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Earth phase
Partial Earth as seen from the Moon
Earthrise by Apollo 8 astronaut William Anders, December 1968. Earth at gibbous phase as seen from the Moon.

The Earth phase is the shape of the directly sunlit portion of Earth as viewed from the Moon (or elsewhere extraterrestrially). From the Moon, Earth phases gradually and cyclically change over the period of a synodic month (about 29.53 days), as the orbital positions of the Moon around Earth and of Earth around the Sun shift.[1][2]

Overview

[edit]
Earth's phase changes angle throughout the seasons due to Earth's axial tilt, here viewed from geostationary orbit.

Among the most prominent features of the Moon's sky is Earth. Earth's angular diameter (1.9°) is four times the Moon's as seen from Earth, although because the Moon's orbit is eccentric, Earth's apparent size in the sky varies by about 5% either way (ranging between 1.8° and 2.0° in diameter).[1] Earth shows phases, just like the Moon does for terrestrial observers. The phases, however, are opposite; when the terrestrial observer sees the full Moon, the lunar observer sees a "new Earth", and vice versa.[3] Earth's albedo is three times as high as that of the Moon (due in part to its whitish cloud cover), and coupled with the wider area, the full Earth glows over 50 times brighter than the full Moon at zenith does for the terrestrial observer. This Earth light reflected on the Moon's un-sunlit half is bright enough to be visible from Earth, even to the unaided eye – a phenomenon known as earthshine.

A watch featuring an Earth Phase and Lunar phase Complication, showing the Earth as a waxing crescent as seen from the Lunar surface, while the moon is waning gibbous.

As a result of the Moon's synchronous rotation, one side of the Moon (the "near side") is permanently turned towards Earth, and the other side, the "far side", mostly cannot be seen from Earth. This means, conversely, that Earth can be seen only from the near side of the Moon and would always be invisible from the far side. Earth is seen from the lunar surface to rotate, with a period of approximately one Earth day (differing slightly due to the Moon's orbital motion).

If the Moon's rotation were purely synchronous, Earth would not have any noticeable movement in the Moon's sky. However, due to the Moon's libration, Earth does perform a slow and complex wobbling movement. Once a month, as seen from the Moon, Earth traces out an approximate oval 18° in diameter. The exact shape and orientation of this oval depend on one's location on the Moon.[4] As a result, near the boundary of the near and far sides of the Moon, Earth is sometimes below the horizon and sometimes above it.

Phases of Earth

[edit]
  • Earth phases
  • Full
    Full
  • Gibbous
    Gibbous
  • Low-illumination gibbous
    Low-illumination gibbous
  • Very low-illumination gibbous
    Very low-illumination gibbous
  • Half
    Half
  • High-illumination crescent
    High-illumination crescent
  • Crescent
    Crescent
  • Low-illumination crescent
    Low-illumination crescent

See also

[edit]

References

[edit]
[edit]
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Earth phase

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The Earth phase refers to the changing appearance of the sunlit portion of Earth as observed from the Moon or other extraterrestrial perspectives, analogous to the well-known phases of the Moon visible from Earth.[1] These phases arise from the geometry of the Earth-Moon-Sun system, where the Moon's orbit around Earth causes varying amounts of the planet's illuminated hemisphere to be visible over time.[2] Earth progresses through eight distinct phases—new Earth, waxing crescent, first quarter, waxing gibbous, full Earth, waning gibbous, third quarter, and waning crescent—in a cycle that repeats every 29.53 days, corresponding to the synodic month.[1] This cycle occurs in direct opposition to the lunar phases seen from Earth: for instance, a new Moon from our viewpoint corresponds to a full Earth illuminating the lunar sky, while a full Moon aligns with a new Earth.[2] Due to Earth's larger size and greater reflectivity (albedo) compared to the Moon, full Earth phases appear significantly brighter, providing about 50 times more light to the lunar surface than a full Moon does to Earth.[3] The concept gained prominence through observations by Apollo astronauts during the late 1960s and early 1970s, who described seeing crescent, gibbous, and other phases of Earth while on the lunar surface or in orbit.[1] These phases not only offer a striking visual of home but also influence future lunar exploration, such as Artemis missions, where astronauts at the Moon's south pole will witness dynamic shifts in Earth's appearance against the static starry backdrop.[2]

Basic Concepts

Definition

The phase of Earth refers to the fraction of the planet's dayside, or illuminated hemisphere facing the Sun, that is visible from an external vantage point such as the Moon or spacecraft.[4] This phenomenon arises because only the portion of Earth's surface directly lit by sunlight is bright, while the night side remains dark, creating a varying apparent shape analogous to the phases of the Moon as seen from Earth.[5] The illuminated fraction changes cyclically over the Moon's orbital period of approximately one month due to the relative positions in the Earth-Moon-Sun system.[4] Key terminology for Earth's phases mirrors that of lunar phases but in reverse correspondence. A "new Earth" occurs when the observer sees none of the illuminated disk (0% illumination), appearing as a dark silhouette against the stars.[4] In contrast, a "full Earth" displays the entire illuminated disk (100% illumination), presenting a fully lit globe.[5] Intermediate stages include "crescent Earth," where less than half the disk is illuminated, and "gibbous Earth," where more than half but not all is visible; these are quantified by the percentage of the projected disk area that appears sunlit.[4] Geometrically, Earth's phase is determined by the phase angle, which is the angle at Earth's center formed by lines to the Sun and the observer.[6] A phase angle of 0° corresponds to full Earth, with the Sun, observer, and Earth aligned such that the observer is between the Sun and Earth, viewing the fully sunlit hemisphere.[4] At 180°, new Earth is seen, with the observer facing Earth's night side directly toward the Sun.[5] Intermediate angles between 0° and 180° produce the partial phases, with the boundary between light and dark following the planet's terminator.[6]

Illumination Mechanism

The illumination of Earth arises from the planet's position relative to the Sun, where sunlight directly illuminates one hemisphere, forming a great circle known as the terminator that demarcates the boundary between the lit day side and the dark night side. As viewed from an external observer, such as the Moon or spacecraft, the visible phases of Earth depend on the alignment of the observer's line of sight with respect to this illuminated hemisphere; when the observer is positioned such that their view is mostly toward the day side, a fuller phase is apparent, whereas alignment toward the night side results in a thinner crescent or new phase. This process mirrors the mechanism of lunar phases but in reverse, as the relative geometry dictates the proportion of the sunlit surface facing the observer.[7] The geometric foundation for Earth's phases lies in the configuration of the Sun-Earth-observer triangle, where the key parameter is the phase angle ϕ\phi, defined as the angle at Earth's center between the vectors pointing to the Sun and the observer. This angle varies from 0° (when the Sun, observer, and Earth are aligned with the observer between the Sun and Earth, yielding a fully illuminated disk) to 180° (when the observer sees primarily the night side). The fraction of Earth's apparent disk that appears illuminated is calculated by the formula
f=1+cos⁡ϕ2, f = \frac{1 + \cos \phi}{2},
which derives from the projected area of the spherical cap illuminated by the Sun; at ϕ=0∘\phi = 0^\circ, f=1f = 1 (full phase), and at ϕ=90∘\phi = 90^\circ, f=0.5f = 0.5 (quarter phase). This model assumes a spherical Earth for simplicity, providing the baseline for phase determination in astronomical observations.[8] Earth's non-spherical oblate spheroid shape, resulting from rotational flattening at the poles, introduces subtle distortions to the phase appearance by making the projected disk slightly elliptical rather than circular, particularly noticeable near the limb during partial phases. Furthermore, spatial variations in Earth's albedo—averaging about 0.3 globally but lower over dark oceans (around 0.06) compared to brighter continents and clouds (up to 0.8)—modulate the contrast and overall brightness of the illuminated portion, with continental regions appearing more prominent against oceanic expanses in visible light. These effects, while minor compared to the primary geometric illumination, contribute to the nuanced visual characteristics of Earth's phases without involving atmospheric scattering.[9][10]

Observation Perspectives

From the Moon

From the near side of the Moon, where human exploration has been limited to the equatorial regions, Earth appears fixed in the sky due to the Moon's tidal locking with Earth, maintaining synchronous rotation that keeps the same lunar hemisphere perpetually facing our planet. This vantage point offers a dramatically enlarged view, with Earth's angular diameter measuring approximately 2 degrees—about four times larger than the Moon's apparent diameter of 0.5 degrees as seen from Earth—resulting in an apparent disk area roughly 13 times greater. The phases of Earth cycle through a complete sequence over the synodic month of 29.53 days, synchronized with the Moon's orbital period around Earth relative to the Sun, illuminating varying fractions of Earth's surface as the geometry of sunlight shifts. The phase progression from the Moon mirrors but inverts the lunar phases observed from Earth: during a new Moon as viewed from Earth, the Moon lies between Earth and the Sun, rendering Earth fully illuminated and appearing as a brilliant "full Earth" from the lunar surface, showcasing the entire dayside with swirling white clouds, blue oceans, and green-brown continents in vivid detail. Conversely, a crescent Moon from Earth corresponds to a gibbous Earth, where more than half but not all of the disk is sunlit, highlighting dynamic weather patterns and the terminator line separating day and night. These appearances are particularly striking during lunar dawn, when the rising Sun casts long shadows across the barren lunar terrain while the colorful, ever-changing Earth hangs motionless overhead, evoking the iconic "Earthrise" imagery captured from lunar orbit but adapted to the stationary surface perspective. Earth's rapid rotation, completing a sidereal day in about 23 hours 56 minutes, causes the illuminated portion of its surface to shift noticeably each Earth day relative to fixed landmarks on the Moon, such as craters or landing sites, allowing observers to watch continents rotate into view or out of sunlight over successive days. Unlike the static face of the Moon presented to Earth, this daily motion reveals a living planet with migrating weather systems and seasonal variations. Libration, the subtle wobbling of the Moon in its orbit due to eccentricity and axial tilt, introduces minor modulations to Earth's apparent position, causing it to oscillate by up to 8 degrees in longitude and 7 degrees in latitude over time, slightly altering the visible horizon and phase edges without disrupting the overall cycle. From this perspective, the Earth phase sequence does not include eclipses, as the Moon's shadow is too narrow to cast a significant umbra on Earth, preventing total obscuration events during the orbital alignments that define the phases.

From Earth Orbit and Deep Space

From low Earth orbit, such as that of the International Space Station (ISS) at approximately 400 kilometers altitude, the Earth's terminator—the boundary between the illuminated dayside and shadowed nightside—is prominently visible in imagery, but distinct phases are not observed in the traditional sense due to the spacecraft's rapid orbital period of about 90 minutes. This high-speed motion causes the view of Earth to shift continuously, with the terminator line sweeping across the planet's surface multiple times per orbit, highlighting atmospheric glow and cloud patterns along the boundary. For instance, photographs from the ISS capture the terminator as a curved, glowing arc over oceans or continents, emphasizing the planet's curvature and the thin atmospheric layer.[11] In geostationary orbit at around 35,786 kilometers above the equator, satellites like NASA's GOES series maintain a fixed position relative to Earth's surface, providing a stationary view of about one-third of the planet's disk. Here, the Earth appears as a partially illuminated sphere, with the terminator line fixed in position over a 24-hour period but varying in its sweep across the visible hemisphere as the planet rotates beneath the satellite. This perspective reveals a consistent partial illumination, often showing a gibbous-like phase of the visible disk, influenced by the satellite's equatorial vantage point, and is used for continuous weather monitoring without the dynamic changes seen from lower orbits.[12] From deep space, such as the distance of Mars (approximately 225 million kilometers on average), Earth displays distinct phases analogous to those of the Moon viewed from Earth, with the phase angle varying over the synodic period of about 780 days due to the relative orbital motions around the Sun. NASA's Mars Global Surveyor captured images in 2003 showing Earth and the Moon as thin crescents at a phase angle of 98 degrees, where less than half of the disks were directly illuminated by sunlight. Similarly, the Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter's HiRISE camera has imaged Earth in gibbous phases during oppositions, appearing as a bright, partially lit orb against the Martian sky. At greater distances, like those of the Voyager probes—Voyager 1 at over 24 billion kilometers (about 160 AU) in 2025—Earth resolves only as a point of light, as in the 1990 "Pale Blue Dot" image taken at 6 billion kilometers, where the planet's angular diameter falls below the camera's resolution limit of roughly 0.12 pixels. Beyond approximately 10 AU (1.5 billion kilometers), Earth's disk cannot be spatially resolved by typical spacecraft imagers, appearing instead as a twinkling point source.[13][14] Spacecraft cameras capturing these phases, such as Voyager's narrow-angle camera with its 0.4-0.8 degree field of view or Mars orbiters' high-resolution instruments, contend with technical challenges including resolution limits dictated by the inverse square law of distance and optical design. At interplanetary ranges, color variations arise from scattered sunlight in the camera optics and Earth's atmosphere, often producing bluish hues or radial streaks, as seen in the Pale Blue Dot where forward-scattered light created prominent rays around the tiny Earth pixel. These effects are mitigated through filters and post-processing, but they underscore how phase observations from afar prioritize angular geometry over fine surface details.[15]

Relation to Lunar Phases

Correspondence

The phases of Earth as observed from the Moon exhibit an inverse synchronization with the lunar phases viewed from Earth. When the Moon appears full from Earth, the Earth appears as a new phase (dark dayside facing the Moon) from the lunar surface, rendering it invisible against the Sun's glare. Conversely, during a new Moon from Earth, the Earth presents a full phase, fully illuminated by the Sun with its dayside oriented toward the Moon.[16][5] Both Earth phases and lunar phases align in their cyclical progression, governed by the synodic month, which spans approximately 29.5 days from one new Moon to the next or equivalent alignment in the Earth-Moon-Sun system. This period reflects the relative orbital motion of the Moon around Earth with respect to the Sun. The correspondences between the two can be summarized as follows:
Lunar Phase (from Earth)Earth Phase (from Moon)
New MoonFull Earth
Waxing CrescentWaning Gibbous Earth
First Quarter MoonLast Quarter Earth
Waxing GibbousWaning Crescent Earth
Full MoonNew Earth
Waning GibbousWaxing Crescent Earth
Last Quarter MoonFirst Quarter Earth
Waning CrescentWaxing Gibbous Earth
This table illustrates the mirrored progression, where each stage of lunar illumination corresponds to the complementary Earth phase due to the geometry of sunlight reflection.[17][5] The inverse relationship was theoretically predicted within the heliocentric model proposed by Nicolaus Copernicus in the 16th century, which posited Earth as a planet orbiting the Sun and thus subject to similar illumination geometries as other celestial bodies. Empirical confirmation came from the Apollo missions (1968–1972), where astronauts orbiting and landing on the Moon directly observed Earth's changing phases, aligning precisely with predictions—such as a nearly full Earth during periods corresponding to new Moon conditions on Earth. These observations provided the first human-verified views, validating the synchronized cycle without deviation.[18]

Key Differences

One key distinction between Earth phases and lunar phases lies in their scale and brightness. The full Earth, as viewed from the Moon, appears approximately 43 times brighter than the full Moon does from Earth, primarily due to Earth's higher albedo of about 0.37 compared to the Moon's 0.12, combined with Earth's larger apparent diameter of roughly 2 degrees versus the Moon's 0.5 degrees, resulting in an angular area about 13 times greater.[3][19] This enhanced luminosity ensures that even a crescent Earth remains prominently visible and provides substantial illumination during the lunar night, in contrast to the subtler visibility of a crescent Moon from Earth.[3] Earth phases also exhibit more dynamic visual characteristics owing to Earth's atmospheric and rotational properties. Unlike the Moon's barren, unchanging surface, Earth's atmosphere scatters sunlight along the terminator line, producing a colorful twilight glow with hues of blue and orange from Rayleigh scattering, while swirling cloud patterns and weather systems shift rapidly across the illuminated disk.) Additionally, Earth's 24-hour rotation period—contrasted with the Moon's 27.3-day sidereal rotation—causes the visible features, such as continents and oceans, to rotate across the face of the Earth multiple times during a single phase cycle as observed from a fixed lunar vantage point, creating ever-changing patterns that evolve hourly rather than over weeks.[20][3] In terms of visibility impacts, Earth phases lack an equivalent to the faint Earthshine that softly illuminates the Moon's dark hemisphere, as the Moon's low albedo and small size result in negligible reflected moonlight scattering back to faintly light Earth's unilluminated side from the lunar perspective; instead, the dark portion of Earth appears truly shadowed.[3][21] Furthermore, while Earth phases modulate the intensity of illumination during the Moon's fixed 14-day night—peaking at full Earth and minimal at new Earth—they do not influence tides on the Moon, which lacks significant liquid bodies, unlike how lunar phases indirectly affect Earth's tides through solar alignment.[22][23]

Scientific and Cultural Significance

Astronomical Applications

In space navigation, Earth phases provide critical visual references for spacecraft attitude determination, particularly through the terminator—the boundary between the illuminated and dark hemispheres—which allows crews or autonomous systems to infer the Sun's direction relative to the spacecraft. Horizon sensors on spacecraft detect the Earth's limb by measuring thermal contrasts across the terminator, enabling precise pitch and roll measurements with accuracies of 0.1 to 0.25 degrees for Earth-pointing missions.[24] During the Apollo 13 mission, the crew used the Earth's terminator as a primary alignment aid when debris obscured star sightings; by positioning the terminator's cusps along the Command Module's optical sight axes and verifying with the Sun's position, they achieved necessary attitude for mid-course corrections without relying on powered navigation systems.[25] Similarly, NASA's Orion spacecraft in the Artemis program employs an optical navigation camera to capture Earth images at varying phases and distances, processing the changing illumination to autonomously determine position and velocity during deep-space transits.[26] Orbital observations of Earth phases facilitate climate and weather monitoring by revealing global cloud cover and terminator-driven atmospheric patterns under low-angle sunlight, which highlights cloud structures and diurnal cycles not visible in full illumination. Satellites like Meteosat-9 track the terminator's seasonal migration, providing time-lapse data on cloud distributions that inform radiative transfer models and weather forecasting.[27] From vantage points such as the Lunar Gateway, which is under development as of 2025 with initial launches planned no earlier than late 2026, terminator views enable high-resolution (~0.5 km) multi-spectral imaging of cloud properties, capturing 3D effects like grazing illumination on cloud tops to improve retrievals of albedo and aerosol interactions essential for climate feedback analysis.[28][29] Earth phases serve as a benchmark model for exoplanet studies, where phase curves—variations in reflected light as a planet orbits its star—mirror Earth's changing albedo to detect atmospheric compositions and habitability indicators via transit photometry. Observations from the EPOXI mission validated Earth-based models by simulating exoplanet detection, showing how phase-dependent brightness contrasts reveal ocean glint, cloud cover, and vegetation signatures that signal potential liquid water and biospheres.[30] In transit surveys like those from Kepler or JWST, Earth's phase curve analogs help interpret exoplanet light variations; for instance, asymmetric phase shifts due to atmospheric scattering indicate thick atmospheres conducive to habitability, prioritizing targets for spectroscopic follow-up. As of 2025, JWST/MIRI observations of thermal phase curves for TRAPPIST-1 b and c have revealed emission consistent with their irradiation levels, indicating no thick atmospheres.[31][32]

Historical and Cultural Context

The concept of Earth exhibiting phases as viewed from the Moon was theoretically anticipated in the 17th century, building on observations of planetary phases by astronomers like Galileo Galilei, who demonstrated through his telescopic studies of Venus that inferior planets display a full range of illuminations due to their orbital positions relative to the Sun.[33] The logic of such phases observed by Galileo naturally extends to the Earth-Moon system, where the Moon would witness varying illuminations of Earth analogous to the Moon's own phases observed from Earth, though direct verification remained impossible without space travel. Direct observations of Earth phases began with unmanned spacecraft in the mid-20th century. The first actual image of Earth from lunar orbit—a crescent phase—was obtained by NASA's Lunar Orbiter 1 on August 23, 1966, marking the initial unmanned visual record of Earth's illumination as seen from the Moon.[34] Human observation followed during the Apollo 8 mission in December 1968, when astronaut William Anders captured the iconic "Earthrise" photograph, depicting Earth in a gibbous phase rising over the lunar horizon, the first such view by crewed spacecraft.[35] Prior to the 20th century, the absence of spacefaring technology rendered Earth phases unobservable, leading early astronomers to treat them as a purely theoretical construct derived from heliocentric models, with no empirical data to challenge or refine assumptions about illumination patterns.[36] This gap persisted until robotic and human missions, highlighting how pre-modern astronomy relied on indirect analogies from lunar and Venusian phases without direct extraterrestrial perspectives.[37] Cultural depictions of Earth phases have appeared in science fiction, notably in Arthur C. Clarke's works like 2001: A Space Odyssey (1968), where lunar bases offer views of a vividly illuminated Earth, symbolizing humanity's expanding cosmic awareness and inspiring narratives of interstellar migration.[38] Modern art and photography, particularly influenced by the Earthrise image, have featured in environmental works; for instance, artist Jane Babson's series reinterprets the photograph to evoke planetary fragility, blending photographic realism with abstract expressions of unity.[39]

References

  1. Phases and orbits of the Moon | Institute of Physics
  2. 9 Phenomena NASA Astronauts Will Encounter at Moon's South Pole
  3. [PDF] EarthShine: Observing our world as an exoplanet from the surface of ...
  4. If You're On the Moon, Does the Earth Appear to Go Through Phases?
  5. What "phase angle" means | The Planetary Society
  6. Planetary Motions - Astronomy Without a Telescope
  7. [PDF] Planet Phases
  8. Strange but True: Earth Is Not Round | Scientific American
  9. Earthshine Project - BBSO - Big Bear Solar Observatory
  10. The International Space Station crosses the terminator above the ...
  11. Geostationary Satellites | NESDIS - NOAA
  12. Earth and Moon as viewed from Mars - NASA Science
  13. Solar System Portrait - Earth as 'Pale Blue Dot'
  14. Solar System Portrait - Earth as 'Pale Blue Dot' - NASA Science
  15. Changing Earth phases, seen from the moon - EarthSky
  16. Moon Phases - NASA Science
  17. The History of an Idea That Launched the Scientific Revolution
  18. Ask Ethan: How Bright Is The Earth As Seen From The Moon? - Forbes
  19. Visual Albedo of the Moon and the Earth - FlatEarth.ws
  20. Observing Earth from the Moon - Sky & Telescope
  21. Moonlight - NASA Science
  22. Earthshine as an illumination source at the Moon - ScienceDirect.com
  23. Tides - NASA Science
  24. [PDF] 19.1 Attitude Determination and Control Systems
  25. [PDF] Apollo 13 Guidance, Navigation, and Control Challenges
  26. Orion's Optical Navigation Camera Captures Earth - NASA
  27. Follow The Line - NASA SVS
  28. [PDF] A UNIQUE PERSPECTIVE FROM THE PROPOSED DEEP SPACE G
  29. Earth as an Extrasolar Planet: Earth Model Validation Using EPOXI ...
  30. Illusion and reality in the atmospheres of exoplanets - AGU Journals
  31. Galileo's Observations of the Moon, Jupiter, Venus and the Sun
  32. The Galileo Project | Science | Moon
  33. First Close-up of the Far Side of Moon - NASA Science
  34. First View of Earth From Moon - NASA
  35. Apollo 8: Earthrise - NASA
  36. Astronomy - Ancient, Celestial, Observations | Britannica
  37. Galileo and the Telescope | Modeling the Cosmos
  38. The fiction that predicted space travel - BBC
  39. Picturing Earth, Inspiring Artists, and Shifting Perspectives
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