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A schematic illustrating how FTTX (Node, Curb, Building, Home) architectures vary with regard to the distance between the optical fiber and the end user. The building on the left is the central office; the building on the right is one of the buildings served by the central office. Dotted rectangles represent separate living or office spaces within the same building.

Fiber to the x (FTTX; also spelled "fibre") or fiber in the loop is a generic term for any broadband network architecture using optical fiber to provide all or part of the local loop used for last mile telecommunications. As fiber optic cables are able to carry much more data than copper cables, especially over long distances, copper telephone networks built in the 20th century are being replaced by fiber.[1] The carrier equipment for FTTx is often housed in a "fiber hut", point of presence[2] or central office.[3][4][5][6]

FTTX is a generalization for several configurations of fiber deployment, arranged into two groups: FTTP/FTTH/FTTB (fiber laid all the way to the premises/home/building) and FTTC/N (fiber laid to the cabinet/node, with copper wires completing the connection).

Residential areas already served by balanced pair distribution plant call for a trade-off between cost and capacity. The closer the fiber head, the higher the cost of construction and the higher the channel capacity. In places not served by metallic facilities, little cost is saved by not running fiber to the home.

Fiber to the x is the key method used to drive next-generation access (NGA), which describes a significant upgrade to the broadband available by making a step change in speed and quality of the service. This is typically thought of as asymmetrical with a download speed of 24 Mbit/s plus and a fast upload speed.[7] Ofcom have defined super-fast broadband as "broadband products that provide a maximum download speed that is greater than 24 Mbit/s – this threshold is commonly considered to be the maximum speed that can be supported on current generation (copper-based) networks."[8]

A similar network called a hybrid fiber-coaxial (HFC) network is used by cable television operators but is usually not synonymous with "fiber In the loop", although similar advanced services are provided by the HFC networks. Fixed wireless and mobile wireless technologies such as Wi-Fi, WiMAX and 3GPP Long Term Evolution (LTE) are an alternative for providing Internet access.

Definitions

[edit]

The telecommunications industry differentiates between several distinct FTTX configurations. The terms in most widespread use today are:

  • FTTE (fiber-to-the-edge) is a networking approach used in the enterprise building (hotels, convention centers, office buildings, hospitals, senior living communities, Multi-Dwelling Units, stadiums, etc.). Fiber reaches directly from the main distribution frame of a building out to the edge devices, eliminating the need for intermediate distribution frames.
  • FTTP (fiber-to-the-premises): This term is used either as a blanket term for both FTTH and FTTB, or where the fiber network includes both homes and small businesses
    • FTTH (fiber-to-the-home): Fiber reaches the boundary of the living space, such as a box on the outside wall of a home. Passive optical networks and point-to-point Ethernet are architectures that are capable of delivering triple-play services over FTTH networks directly from an operator's central office.[9][10] Typically providing between 1 and 10 Gbit/s
    • FTTB (fiber-to-the-building, -business, or -basement): Fiber reaches the boundary of the building, such as the basement in a multi-dwelling unit, with the final connection to the individual living space being made via alternative means, similar to the curb or pole technologies. It can currently reach symmetrical 10 Gbit/s with G.mgfast.
    • FTTD can mean two different things:
      • (fiber-to-the-desktop or -desk): In an office, fiber connection is installed from the main computer room to a desk or fiber media converter near the user's desk
      • (fiber-to-the-door): Fiber reaches outside the flat
    • FTTR can mean three different things:
      • (fiber-to-the-radio): Fiber runs to the transceivers of base stations
      • (fiber-to-the-router): Fiber connection is installed from the router to the ISP's fiber network
      • (fiber-to-the-room): Fiber connection is extended from the router to rooms in the building[11]
    • FTTO (fiber-to-the-office): Fiber connection is installed from the main computer room/core switch to a special mini-switch (called FTTO Switch) located at the user's workstation or service points. This mini-switch provides Ethernet services to end user devices via standard twisted pair patch cords. The switches are decentralised and located all over the building, but managed from one central point
    • FTTF can mean five different things:
      • (fiber-to-the-factory): fiber runs to factory buildings
      • (fiber-to-the-farm): fiber runs to agricultural farms
      • (fiber-to-the-feeder): a synonym of FTTN
      • (fiber-to-the-floor): fiber reaches a junction box at a floor of a building
      • (fiber-to-the-frontage): This is very similar to FTTB. In a fiber to the front yard scenario, each fiber node serves a single subscriber. It can currently reach symmetrical 10 Gbit/s with G.mgfast. The fiber node may be reverse-powered by the subscriber modem[12]
    • FTTM can mean four different things:
      • (fiber-to-the-machine): In a factory, fiber runs to machines
      • (fiber-to-the-mast): Fiber runs to wireless masts
      • (fiber-to-the-mobile): Fiber runs to base stations
      • (fiber-to-the-multi-dwelling-unit): FTTP to apartment buildings
    • FTTT can mean three different things:
      • (fiber-to-the-terminal): In an office, fiber runs to desktop equipment
      • (fiber-to-the-tower): Fiber reaches base stations
      • (fiber-to-the-tent): For example, at hacker camps such as BornHack in Denmark.[13]
    • FTTW (fiber-to-the-wall or -workgroup): In an office, fiber runs to small switches near a group of users
  • FTTA can mean two different things:
    • (fiber-to-the-amplifier): Fiber runs to street cabinets
    • (fiber-to-the-antenna): Fiber runs up antenna towers
  • FTTCS (fiber-to-the-cell-site): fiber reaches the base station site
  • FTTE / FTTZ (fiber-to-the-telecom-enclosure or fiber-to-the-zone): is a form of structured cabling typically used in enterprise local area networks, where fiber is used to link the main computer equipment room to an enclosure close to the desk or workstation. FTTE and FTTZ are not considered part of the FTTX group of technologies, despite the similarity in name.[14]
  • FTTdp (fiber-to-the-distribution-point): This is very similar to FTTC / FTTN but is one-step closer again, moving the end of the fiber to within meters of the boundary of the customers premises in the last possible junction box, known as the "distribution point". This allows for near-gigabit speeds[15]
  • FTTL (fiber-to-the-loop): general term
  • FTTN / FTTLA (fiber-to-the-node, -neighborhood, or -last-amplifier): Fiber is terminated in a street cabinet, possibly miles away from the customer premises, with the final connections being copper. FTTN is often an interim step toward full FTTH (fiber-to-the-home) and is typically used to deliver 'advanced' triple-play telecommunications services
  • FTTC / FTTK (fiber-to-the-curb/kerb, -closet, or -cabinet): This is very similar to FTTN, but the street cabinet or pole is closer to the user's premises, typically within 300 m (1,000 ft), within range for high-bandwidth copper technologies such as wired Ethernet or IEEE 1901 power line networking and wireless Wi-Fi technology. FTTC is occasionally ambiguously called FTTP (fiber-to-the-pole), leading to confusion with the distinct fiber-to-the-premises system. Typically providing up to 100 Mbit/s
  • FTTS can mean three different things:
    • (fiber-to-the-screen or -seat): On an airplane, fiber reaches the IFE screens
    • (fiber-to-the-street): The customer is connected using copper to the fiber passing near the building, up to 200 m (700 ft) away. This is a compromise between FTTB and FTTC. Typically providing up to 500 Mbit/s
    • (fiber-to-the-subscriber): This is a synonym for FTTP

To promote consistency, especially when comparing FTTH penetration rates between countries, the three FTTH Councils of Europe, North America, and Asia-Pacific agreed upon definitions for FTTH and FTTB in 2006,[16] with an update in 2009,[17] 2011[18] and another in 2015.[19] The FTTH Councils do not have formal definitions for FTTC and FTTN.

Benefits

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While fiber optic cables can carry data at high speeds over long distances, copper cables used in traditional telephone lines and ADSL cannot. For example, the common form of Gigabit Ethernet (1 Gbit/s) runs over relatively economical category 5e, category 6 or 6A unshielded twisted-pair copper cabling but only to 100 m (300 ft). However, 1 Gbit/s Ethernet over fiber can easily reach tens of kilometers. Therefore, FTTP has been selected by every major communications provider in the world to carry data over long 1 Gbit/s symmetrical connections directly to consumer homes. FTTP configurations that bring fiber directly into the building can offer the highest speeds since the remaining segments can use standard Ethernet or coaxial cable.

Fiber is often said to be "future-proof" because the data rate of the connection is usually limited by the terminal equipment rather than the fiber, permitting substantial speed improvements by equipment upgrades before the fiber itself must be upgraded. Still, the type and length of employed fibers chosen, e.g. multimode vs. single-mode, are critical for applicability for future connections of over 1 Gbit/s.

With the rising popularity of high-definition, on-demand video streaming applications and devices such as YouTube, Netflix, Roku, and Facebook LIVE, the demand for reliable bandwidth is crucial as more and more people begin to utilize these services.[20]

FTTC (where fiber transitions to copper in a street cabinet) is generally too far from the users for standard Ethernet configurations over existing copper cabling. They generally use very-high-bit-rate digital subscriber line (VDSL) at downstream rates of 80 Mbit/s, but this falls extremely quickly when the distance exceeds 100 m (300 ft).

Fiber to the premises

[edit]

Fiber to the premises (FTTP) is a form of fiber-optic communication delivery in which an optical fiber is run in an optical distribution network from the central office all the way to the premises occupied by the subscriber. The term "FTTP" has become ambiguous and may also refer to FTTC where the fiber terminates at a utility pole without reaching the premises.

Fiber-optic cable being pulled underneath the streets of New York City
An optical fiber jack (cover removed) in a residence with FTTH service
ISP equipment for FTTH. In the center there is an Optical Consolidation Rack for connecting the ISP to the outside plant cables that connect to customers. To the left there are Optical Line Terminals which send and receive data to customers as part of a PON network

Fiber to the premises can be categorized according to where the optical fiber ends:

  • FTTH (fiber-to-the-home) is a form of fiber-optic communication delivery that reaches one living or working space. The fiber extends from the central office to the subscriber's living or working space.[18] Once at the subscriber's living or working space, the signal may be conveyed throughout the space using any means, including twisted pair, coaxial cable, wireless, power line communication, or optical fiber.
  • FTTB (fiber-to-the-building or -basement) is a form of fiber-optic communication delivery that necessarily applies only to those properties that contain multiple living or working spaces. The optical fiber terminates before actually reaching the subscribers living or working space itself, but does extend to the property containing that living or working space. The signal is conveyed the final distance using any non-optical means, including twisted pair, coaxial cable, wireless, or power line communication.[18]

An apartment building may provide an example of the distinction between FTTH and FTTB. If a fiber is run to a panel inside each subscriber's apartment unit, it is FTTH. If instead, the fiber goes only as far as the apartment building's shared electrical room (either only to the ground floor or to each floor), it is FTTB.

Fibre-to-the-home cable.
This cable is outdoor-grade. Approximate diameters: Outer sheath: 5 mm, outer white paper wrapper: ⌀2.5 mm, inner white plastic sheath: ⌀890 μm, blue sheath: ⌀250 μm, optical fiber: ⌀150 μm

Fiber to the curb/cabinet/node

[edit]
Inside an FTTN or FTTC fiber cabinet. The left side contains the fiber and a DSLAM, and the right side contains the copper and punch down blocks for a form of DSL such as VDSL

Fiber to the curb/cabinet (FTTC) is a telecommunications system based on fiber-optic cables run to a platform that serves several customers. Each of these customers has a connection to this platform via coaxial cable or twisted pair. Here "curb" is an abstraction and can just as easily mean a pole-mounted device or communications closet or a shed. Typically any system terminating fiber within 300 m (1,000 ft) of the customer premises equipment would be described as FTTC.[21]

Fiber to the node or neighborhood (FTTN), sometimes identified with and sometimes distinguished from fiber to the cabinet (FTTC),[22] is a telecommunication architecture based on fiber-optic cables run to a cabinet serving a neighborhood. Customers typically connect to this cabinet using traditional coaxial cable or twisted pair wiring. The area served by the cabinet is usually less than one mile in radius and can contain several hundred customers.

FTTN allows delivery of broadband services such as high-speed internet. High-speed communications protocols such as broadband cable access (typically DOCSIS) or some form of digital subscriber line (DSL) are used between the cabinet and the customers. Data rates vary according to the exact protocol used and according to how close the customer is to the cabinet.

Unlike FTTP, FTTN often uses existing coaxial or twisted-pair infrastructure to provide last mile service and is thus less costly to deploy. In the long term, however, its bandwidth potential is limited relative to implementations that bring the fiber still closer to the subscriber.

A variant of this technique for cable television providers is used in a hybrid fiber-coaxial (HFC) system. It is sometimes given the acronym FTTLA (fiber-to-the-last-amplifier) when it replaces analog amplifiers up to the last one before the customer (or neighborhood of customers).

FTTC allows delivery of broadband services such as high-speed internet. Usually, existing wire is used with communications protocols such as broadband cable access (typically DOCSIS) or some form of DSL connecting the curb/cabinet and the customers. In these protocols, the data rates vary according to the exact protocol used and according to how close the customer is to the cabinet.

Where it is feasible to run new cable, both fiber and copper Ethernet are capable of connecting the "curb" with a full 100 Mbit/s or 1 Gbit/s connection. Even using relatively cheap outdoor category 5 copper over hundreds of meters, all Ethernet protocols including power over Ethernet (PoE) are supported[citation needed]. Most fixed wireless technologies rely on PoE, including Motorola Canopy, which has low-power radios capable of running on a 12 VDC power supply fed over several tens of meters of cable.

Power line networking deployments also rely on FTTC. Using the IEEE P1901 protocol (or its predecessor HomePlug AV) existing electric service cables move up to 1 Gbit/s from the curb/pole/cabinet into every AC electrical outlet in the home—coverage equivalent to a robust Wi-Fi implementation, with the added advantage of a single cable for power and data.

By avoiding new cable and its cost and liabilities, FTTC costs less to deploy. However, it also has historically had lower bandwidth potential than FTTP. In practice, the relative advantage of fiber depends on the bandwidth available for backhaul, usage-based billing restrictions that prevent full use of last-mile capabilities, and customer premises equipment and maintenance restrictions, and the cost of running fiber that can vary widely with geography and building type.

In the United States and Canada, the largest deployment of FTTC was carried out by BellSouth Telecommunications. With the acquisition of BellSouth by AT&T, deployment of FTTC will end. Future deployments will be based on either FTTN or FTTP. Existing FTTC plant may be removed and replaced with FTTP.[23] Verizon, meanwhile, announced in March 2010 they were winding down Verizon FiOS expansion, concentrating on completing their network in areas that already had FiOS franchises but were not deploying to new areas,[24] suggesting that FTTH was uneconomic beyond these areas.

Verizon also announced (at CES 2010) its entry into the smart home and power utility data management arenas, indicating it was considering using P1901-based FTTC or some other existing-wire approach to reach into homes, and access additional revenues from the secure AES-128 bandwidth required for advanced metering infrastructure. However, the largest 1 Gbit/s deployment in the United States, in Chattanooga, Tennessee, despite being conducted by power utility EPB,[25] was FTTH rather than FTTC, reaching every subscriber in a 600-square-mile area. Monthly pricing of US$350 reflected this generally high cost of deployment. However, Chattanooga EPB has reduced the monthly pricing to US$70/month.[26]

Historically, both telephone and cable companies avoided hybrid networks using several different modes of transport from their point of presence into customer premises. The increased competitive cost pressure, availability of three different existing wire solutions, smart grid deployment requirements (as in Chattanooga), and better hybrid networking tools (with major vendors like Alcatel-Lucent and Qualcomm Atheros, and Wi-Fi solutions for edge networks, IEEE 1905 and IEEE 802.21 protocol efforts and SNMP improvements) all make FTTC deployments more likely in areas uneconomic to serve with FTTP/FTTH. In effect FTTC serves as a halfway measure between fixed wireless and FTTH, with special advantages for smart appliances and electric vehicles that rely on PLC use already.

Deployments

[edit]

Operators around the world have been rolling out high-speed Internet access networks since the mid-2000s. Some[who?] used a network topology known as Active Ethernet Point-to-Point to deliver services from its central office directly into subscribers' homes. Fiber termination was handled by a residential gateway provided by Advanced Digital Broadcast inside a subscriber's home to be shared with other consumer electronics (CE) devices.

Since 2007, Italian access providers Fastweb,[27] Vodafone, and Wind participated in an initiative called Fiber for Italy, with the aim of creating a countrywide fiber-to-the-home network in Italy. The pilot taking place in the Italian capital, Rome, has seen symmetrical bandwidth of 100 Mbit/s.[28] Telecom Italia, which refused to take part in the Fiber for Italy initiative, had an even more ambitious plan to bring fiber-to-the-home and fiber-to-the-business to 138 cities by 2018.[29]

By the end of December 2010, the total number of fiber-to-the-home enabled homes had passed 2.5 million, with more than 348,000 subscribers.[29][clarification needed])

In September 2010, the European Commission published a new "Recommendation for Regulated Access to NGA Networks" along with a list of measures to promote the deployment of fast broadband and next-generation access networks.[30]

Portugal Telecom plans to complete its fiber-to-the-home nationwide roll out by 2020. Currently 200 Mbit/s down, 100 Mbit/s up costs €22 per month.[31]

Between September 2017 and March 2019, the number of European FTTH and FTTB subscribers increased by nearly 16%. By 2025, the total number of premises passed by FTTH and FTTB infrastructure is expected to reach 187 million throughout Europe.[32]

Active Line Access is an evolving standard for the provision of services over FTTP networks in the United Kingdom proposed by the regulator Ofcom and developed by the Network Interoperability Consultative Committee.[33]

FTTS, FTTH and FTTB

[edit]

Most FTTH deployments follow one of four primary architecture types: centralized split, distributed split, star architecture, or daisy-chaining. Fiber network developers choose architectures based on a variety of factors, such as the physical geography of the local environment, number of anticipated subscribers, and labor force skill.[34] It is important to distinguish cable and fiber architecture, because while the cable structure can follow one type of architecture, the fibers inside can follow a completely different one.[35]

FTTN and FTTC

[edit]
FTTC during installation in Germany

FTTN/C is seen as an interim step towards full FTTH and in many cases triple-play services delivered using this approach to provide up to around 100 Mbit/s have been proven to grow subscriber numbers and ARPU considerably[36][37][38] FTTN/C is currently used by a number of operators, including AT&T in the United States, Germany's Deutsche Telekom, Greece's OTE, Swisscom, Telecom Italia in Italy, Proximus in Belgium, nbn™ in Australia, and Canadian operators Telus, Cogeco and Bell Canada.

Optical distribution networks

[edit]

Direct fiber

[edit]

The conceptually simplest optical distribution network architecture is direct fiber: that is, each fiber leaving the central office goes to exactly one customer. These networks can support tremendous bandwidth, but are expensive because of both the number of individual fibers and the necessary equipment in the central office.[39]

Direct fiber is generally favored by new entrants and competitive operators. A benefit is that no layer 2 networking technologies are excluded, whether Passive Optical Network (PON), active optical network (AON), or other. Any form of regulatory remedy is possible using this topology.[40]

Shared fiber

[edit]

More commonly, each fiber leaving the central office is actually shared by many customers. It is not until such a fiber gets relatively close to the customers that it is split into individual customer-specific fibers. AONs and PONs both achieve this split.

Active optical network

[edit]
Comparison showing how a typical AON (a star network capable of multicasting) handles downstream traffic differently from a typical PON (a star network having multiple splitters housed in the same cabinet)

AONs rely on electrically powered network equipment to distribute the signal, such as a switch or router. Normally, signals need an optical-electrical-optical transformation in the AON. Each signal leaving the central office is directed only to the customer for whom it is intended.

Incoming signals from the customers avoid colliding at the intersection because the powered equipment there provides buffering. Active Ethernet (a type of Ethernet in the first mile) is a common AON, which uses optical Ethernet switches to distribute the signal, incorporating the customers' premises and the central office into a large switched Ethernet network. Ethernet in the first mile deployments follow a point to point or star network topology and are often based on Fast Ethernet speeds of up to 100 Mbit/s.[41]

Such networks are identical to Ethernet computer networks used in businesses and academic institutions, except that their purpose is to connect homes and buildings to a central office rather than to connect computers and printers within a location. Each switching cabinet can handle up to 1,000 customers, although 400–500 is more typical.

This neighborhood equipment performs layer 2 switching or layer 3 switching and routing, offloading full layer 3 routing to the carrier's central office. The IEEE 802.3ah standard enables service providers to deliver up to 1000 Mbit/s, full-duplex, over one single-mode optical fiber FTTP, depending on the provider.

Passive optical network

[edit]
Main article: Passive Optical Network

A Passive Optical Network (PON) is a point-to-multipoint FTTP network architecture in which unpowered optical splitters are used to enable a single optical fiber to serve up to 128 customers. A PON reduces the fiber and central office equipment required compared with point-to-point architecture. Because of this, and because it needs no powered splitters or other active components from the moment it leaves the ISP's facilities until it reaches the customer, many ISPs prefer this technology.[42]

The downstream signal coming from the central office is broadcast to each customer premises sharing a fiber. Encryption is used to prevent eavesdropping. Upstream signals are combined using a multiple-access protocol, usually time-division multiple access (TDMA).

Ethernet point-to-point

[edit]
Main article: Point-to-Point Protocol over Ethernet

Point-to-Point Protocol over Ethernet (PPPoE) is a common way of delivering triple- and quad-play (voice, video, data, and mobile) services over both fiber and hybrid fiber-coaxial (HFC) networks. Active PPPoE uses dedicated fiber from an operator's central office all the way to the subscribers' homes, while hybrid networks (often FTTN) use it to transport data via fiber to an intermediate point to ensure sufficiently high throughput speeds over last-mile copper connections.

This approach has become increasingly popular in recent years with telecoms service providers in both North America (AT&T, Telus, for example) and Europe's Fastweb, Telecom Italia, Telekom Austria and Deutsche Telekom, for example. Google has also looked into this approach, amongst others, as a way to deliver multiple services over open-access networks in the United States.[43]

Electrical network

[edit]

Once on private property, the signal is typically converted into an electrical format.

The optical network terminal (ONT, an ITU-T term) or unit (ONU, an identical IEEE term) converts the optical signal into an electrical signal using thin film filter technology. These units require electrical power for their operation, so some providers connect them to backup batteries in case of power outages to ensure emergency access to telecommunications. The optical line terminals "range" the optical network terminals or units in order to provide TDMA time slot assignments for upstream communication.

For FTTH and for some forms of FTTB, it is common for the building's existing Ethernet, phone, and cable TV systems to connect directly to the optical network terminal or unit. If all three systems cannot directly reach the unit, it is possible to combine signals and transport them over a common medium such as Ethernet. Once closer to the end user, equipment such as a router or network interface controller can separate the signals and convert them into the appropriate protocol.

For FTTC and FTTN, the combined internet, video and telephone signal travels to the building over existing telephone or cable wiring until it reaches the end-user's living space, where a VDSL or DOCSIS modem converts data and video signals into Ethernet protocol, which is sent over the end-user's category 5 cable.

See also

[edit]

References

[edit]
[edit]
Revisions and contributorsEdit on WikipediaRead on Wikipedia

Fiber to the x

View on Grokipedia
from Grokipedia
Fiber to the x (FTTx), also spelled fibre to the x, is a generic term encompassing various broadband network architectures that employ optical fiber to deliver high-speed internet, voice, video, and other services directly to end-users or intermediate points, partially or fully replacing legacy copper wiring in the local access loop. This technology leverages the superior bandwidth capacity and low attenuation of optical fibers to support gigabit-level speeds and beyond, enabling applications like streaming, remote work, and smart city infrastructure. The specific configurations of FTTx are defined by the endpoint of the fiber deployment, denoted by "x." Common variants include fiber to the home (FTTH), which extends fiber directly to individual residences for maximum performance; fiber to the building (FTTB), terminating at multi-dwelling units or commercial structures with internal copper distribution; fiber to the curb (FTTC), reaching street-level cabinets followed by short copper or coaxial links; and fiber to the node (FTTN), where fiber connects to a neighborhood node about 1 km from users, using existing copper for the final stretch. Less common types include fiber to the desk (FTTD) for enterprise environments. These architectures balance cost, scalability, and performance based on deployment scenarios, with FTTH offering the highest speeds (up to 10 Gbps symmetrical in advanced systems) but requiring greater investment. At the core of FTTx networks are two primary architectures: point-to-point (P2P), which dedicates a fiber strand to each user for dedicated bandwidth, and passive optical networks (PON), a point-to-multipoint setup using passive optical splitters to share a single fiber among multiple subscribers, reducing infrastructure costs. PON systems, such as Gigabit PON (GPON) providing 2.488 Gbps downstream and 1.244 Gbps upstream, or next-generation XGS-PON at 10 Gbps symmetrical, rely on technologies like wavelength-division multiplexing (WDM) and time-division multiplexing (TDM) for efficient signal distribution over distances up to 20 km; emerging standards like 25G-PON and 50G-PON aim to deliver even higher speeds for future demands. Key components include the optical line terminal (OLT) at the service provider's central office, optical network terminals (ONTs) at the user end, and bend-insensitive single-mode fibers (e.g., ITU-T G.657) designed for flexible installations with minimal signal loss. FTTx deployments offer significant advantages over copper-based systems, including vastly higher data rates (from 100 Mbps to multi-gigabit), lower latency, greater reliability against electromagnetic interference, and long-term scalability for emerging demands like 5G backhaul and IoT. Economically, widespread adoption correlates with GDP growth, with studies estimating a 1.1% per capita increase from gigabit access. Globally, FTTH—a key subset of FTTx—covered approximately 44% of households as of 2023, with rapid expansion driven by streaming video (over 80% of internet traffic as of 2024) and public-private partnerships to bridge digital divides. Challenges include high upfront costs, regulatory barriers, and varying take-up rates, but ongoing innovations in active Ethernet and next-gen PON continue to make FTTx the backbone of modern telecommunications.

Fundamentals

Definitions and Terminology

Fiber to the x (FTTx) is a generic term encompassing various broadband network architectures that utilize optical fiber to extend closer to end-users, thereby reducing or eliminating reliance on traditional copper wiring in the access network. This approach enhances data transmission capabilities by leveraging the high bandwidth and low attenuation properties of fiber optics for at least part of the connection from the service provider's central office to the subscriber. Key acronyms within FTTx delineate the point at which the optical fiber terminates relative to the end-user. FTTH (Fiber to the Home) refers to an architecture where the fiber optic path terminates inside or immediately adjacent to an individual residential premises, crossing the boundary and connecting no more than 2 meters from an external wall. FTTB (Fiber to the Building) extends fiber to multi-tenant structures such as apartment buildings or offices, terminating inside the building, on an external wall, or within 2 meters thereof, to serve multiple subscribers within. FTTP (Fiber to the Premises) is a broader category that includes both FTTH and FTTB, denoting fiber delivery directly to any subscriber location, whether residential or commercial. Further variants involve hybrid setups where fiber reaches an intermediate point before switching to copper for the final segment. FTTN (Fiber to the Node) deploys fiber to a neighborhood node or cabinet, from which existing copper lines distribute service to multiple homes, typically over distances up to several thousand meters. FTTC (Fiber to the Curb or Cabinet) brings fiber to a pedestal or street cabinet near groups of homes, using short copper runs (often under 300 meters) to complete the connection. FTTS (Fiber to the Street) positions the fiber termination midway between a curb cabinet and the premises, generally within 200 meters of the subscriber, serving as an intermediate hybrid option. Fiber internet, often referring to full fiber-optic connections like FTTH, is 100% fiber optic, providing symmetrical speeds where upload matches download, ideal for uploads, gaming, and multi-device use, up to 1–2 Gbps both ways. The terminology originated in the 1990s amid early fiber deployments by major telecommunications providers, including AT&T in the United States and NTT in Japan, as demand for higher-speed broadband grew beyond copper limitations. These terms distinguish last-mile extensions—where fiber replaces copper partially or fully in the "last mile" from central office to user—from purely hybrid copper-dominant networks or full end-to-end all-fiber systems, with FTTx encompassing both pure optical paths (e.g., FTTP) and mixed configurations (e.g., FTTN). A basic conceptual diagram of the fiber path in FTTx illustrates the progression from the central office to the user:

Central Office (CO with OLT) | Feeder Fiber Cable | Distribution Node/Splitter (e.g., for FTTN/FTTC) | Distribution Fiber (or Copper for Hybrids) | Optical Network Terminal (ONT) at Premises | End-User Device

Central Office (CO with OLT) | Feeder Fiber Cable | Distribution Node/Splitter (e.g., for FTTN/FTTC) | Distribution Fiber (or Copper for Hybrids) | Optical Network Terminal (ONT) at Premises | End-User Device

This pathway varies by variant: in FTTP/FTTH, fiber persists to the ONT; in hybrids like FTTN, copper replaces fiber post-node.

Advantages and Limitations

Fiber to the x (FTTx) networks provide significant technical advantages over traditional copper-based systems, primarily due to their use of light signals for data transmission. These networks support high bandwidth capacities, with modern standards like XGS-PON enabling symmetrical speeds of up to 10 Gbps for both upload and download, far exceeding the capabilities of DSL or coaxial cable. Additionally, FTTx offers low latency, typically under 1 ms for local connections, as light propagation in fiber results in minimal delay—approximately 5 microseconds per kilometer—making it ideal for real-time applications such as video conferencing and gaming. Fiber's immunity to electromagnetic interference (EMI) ensures reliable performance in environments with high electrical noise, such as industrial areas or near power lines, unlike copper cables which can suffer signal degradation from external fields. Furthermore, signal attenuation in single-mode fiber is exceptionally low at about 0.2 dB/km at 1550 nm, allowing longer transmission distances without repeaters compared to copper's higher losses, which can exceed 20 dB/km depending on frequency and distance. From an economic perspective, FTTx deployments offer long-term scalability and reduced maintenance costs, as fiber optic cables have a lifespan of 40 years or more under normal conditions, compared to 15-20 years for copper telecom cables, minimizing replacement frequency. This durability future-proofs networks for emerging demands like 5G backhaul and IoT, with lower ongoing operational expenses due to fiber's energy efficiency compared to copper. Despite these benefits, FTTx faces notable limitations, particularly in initial deployment. Upfront costs range from $700 to $1,500 per home passed in urban areas and $3,000 to $6,000 in rural settings, driven by trenching and excavation expenses that can account for 50-70% of the total budget. These costs are exacerbated in rural or obstructed terrains, where digging or aerial installation requires specialized equipment and can increase expenses by 2-3 times compared to urban deployments. Moreover, FTTx demands skilled labor for splicing and installation, contributing to higher short-term labor costs and potential delays, and may represent overprovisioning for users with low-bandwidth needs like basic browsing. Environmentally, while FTTx networks have a lower carbon footprint during operation—reducing emissions by 93-96% compared to cable broadband due to efficient data transmission—manufacturing and installation phases generate higher impacts from silica production and material use than copper alternatives. Over the full lifecycle, however, fiber's longevity offsets these initial burdens, leading to net environmental gains in sustained deployments.

Deployment Types

Fiber to the Premises (FTTP)

Fiber to the Premises (FTTP) refers to a telecommunications architecture that delivers optical fiber directly to the demarcation point at the customer's premises, enabling high-speed broadband access. This includes Fiber to the Home (FTTH), where fiber extends to individual single-family residences, and Fiber to the Building (FTTB), which serves multi-dwelling units by terminating fiber at the building with subsequent in-building distribution via copper or additional fiber to individual units. FTTP supports both dedicated and shared fiber connections, providing symmetrical or asymmetrical data rates depending on the configuration.

Fiber to the Home (FTTH)

Fiber to the Home (FTTH) is a configuration of FTTP where optical fiber is extended directly to individual single-family residences, enabling high-speed broadband access with dedicated or shared connections. It is commonly deployed in residential areas to support gigabit-level symmetrical speeds for applications such as streaming, gaming, and IoT integration. In optimal conditions with good wired devices, typical effective speeds for FTTH are very close to nominal rates, such as 900-950 Mbps on a 1 Gbps plan or 2-2.3 Gbps on a 2.5 Gbps plan.

Fiber to the Building (FTTB)

Fiber to the Building (FTTB) is a variant of FTTP that serves multi-dwelling units by terminating the optical fiber at the building, with subsequent distribution to individual units via copper wiring or additional fiber. This approach is suitable for urban apartment complexes, balancing full-fiber benefits with cost-effective in-building wiring reuse. Key components of an FTTP network include the Optical Line Terminal (OLT), located at the service provider's central office, which aggregates traffic and converts electrical signals to optical for transmission; the Optical Network Terminal (ONT), installed at the customer premises to perform the reverse conversion and interface with end-user devices; and single-mode fiber (SMF) cabling, typically using connectors such as SC/APC for low-loss, angled-polish connections to minimize reflections. The OLT manages bandwidth allocation and network control, while the ONT handles signal termination and may integrate features like voice, video, and data ports. In deployment, FTTP can utilize point-to-point (P2P) topology for dedicated 1:1 fiber connections between the OLT and each ONT, offering maximum bandwidth isolation, or passive optical network (PON) architecture for shared medium via optical splitters with ratios such as 1:32 or 1:64, optimizing infrastructure costs in denser areas. Typical reach extends up to 20 km without optical amplification, supported by the low attenuation of SMF. These configurations allow for scalable rollout, with PON being prevalent for residential FTTP due to efficient fiber sharing. FTTP finds primary applications in residential broadband, delivering gigabit-level speeds for streaming, gaming, and multiple-device connectivity; enterprise networks, supporting high-bandwidth demands for cloud services and data centers; and smart home ecosystems, enabling low-latency integration of IoT devices, security systems, and automation. These uses leverage FTTP's capacity for reliable, high-throughput connections exceeding 1 Gbps. Relevant standards include ITU-T G.652, which defines characteristics for standard single-mode optical fiber used in FTTP, specifying low attenuation (≤0.3 dB/km at 1550 nm) and operation at 1310 nm and 1550 nm wavelengths for access networks. For PON-based FTTP, the Gigabit PON (GPON) standard under ITU-T G.984 series provides 2.488 Gbps downstream and 1.244 Gbps upstream rates in a point-to-multipoint setup.

Fiber to the Curb, Cabinet, or Node (FTTC/FTTN/FTTS)

Fiber to the curb (FTTC), fiber to the node (FTTN), and fiber to the street (FTTS) represent hybrid fiber-copper architectures in FTTx deployments, where optical fiber extends from the central office to an intermediate point in the local loop, with the final connection to the customer premises relying on existing copper or coaxial wiring. These variants balance the high capacity of fiber with the cost savings of reusing legacy infrastructure, making them suitable for incremental broadband upgrades.

Fiber to the Curb (FTTC)

Fiber to the Curb (FTTC) typically delivers fiber to a pedestal or curb-side enclosure within 300 meters of homes, using very-high-bitrate digital subscriber line 2 (VDSL2) over twisted-pair copper for the last leg. This configuration is ideal for dense residential areas where short copper distances minimize signal degradation.

Fiber to the Node (FTTN)

Fiber to the Node (FTTN) extends fiber to a street cabinet or node, often 500 meters to 1 kilometer away, employing technologies like VDSL2 or G.fast to reach end users. It is commonly used in suburban deployments to leverage existing copper infrastructure over moderate distances.

Fiber to the Street (FTTS)

Fiber to the Street (FTTS) serves as an intermediate configuration, routing fiber to street-level vaults or distribution points that bridge the shorter distances of FTTC and the longer spans of FTTN, adapting to varying urban layouts. It offers flexibility in environments with mixed infrastructure needs. Key components in these systems include node equipment that performs optical-to-electrical (O/E) signal conversion to interface with copper extensions. For FTTN, a digital subscriber line access multiplexer (DSLAM) at the node aggregates traffic from multiple copper lines, converting incoming optical signals into electrical ones compatible with VDSL2 or G.fast modems at customer premises. Similar conversion units, such as multi-service access nodes (MSANs), handle FTTC and FTTS setups, often incorporating twisted-pair or coaxial interfaces to minimize new cabling needs. These nodes typically house power supplies, cooling systems, and surge protection to ensure reliable operation in outdoor environments. Performance in FTTC/FTTN/FTTS varies by the copper distance and technology employed, with speeds degrading due to signal attenuation in twisted-pair or coaxial media. FTTC achieves downstream speeds up to 100 Mbps via VDSL2 (ITU-T G.993.2), but typical effective speeds are more variable (often 100-150 Mbps real-world) depending on copper quality and distance, with rates dropping significantly beyond 300 meters owing to frequency-dependent losses. FTTN typically reaches up to 100-250 Mbps with VDSL2 and vectoring (ITU-T G.993.5), which cancels crosstalk interference; for higher speeds up to 1 Gbps over very short loops under 100 meters, G.fast is used in closer configurations such as FTTC or fiber-to-the-distribution-point (FTTdp), though practical speeds at 500-1 km distances range from 20-100 Mbps depending on exact loop length, line quality, and technology profile. FTTS performance aligns closely with FTTC, offering 50-200 Mbps depending on vault proximity, but remains limited by the same copper constraints. These hybrid approaches are particularly valuable for cost-effective broadband enhancements in dense urban areas or brownfield sites, where excavating for full-fiber runs to every premises is disruptive and expensive. In such environments, FTTC/FTTN/FTTS leverages existing copper ducts and wiring, enabling rapid upgrades for high-density housing without major infrastructure overhauls, supporting applications like streaming and remote work in legacy urban grids. They enable rapid upgrades for high-density housing without major infrastructure overhauls, supporting applications like streaming and remote work in legacy urban grids. The evolution of these technologies traces back to the early 2000s transition from asymmetric digital subscriber line (ADSL) over long copper loops, which capped speeds at 8-24 Mbps due to severe attenuation. The introduction of VDSL2 in 2006 (ITU-T G.993.2) marked a pivotal shift, enabling FTTC and FTTN by pushing higher frequencies (up to 30 MHz) closer to users for 100 Mbps capabilities on shorter loops. Subsequent advancements, including G.fast in 2014 and vectoring standards, further extended FTTN viability into the 2010s, facilitating widespread hybrid rollouts as demand for broadband surged. FTTS emerged as a flexible variant in varied terrains, refining the balance between fiber reach and copper reuse during this period.

Global Deployments

Early and Regional Implementations

The development of fiber-to-the-x (FTTx) technologies traces its origins to pioneering research in the 1970s and 1980s, primarily led by Bell Laboratories, which achieved breakthroughs in low-loss optical fiber capable of transmitting signals over long distances with minimal attenuation. In the mid-1970s, Bell Labs researchers, including Suzanne R. Nagel, developed high-purity silica-based fibers that reduced signal loss to below 20 dB/km, enabling practical telecommunications applications. By the early 1980s, the lab had demonstrated the first commercial fiber-optic systems, including undersea cable tests in 1983, laying the groundwork for widespread adoption. These advancements shifted focus from experimental prototypes to scalable deployment, though initial commercialization remained limited to backbone networks. The 1990s marked the transition to early commercial trials of access networks, with Japan's Nippon Telegraph and Telephone (NTT) launching the world's first fiber-to-the-home (FTTH) service in 1997, offering speeds up to 1 Gbps in select areas using passive optical networks. This initiative targeted urban households, leveraging existing telephone poles for cost-effective installation via optical passive double-star topologies. In the United States, Verizon initiated its FiOS (Fiber Optic Service) deployment in 2005, passing approximately 3 million homes by year's end across nearly 800 communities in over half its service territory. Europe saw British Telecom (BT) announce its fiber-to-the-node (FTTN) rollout in 2008, committing £1.5 billion to extend superfast broadband to 10 million homes within four years, focusing on cabinet upgrades to support up to 40 Mbps speeds. In Asia, China Telecom accelerated its FTTH expansion post-2010, beginning nationwide large-scale deployment in August of that year with plans for 1 million connections initially, driven by the "fiber-in, copper-out" strategy to upgrade wireline broadband. Early FTTx implementations faced significant challenges, including regulatory barriers and economic disruptions. In the U.S., the Telecommunications Act of 1996 aimed to foster competition by deregulating local phone markets, but it inadvertently encouraged overbuilding of fiber infrastructure amid uncertain demand, complicating access deployments. The dot-com crash of 2000 exacerbated these issues, leaving vast excess fiber capacity—estimated at only 5% utilization by 2001—and triggering telecom bankruptcies that stalled investment in last-mile networks for several years. Regional factors uniquely influenced early adoption. In Japan, the country's earthquake-prone terrain and dense urban layout favored fiber's durability and high-capacity reliability over copper alternatives, supporting NTT's aggressive FTTH push despite seismic risks to infrastructure. Europe's adoption gained momentum through the EU's Digital Agenda for Europe, launched in 2010, which set ambitious FTTH coverage targets of 100 Mbps for all households by 2013 to bridge digital divides and stimulate economic growth.

Current Adoption and Case Studies

As of April 2025, fiber-to-the-home (FTTH) and fiber-to-the-premises (FTTP) networks have passed approximately 88.1 million homes in the United States, achieving coverage for 56.5% of households, with major providers like AT&T and Verizon leading expansions through ongoing deployments. In Europe, as of September 2024, FTTH/FTTB coverage has reached 74.6% across the EU39 region, passing 269 million homes, while Spain stands out with 95.2% national FTTH coverage as of late 2024. Globally, adoption continues to accelerate, particularly in Asia-Pacific, where countries like South Korea (96.6% FTTH penetration) and China (93.6% penetration) report rates exceeding 90% as of September 2024. Key case studies illustrate the diverse applications of FTTx deployments. In Australia, the National Broadband Network (NBN) employs a mixed architecture of fiber-to-the-node (FTTN) and FTTP, covering over 8 million premises with plans to upgrade the remaining 622,000 FTTN sites to FTTP by the end of the decade, supported by a $3.8 billion government investment announced in early 2025. India's BharatNet initiative focuses on rural FTTH connectivity, achieving service-ready status for approximately 215,000 gram panchayats (village councils) as of mid-2025, connecting over 214,000 villages to bridge digital divides in underserved areas. South Korea exemplifies advanced adoption, with 96.6% FTTH penetration enabling widespread 10 Gbps services nationwide, sustaining its position as a global leader in high-speed broadband. Recent drivers have propelled FTTx growth from 2020 to 2025, including the COVID-19 pandemic's surge in remote work and digital demands, which boosted global fiber subscriptions by accelerating deployments during 2020-2022. Integration with 5G networks has further incentivized FTTx for backhaul support, enhancing low-latency applications. Government subsidies, such as the U.S. Broadband Equity, Access, and Deployment (BEAD) program allocating $42.5 billion in 2023, have funded expansions targeting unserved areas. Deployment metrics reflect improving economics, with average costs per home passed dropping to around $800 in 2025—down from approximately $1,500 in 2010—due to advances in materials, labor efficiency, and aerial installation techniques that range from $5 to $14 per foot. However, coverage gaps persist in rural regions of Africa and Latin America, where Sub-Saharan Africa sees millions offline despite network growth, and Latin American residential fixed broadband penetration is approximately 56% (with FTTH accounting for about 67% of subscriptions in major countries) as of end-2025 projections, limited by high device costs and infrastructure challenges.

Network Architectures

Passive Optical Networks (PON)

Passive Optical Networks (PON) represent a point-to-multipoint fiber-optic architecture that leverages unpowered optical splitters to distribute signals from a single Optical Line Terminal (OLT) located at the service provider's central office to multiple Optical Network Terminals (ONTs) or Optical Network Units (ONUs) at customer premises. This design enables efficient 1:N sharing of the feeder fiber, with common split ratios of 1:32 or up to 1:64, allowing one fiber strand to serve dozens of subscribers while minimizing material and deployment costs compared to dedicated point-to-point links. The passive components in the optical distribution network (ODN) eliminate the need for powered equipment in the field, reducing failure points, energy consumption, and long-term maintenance requirements in the access segment. Standardized variants of PON have evolved to support increasing bandwidth needs. Gigabit PON (GPON), defined in ITU-T Recommendation G.984, delivers asymmetric rates of 2.488 Gbps downstream and 1.244 Gbps upstream, making it suitable for early broadband access applications. The 10-Gigabit PON (XG-PON), outlined in ITU-T G.987, advances this with asymmetric capabilities of 9.953 Gbps downstream and 2.488 Gbps upstream, designed for coexistence with GPON on the same ODN to facilitate upgrades. Further, the 10-Gigabit symmetric PON (XGS-PON), specified in ITU-T G.9807.1 and entering commercial deployments around 2018, provides balanced 10 Gbps rates in both directions, addressing symmetric traffic demands from cloud services and high-definition video. In parallel, wavelength-division multiplexing (WDM)-based PONs like NG-PON2 (ITU-T G.989), also known as TWDM-PON, enable up to 40 Gbps aggregate throughput using multiple 10 Gbps wavelengths, supporting load balancing and service differentiation, with limited but growing deployments as of 2025. Subsequent developments include 50G-PON, standardized in ITU-T G.9804 series, offering symmetric 50 Gbps rates using advanced TDM and entering early commercial deployments as of 2025, particularly for high-capacity backhaul and urban FTTH. Operationally, PON relies on time-division multiplexing (TDM) for downstream traffic, where the OLT broadcasts a continuous stream of frames to all ONTs, each of which selects only the packets destined for it using unique identifiers. Upstream communication uses time-division multiple access (TDMA), with the OLT dynamically allocating time slots to prevent overlaps as ONTs transmit burst-mode signals back to the OLT. Wavelength separation ensures bidirectional flow without interference: GPON and compatible variants typically use 1490 nm for downstream and 1310 nm for upstream transmission over single-mode fiber. Central to PON functionality are passive components like 1xN splitters, commonly based on planar lightwave circuit (PLC) technology, which divide the input signal evenly while introducing an excess insertion loss of up to 3.5 dB in a 1:32 configuration beyond the theoretical splitting loss of 15 dB. These splitters, combined with fusion splices and connectors, form the entirety of the ODN without any active electronics, contributing to the architecture's robustness against power outages and environmental factors in the outside plant. PON's cost efficiency stems from its shared-medium design, which reduces fiber cabling needs by up to 70% compared to point-to-point alternatives, making it the preferred choice for large-scale Fiber to the Home (FTTH) and Fiber to the Building (FTTB) rollouts. In FTTH and FTTB applications, PON supports triple-play services (voice, video, data) over distances up to 20 km, with power budget considerations ensuring signal viability. For GPON, the standard optical power budget is 28 dB, derived from the difference between the OLT's transmitter output (typically +5 dBm downstream) and the ONT's receiver sensitivity (around -28 dBm), accounting for splitter insertion loss, fiber attenuation (0.35 dB/km at 1490 nm), and margins for splices and connectors. This budget allows reliable operation for 1:32 splits over 10-15 km, balancing reach and subscriber density. PON underpins most FTTP deployments by offering scalable, low-operational-cost bandwidth to residential and business end-users.

Active Optical Networks (AON) and Point-to-Point

Active Optical Networks (AON) employ electrically powered equipment, such as switches and routers, at intermediate points within the fiber infrastructure to manage signal distribution and enable dynamic bandwidth allocation. These networks support Layer 2 and Layer 3 services, including Ethernet switching, allowing for flexible routing and traffic management in fiber-to-the-x (FTTx) deployments. Unlike passive systems, AON relies on active nodes to amplify and switch optical signals, facilitating higher service granularity for applications like video streaming and voice over IP. In AON architectures, point-to-point (P2P) configurations provide a dedicated fiber strand from the central office to each end user or premises, establishing a 1:1 connection ratio. This "home run" approach, also known as active star topology, uses Ethernet over fiber to deliver symmetric bandwidth, with potential speeds reaching up to 100 Gbps per link depending on transceiver capabilities. P2P is particularly prevalent in fiber-to-the-building (FTTB) setups for enterprise environments, where individual tenants require isolated, high-performance connections. Key components in AON and P2P systems include active nodes equipped with optical transceivers, such as Small Form-factor Pluggable (SFP) modules, which convert electrical signals to optical ones for transmission over fiber. Wavelength division multiplexing (WDM) is often integrated at these nodes to overlay multiple services, such as data, voice, and video, on separate wavelengths within the same fiber pair. Ethernet switches or routers at distribution points handle Layer 2 switching, ensuring low-latency packet forwarding. Operationally, AON with P2P uses switched Ethernet protocols to route traffic directly between users and the core network, providing superior quality of service (QoS) for latency-sensitive applications compared to shared-medium alternatives. This active switching incurs higher power consumption due to the need for powered equipment at nodes, but it enables precise bandwidth provisioning and easier scalability through modular upgrades. Relevant standards for AON and P2P include IEEE 802.3ah, known as Ethernet in the First Mile, which defines point-to-point Ethernet transmission over fiber for access networks at speeds up to 1 Gbps. For higher rates, extensions like Active Ethernet leverage IEEE 802.3 clauses for metro access, supporting 10 Gbps and beyond in switched topologies. These differ from passive standards by emphasizing active management, which typically results in higher operational expenses but greater flexibility. AON and P2P architectures are commonly deployed in high-density urban areas for FTTN upgrades, where active nodes can aggregate traffic from multiple nodes while maintaining dedicated links to key sites. They are also favored for dedicated business lines, offering reliable, high-capacity connectivity for enterprises requiring guaranteed performance without shared contention. In such scenarios, the dedicated nature supports cost trade-offs favoring opex over capex in environments prioritizing service differentiation.

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  85. https://www.lightwaveonline.com/fttx/article/16674787/the-fttp-battlefield-active-ethernet-vs-pon
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  89. https://www.commscope.com/blog/2019/distributed-fiber-networks-comparing-point-to-point-fiber-cabling-and-pon-for-commercial-buildings/
  90. https://www.optcore.net/10-gigabit-ethernet-10gbe-standards/
  91. https://www.alliedtelesis.com/sites/default/files/documents/solutions-guides/allied_telesis_fttx_guide.pdf
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