railroad car. An example, named as such, was a Midland Railway "Drawing Room Car" in 1874 that was made by Pullman and imported from the United States.[4]

In North America, it meant a room in which slept three or more persons, with a private washroom.[5] Although Amtrak has retired its sleeping cars that were built with drawing rooms, they are still used by Via Rail Canada. The traditional nomenclature is seen as archaic, hence they are marketed as "triple bedrooms".

Drawing room plays

[edit]

The drawing room, being a room in the house to entertain visitors, gave its name to drawing room plays, a genre of theatrical productions and motion pictures. Beginning with the early forms of drama, the drawing room play has evolved to encompass comedy as well as to include the forms of the dramatic monologue. The play format itself has also grown out of the traditional drawing room performance and back into main street theater and film. While the drawing room itself has fallen out of favor, the play format has continued to provide a source of entertainment.

Drawing room comedy typically features wit and verbal banter among wealthy, leisured, genteel, upper class characters. Drawing room comedy is also sometimes called the "comedy of manners". Oscar Wilde's 1895 The Importance of Being Earnest and several of the plays of Noël Coward are typical works of the genre. George Bernard Shaw's 1919 Heartbreak House adds an undercurrent of social criticism to the genre. Cary Grant appeared in a number of filmed drawing-room comedies. Ernst Lubitsch was especially known as a director of drawing room comedies.

Notes

[edit]
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Drawing room

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A drawing room is a formal reception room in a large or , historically serving as a space for entertaining guests, social gatherings, and private withdrawal after meals. Derived from the 16th-century term "withdrawing room," it originally provided a private area for the family or ladies to retire from more public parts of the home, such as , for conversation, , and leisure activities like or music. By the , the name shortened to "drawing room" while its function expanded to include receiving visitors and displaying the household's status through elegant furnishings and art. The drawing room's prominence grew in the 18th and 19th centuries, particularly in English country houses and Regency townhouses, where it reflected social hierarchies and gender norms—often a domain for women post-dinner, with men joining later for drinks and discussion. Architecturally, it was typically located on the first floor for privacy, connected to adjacent rooms via folding doors, and designed to harmonize with natural surroundings through large floor-to-ceiling windows that offered views of gardens or landscapes. In grand estates like those of the Regency period, it symbolized refinement, with features such as white marble fireplaces as focal points for warmth and gathering, ornate plaster cornices, ceiling roses, and gilt mirrors to amplify light and space. Decoration emphasized luxury and elegance, incorporating rich textiles like Brussels weave carpets and heavy curtains, carved mahogany furniture, and expensive items such as musical instruments or to showcase the owner's taste and wealth. Historical examples include the drawing rooms at , with its Robert Adam-designed Gobelins tapestries, and , featuring 19th-century chintzes, Ushak rugs, and portraits by artists like H. Swaneveldt. These spaces often appeared in literature, such as Jane Austen's novels, where they hosted morning calls, card games, and pivotal social interactions. In the , the drawing room evolved with changing lifestyles, transitioning into the more casual as formal entertaining declined and homes became less segmented by gender or occasion. Today, while the term is largely historical—synonymous with sitting or living rooms in modern usage—it persists in heritage sites, luxury estates, and some contemporary designs that evoke traditional formality for special gatherings.

Definition and Origins

Definition

A drawing room is a formal, spacious room in a large private home designed for the reception and of guests, facilitating and light social activities such as afternoon teas, card games, or musical performances. This space emphasizes elegance and , often located on the first floor above ground level for , connected to other reception areas, and designed to offer views of gardens or landscapes. It differs from the modern , which functions as a casual, multifunctional area for daily use, relaxation, and informal gatherings rather than structured guest entertainment. Similarly, the drawing room is distinct from the parlor, a smaller reception space historically rooted in private conversations—often with religious connotations, as in monastic settings where speech was permitted—typically less grand and more intimate than the drawing room's formal scale. In its core role, the drawing room historically served as a withdrawal area for women after , allowing separation from male guests for refined pursuits like discussion or , a practice that underscored 18th- and 19th-century social etiquette, particularly in Georgian and Victorian .

Etymology

The term "drawing room" originated as a shortening of "withdrawing room," a phrase denoting a private chamber in English homes where individuals, especially women, would retire after during the . This custom reflected prevailing social etiquette, allowing ladies to separate from the gentlemen who remained at the dining table for conversation or port. The "withdrawing" aspect derived from the verb "withdraw," meaning to draw away or aside, emphasizing the room's role as a space for seclusion from the main gathering. The first recorded use of "drawing room" appears in 1635, documented in an expense account from House, while the fuller form "withdrawing-room" is attested as early as 1611 in Lording Barry's play Ram-Alley. Preceding these, the related term "withdrawing chamber" emerged in the late , as seen in 1392–1393 English records, initially describing any private apartment for retreat. These early usages highlight the term's roots in medieval and domestic , where such rooms provided essential in larger households. Over time, the meaning of "drawing room" underwent a semantic shift, evolving from a purely private withdrawal space in the 16th and 17th centuries to a more public area for receiving and entertaining guests by the 18th century. This change aligned with broader social practices of hosting company for conversation, paralleling the French "salon"—a reception room originating in the 17th century from Italian "salone" (large hall)—which influenced continental European terminology. In some European and British contexts, variants like "saloon" emerged as synonyms for a grander drawing room, denoting a spacious apartment for formal gatherings, as anglicized from "salon" by the early 18th century.

Historical Evolution

Early Development

The drawing room emerged in during the as an extension of the multifunctional s found in medieval manor houses, evolving into a more specialized space for private entertaining and family withdrawal. In and , this development reflected a broader shift toward compartmentalized domestic , where the —once the central hub for communal activities—gradually ceded prominence to smaller, more intimate rooms. English country houses, in particular, adapted the (a ceremonial predecessor to the drawing room) into withdrawing rooms, which served as antechambers to bedrooms and allowed lords and ladies to retreat from servants and lesser guests after meals. Key influences on this early establishment included post-Reformation needs for greater domestic privacy in Protestant , where religious reforms encouraged secluded devotions and reduced the openness of medieval households. The rise of nuclear families further promoted these dedicated spaces, as smaller household units prioritized personal comfort over extended communal living, contrasting with the larger, multi-generational structures of the pre-Reformation era. By the early 17th century, architects like incorporated principles—drawn from Palladio's villas—into English designs, emphasizing harmonious proportions and classical symmetry in withdrawing rooms at estates such as the in Greenwich (1616–1635), which set a precedent for upper-class country houses. In France, parallel developments saw the salon precursor take shape in aristocratic hôtels particuliers during the late 16th and early 17th centuries, influenced by Renaissance humanism and serving as venues for intellectual exchange amid the Wars of Religion. The Enlightenment's later emphasis on rational conversation in the 18th century built on these foundations, but the room's core function as a separator of formal social rituals from private bedrooms was already entrenched by the late 17th century in upper-class European homes, particularly in England where it became a standard feature for hosting distinguished visitors away from utilitarian areas.

Peak Usage in the 19th Century

During the 19th century, particularly in the Victorian era, the drawing room became a standard feature in middle-class British homes, driven by industrialization's expansion of consumer goods and rising social mobility. Mass-produced furnishings made ornate decor accessible, allowing the emerging bourgeoisie to emulate aristocratic lifestyles and signal gentility. This room symbolized social aspiration, serving as the heart of domestic life where families displayed wealth through lavish items like upholstered sofas and porcelain accents. In literature, early 19th-century works by Jane Austen, such as Pride and Prejudice, portrayed drawing rooms as pivotal spaces for courtship and conversation among the gentry and aspiring middle class, highlighting their role in navigating social hierarchies. By mid-century, Charles Dickens depicted them in novels like Bleak House as central to middle-class identity, often cluttered with eclectic objects reflecting both comfort and status anxiety. The 1851 Great Exhibition in London's Crystal Palace exemplified the drawing room's cultural peak, showcasing innovative furnishings that popularized Victorian styles globally. Exhibits included walnut chairs with porcelain plaques honoring , designed specifically for drawing rooms and blending traditional French-inspired cabriole legs with modern embroidery techniques. The event, attended by over six million visitors, promoted British manufacturing prowess, with drawing room suites in and gothic styles becoming must-haves for middle-class households. This influence extended through the , spreading the drawing room concept to colonies like and America, where European-style interiors adapted local elements such as punkahs for ventilation. In colonial , British residents outfitted rooms with imported pedestal tables and caned chairs, creating hybrid spaces that reinforced imperial domesticity. In America, Victorian parlors—synonymous with drawing rooms—mirrored these trends, enabling middle-class families to project refinement amid rapid . In daily life, the drawing room integrated family and social functions, particularly as a feminine domain under the era's ideology. Post-dinner, women withdrew there for conversation, , or playing, while men joined later after cigars in , underscoring gender-specific roles. It hosted soirées, literary readings, and informal gatherings, where middle-class women orchestrated to foster moral and social harmony. Lavish setups, like those in the Art Institute of Chicago's recreated Victorian drawing room (1840–70), featured ornate candelabras and ivory accents, emphasizing the space's role in displaying loyalty to the monarchy and cultural sophistication.

Decline in the 20th Century

The two World Wars significantly disrupted formal social norms and domestic , leading to a broader shift away from dedicated drawing rooms as symbols of pre-war elegance and hierarchy. and material shortages during and after the conflicts prioritized functional, minimalist designs over ornate, separate reception spaces, fostering a cultural move toward practicality in home layouts. In the and beyond, this was compounded by the rise of casual living starting in the , influenced by modernist movements that rejected Victorian formality in favor of relaxed family interactions. By the mid-20th century, suburban developments exemplified this transformation, with architecture favoring open-plan spaces that integrated living areas and eliminated distinct drawing rooms. Iconic 1950s projects like in New York featured compact homes with a single rather than separate formal parlors, reflecting mass-produced efficiency and the needs of young postwar families. This merger of the drawing room into multifunctional s became standard by the 1950s, as evidenced by declining appearances of formal reception types in residential plans across and . While drawing rooms persisted in heritage sites and luxury hotels as preserved emblems of tradition, they became rare in everyday residential use by the late , supplanted by open-concept designs. Modern remnants include occasional revivals in period dramas and high-end , where they evoke historical sophistication for or elite entertaining.

Architectural and Design Elements

Room Layout and Furnishings

The standard layout of a traditional drawing room revolved around a central as the focal point, with furniture arranged symmetrically to facilitate conversational clusters and natural light from bay windows or multiple sash windows. This arrangement emphasized balance and flow, often positioning seating groups near the for warmth during social gatherings, while ensuring pathways for movement across the room. In Victorian-era homes, such designs created enclosed yet inviting spaces accessed via a central . Typical dimensions for a drawing room in 19th-century British and American homes varied by and location, but a common size was approximately 20 by 25 feet, with ceilings around 12 to 14 feet high to accommodate proportions suitable for both intimate use and larger assemblies. Urban row houses often allocated an entire first-floor front room to this space, measuring up to 30 by 20 feet in more affluent examples, allowing for adequate circulation and, in music-oriented designs, favorable acoustics for or small performances. These proportions balanced functionality with grandeur, preventing the room from feeling cramped despite dense furnishing. Essential furnishings included upholstered sofas and armchairs arranged in matching sets for symmetry, such as deep-buttoned Chesterfield-style pieces in leather or fabric, alongside low tea tables or occasional tables for serving refreshments. Sideboards, often called chiffoniers with marble tops, provided storage and display surfaces along walls, while center tables with carved bases supported books or ornaments in the room's midst. Prevalent materials in 18th- and 19th-century examples featured mahogany frames for durability and elegance, paired with velvet or silk upholstery on seating to enhance comfort and formality.

Decorative Styles

The decorative styles of drawing rooms evolved to reflect prevailing artistic trends and social aspirations, emphasizing opulence and refinement from the 18th to early 20th centuries. In the 18th century, the Rococo style dominated, characterized by ornate giltwork, asymmetrical curves, and natural motifs such as shells and foliage, creating a sense of playful extravagance in salon-like spaces. This was followed in the 19th century by Victorian eclecticism, which blended Gothic Revival elements like pointed arches and intricate tracery with Orientalist influences, including intricate patterns inspired by Eastern textiles and motifs. By the Edwardian period after 1900, styles shifted toward simplicity with lighter palettes of soft pastels and whites, favoring clean lines and subdued elegance over heavy ornamentation. Key elements of these decorations included luxurious wall coverings that enhanced the room's intimacy and grandeur. Flocked wallpapers, made by applying powdered wool to mimic velvet, were popular from the 17th century onward, often featuring damask patterns of scrolling vines and florals for a tactile, velvety effect. Damask wallpapers and fabrics, with their reversible silk weaves creating subtle sheen contrasts, were commonly used in drawing rooms to evoke classical luxury, dating back to early examples in English academic settings. Lighting fixtures transitioned from elaborate chandeliers of gilt brass and glass prisms in Rococo and Victorian eras—initially gas-powered until the advent of electricity—to simpler electrified pendants in Edwardian designs, illuminating spaces with a warm, diffused glow. Accessories such as oversized pier mirrors with ornate frames reflected light and expanded the perceived space, while framed paintings of landscapes or portraits and fresh floral arrangements in porcelain vases added personal and seasonal touches. These styles drew from European aristocratic traditions, particularly Versailles-inspired salons with their integrated gilt paneling and mirrored walls that influenced English adaptations through designers like . Colonial imports further enriched interiors, notably Indian fabrics—vibrant, block-printed cottons with floral and paisley motifs—that were imported by European traders from the and used for upholstery and curtains in drawing rooms, despite bans aimed at protecting local industries. Such elements integrated briefly with furnishings to create cohesive, inviting environments.

Social and Cultural Role

Etiquette and Daily Use

In the 18th and 19th centuries, the drawing room served as the primary venue for formal social visits, where dictated the use of calling cards to announce one's arrival. Visitors would present their card to a servant upon entering the home, which was then delivered to the hostess; if she was engaged, the card alone sufficed as a record of the call, typically lasting no more than 15 to 30 minutes to respect her time. This ritual, outlined in contemporary conduct manuals, ensured that interactions remained structured and brief, preventing uninvited prolongation of stays. A key aspect of drawing room etiquette involved the post-dinner gender segregation, particularly prevalent until the late . Following the meal, ladies would withdraw to the drawing room for conversation and light refreshments, while gentlemen remained in to enjoy cigars, , and discussions on or ; this separation allowed each group private before the men rejoined the women. The drawing room was strictly reserved for social pursuits, with no eating beyond tea or small confections permitted, and no work such as or correspondence conducted during visits to maintain an atmosphere of refined leisure. Daily use of the drawing room centered on structured social routines, including afternoon teas held between 3 and 5 p.m., where the hostess poured from into cups offered with milk, lemon, or sugar, accompanied by sandwiches, scones, and cakes served on low tables. Evening receptions followed similar protocols, with guests arriving in formal attire for conversation and , adhering to rules that prohibited loud or personal topics to preserve . Parlor , such as "Forfeits" or "Tableaux Vivants," provided during these gatherings, involving mild physical interactions like blindfolded guesses or posed scenes from , all under the watchful eye of the hostess to ensure propriety. Examples of such guidelines appear in 18th-century conduct , which advised women on maintaining composed behavior during visits and to uphold moral standards. Etiquette in the drawing room varied by , with upper-class households enforcing stricter protocols, such as mandatory card presentations and timed separations, to signal status and refinement. By the , the emerging adopted these customs but with greater flexibility, often shortening visit durations or incorporating family-oriented games, reflecting their more practical domestic priorities while aspiring to genteel norms.

Symbolism in Society

The drawing room served as a prominent indicator of in , where its lavish interiors showcased accumulated wealth and signaled upward mobility for aspiring middle-class families. Ornate furnishings, such as imported silks, gilded mirrors, and fine , transformed the space into a deliberate display of affluence, distinguishing homeowners from lower strata and affirming their place among the elite. In Anthony Trollope's novels, such as , the drawing room functions as a for characters navigating social ascent, where opulent decor underscores the precariousness of newfound prosperity amid economic speculation and moral compromise. This symbolism extended beyond mere decoration, embodying the era's emphasis on material success as a pathway to respectability. Gender dynamics further enriched the drawing room's symbolic role, positioning it as a domain of female influence and within the patriarchal Victorian household, in stark contrast to male-dominated spaces like the or study. Women presided over its arrangement and social rituals, using the room to exert subtle power through and , thereby reinforcing ideals of domestic while subtly challenging restrictions on their public agency. This gendered spatial division, where the drawing room embodied refinement and restraint for women, drew feminist critiques in the early ; extended her seminal concept of "" to interrogate such confined interiors, portraying the drawing room in works like Night and Day as an emblem of oppressive Victorian gender roles that stifled and perpetuated societal expectations of female passivity. In literature and art, the drawing room emerged as a microcosm of broader societal values, capturing the intricacies of interpersonal relations, , and cultural aspirations. Eighteenth-century painter Jean-Honoré Fragonard's The Progress of Love series, originally commissioned for Madame du Barry's drawing room at , depicted flirtatious amid lush, intimate settings that symbolized aristocratic leisure and romantic intrigue, influencing later perceptions of the space as a theater of desire and .

Specialized Applications

Railway Parlor Cars

The adaptation of the drawing room concept to railway travel in the United States began in the late 1860s, with the introducing private compartments in luxury by 1870 to replicate the comfort and privacy of a home drawing room for affluent passengers on extended journeys. George M. Pullman's first , the Pioneer, was built in 1864 and debuted in 1865 as part of Abraham Lincoln's funeral train, but by 1870, the company was producing dedicated drawing room cars that offered upscale seclusion amid the rigors of long-distance rail transport. These innovations quickly became a hallmark of premium service, with the dominating the market through contracts with major railroads. Pullman's dominance was further solidified in 1900 when it acquired its main competitor, the Wagner Palace Car Company. Drawing rooms in these cars were engineered for versatility and elegance, featuring wide sofas that converted into full-sized beds at night, often accommodating up to three people with two lower beds and one upper berth, along with private lavatories and washbasins for en-suite convenience. Passengers enjoyed attentive service from dedicated porters, who handled meals, linens, and personal needs, enhancing the domestic feel of the space with polished wood paneling, plush , and ample room for lounging during the day. This level of luxury peaked in the early 20th century on transcontinental routes, such as the New York Central's and the Santa Fe's , where drawing rooms symbolized status and were in high demand through . The allure of drawing rooms waned after as commercial air travel offered faster alternatives and railroads shifted toward more affordable economy accommodations to compete. Pullman's monopoly was dismantled by antitrust rulings in 1948, leading to fragmented operations, and by the mid-1960s, the rise of interstate highways and jet aircraft had rendered these opulent cars obsolete, with most scrapped or repurposed as passenger rail services declined nationwide.

Drawing Room Plays in Theater

Drawing room plays, also known as drawing room comedies, constitute a theatrical that emerged in the late , characterized by witty, -driven comedies of manners set primarily in the affluent interiors of upper-class homes. These plays emphasize social etiquette, intricate interpersonal dynamics, and subtle critiques of societal norms, often featuring epigrammatic and complex characters navigating themes of , , and identity. The drew from earlier forms such as of manners and the French , but gained prominence in London's West End theaters during the , appealing to middle- and upper-class audiences with its sophisticated humor and confined settings. Pioneered by playwrights like , the genre flourished through short, intimate works that highlighted verbal sparring and social intrigue among the elite. Wilde's (1895), for instance, exemplifies this with its farce-infused plot of mistaken identities and satirical jabs at Victorian propriety, staged in a single drawing room to underscore the characters' confined hypocrisies. Building on this foundation, revitalized the form in the with plays like Hay Fever (1925) and (1930), which modernized Wilde's wit by incorporating post-World War I attitudes toward love, , and domestic chaos, often rejecting rigid in favor of passionate . Other notable contributors, such as and , further popularized the style in the 1920s, with works like Lonsdale's On Approval (1927) employing minimal casts and economical plots centered on romantic entanglements. Staging conventions reinforced the genre's intimacy and focus on social observation, typically utilizing a single drawing room set—complete with elegant furnishings, French windows for dramatic entrances, and subtle props symbolizing class—to contain the action and heighten interpersonal tensions. This unitary setting, prevalent in West End productions at theaters like the Haymarket and , minimized scenic changes and emphasized conversation as the primary dramatic force, allowing audiences to witness the unraveling of polite facades in real time. The rise of these conventions aligned with the commercial success of the genre, which dominated British theater from the 1890s through the 1930s. The cultural legacy of drawing room plays endures in their influence on modern sitcoms, where character-driven humor, domestic settings, and witty banter provide foundational structures for shows exploring everyday social . However, the genre declined sharply after , supplanted by the rise of realism and social critique in works like John Osborne's Look Back in Anger (1956), which rejected genteel upper-class narratives in favor of gritty, working-class perspectives and broader societal examinations. By the 1950s, critics such as dismissed revivals of earlier drawing room fare as outdated, marking the shift toward more experimental and politically charged drama.

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  56. https://www.pullman-museum.org/theCompany/
  57. https://www.pullman-museum.org/theCompany/timeline.html
  58. https://pamelanowak.com/2024/01/31/pullman-cars-changes-over-time/
  59. https://www.thehistoryreader.com/cultural-history/the-golden-age-of-the-pullman-car/
  60. https://archive.curbed.com/2018/2/1/16943216/pullman-private-railroad-car-history
  61. https://www.historictrains.org/collection/historic-pullman-collection
  62. https://utoronto.scholaris.ca/server/api/core/bitstreams/3afe5853-d2b9-4b29-aa67-e6ba97caa722/content
  63. https://www.ebsco.com/research-starters/biography/frederick-lonsdale
  64. https://www.nytimes.com/1985/04/28/theater/whatever-happened-to-drawing-room-comedy.html
  65. https://fiveable.me/history-theatre-iii-modernism-post-modernism/unit-9
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