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Salem Choheili reading the Left Ginza in Ahvaz, Iran
The Ginza Rabba (Mubaraki version) on the pulpit of a mandi

The Ginza Rabba (Classical Mandaic: ࡂࡉࡍࡆࡀ ࡓࡁࡀ, romanized: Ginzā Rbā, lit. 'Great Treasury', Modern Mandaic pronunciation: [ˈgɪnza ˈrɑbbɑ]), Ginza Rba, or Sidra Rabba (Classical Mandaic: ࡎࡉࡃࡓࡀ ࡓࡁࡀ, romanized: Sidrā Rbā, lit. 'Great Book'), and formerly the Codex Nasaraeus,[1] is the longest and the most important holy scripture of Mandaeism.

The Ginza Rabba is composed of two parts: the Right Ginza (GR) and the Left Ginza (GL). The Right Ginza is composed of eighteen tractates and covers a variety of themes and topics, whereas the three tractates that make up the Left Ginza are unified in their focus on the fate of the soul after death. The Left Ginza is also occasionally referred to as the Book of Adam.[1]

Language and authorship

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The language used is Classical Mandaic, a variant of Eastern Aramaic written in the Mandaic script (Parthian chancellory script), similar to the Syriac script. The authorship is unknown, and dating is a matter of debate, with estimates ranging from the first to third centuries.[2][3] Determining date and authorship is complicated by the late date of the earliest manuscripts, the potentially lengthy oral transmission of Mandaean religious texts prior to their being written, and that conclusions about the dating of some tractates or either GR (Right Ginza) or GL (Left Ginza) may not carry over for material elsewhere in the Ginza.[4]: 20 

Dating

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The date of Mandaean texts remains heavily contested.[5]: 14  Even within the scope of the Ginza Rabba, the GL and GR are separate compositions with separate dates, making the Ginza Rabba a composite text of diverse origins. Furthermore, the individual tractates within these collections appear to have separate origins by virtue of their distinct genre, grammar, and according to their colophon evidence.[5]: 13  The GL has its own colophon, as do the first thirteen tractates of the GR. Each from the fourteenth through eighteenth subsequent tractates have their own colophons.[5]: 36  The current form and final compilation of the Ginza as a whole must come from Islamic times as it contains numerous references to the Arabs and the Islamic conquest.[6]

Left Ginza

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In 1949, Torgny Säve-Söderbergh argued that the third-century Coptic Manichaean Psalms of Thomas depended on the Left Ginza,[7] A 2017 study by Kevin van Bladel instead suggests that both sources derived their shared material from a common source, perhaps Elcesaite funerary hymns.[8]: 76–78 

In 1965, Rudolf Macúch argued for a third-century date on the basis of a colophon note saying that Zazai of Gawazta copied important Mandaean texts 368 years prior to the Arab conquest of Iraq c. 640, resulting in the date of 272.[9]: 4 [10]: 89  However, this note, extant from one manuscript, only refers to an unspecified year of the hijri calendar and not the point in time before 640. This means that 272 is the earliest possible date if the very first hijri year is being referenced, though later dates are not excluded. The number 368 itself may be invented.[8]: 8–14 

Right Ginza

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Book of Kings (GR 18)

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GR 18, also known as the Book of Kings, says that "after the Persian kings there will be Arabian kings. They will reign seventy-one years."[7] Starting with Theodor Nöldeke, historians have widely interpreted this as a reference to the Islamic-era Arab rulers, and so have dated GR 18 to the Islamic era.[5]: 24–27  Recently, Häberl has argued from the colophons and external references that GR 18s dates to the rule of Lakhmid Arab kings in the pre-Islamic period. The latter is argued to place GR 18, separately from the rest of the Ginza Rabba, in the hands of a copyist at one point named Ennoš b. Danqā, who appears to have worked in the mid-7th century, implying the text is no later than ~650. The Arab kings reigning for 71 years are identified to be the Lakhmid kings starting with Al-Mundhir III ibn al-Nu'man, installed into power in 531 by Khosrow I (r. 531–579), to Khosrow II who deposed Al-Nu'man III ibn al-Mundhir in 602. To supplement this observation, Häberl points to the absence of Arabic language on or explicit references to Islam in GR 18 unlike later Mandaean texts. The final Sassanid ruler mentioned by the text is interpreted to be Kavad II, who ruled until 628, roughly giving the date soon after which the text entered its current form. Häberl offers the following chronology for the events mentioned in GR 18, alongside the earlier chronology implied by Nöldeke's work.[5]: 2, 36–60 

Event Internal chronology Nöldeke Häberl
Destruction of Jerusalem AP 1 214 BC 321/322 BC
Yazdiger, son of King Bahrān AP 594 ~380 AD 271/272 AD
Arab uprisings AP 792 ~578 AD 469/470 AD
King of the Arabs dies AP 793 ~579 470/471
Arabs become lords AP 795 ~581 472/473
False Messiah triumphs >AP 803 >589 >480/481
Beginning of Arab rule >AP 850 >636 >527/528
End of Arab rule >AP 921 >707 >598/599
End of the world AP 1001 ~786 678/679

Other tractates

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Book 7 of the Right Ginza uses the name Yahyā for John, which is the form of the name John that appears in the Quran.[8]: 55–56  However, Häberl has argued that the use of this name is known in pre-Islamic Arabic text, and so its presence does not conclusively argue for an Islamic-era dating.[5]: 44 

The Ginza may have been composed, at least partially, as a response to the Arab conquests, along with other pieces of Mandaean literature such as the Mandaean Book of John, and a study of the colophons of the Ginza date the emergence of the text to the second half of the seventh century.[6][11]

Structure

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Further information: Right Ginza and Left Ginza

The Ginza Rabba is divided into two parts – the Right Ginza, containing 18 books, and the Left Ginza, containing 3 books. In Mandaic studies, the Right Ginza is commonly abbreviated as GR, while the Left Ginza is commonly abbreviated as GL.[12] Alternatively, sometimes the Right Ginza is abbreviated as GY or Gy after the Mandaic Ginza Yamina, while the Left Ginza is commonly abbreviated as GS or Gs after the Mandaic Ginza Smala.[13][14]

Ginza Rabba codices traditionally contain the Right Ginza on one side, and, when turned upside-down and back to front, contain the Left Ginza (the Left Ginza is also called "The Book of the Dead"). The Right Ginza part of the Ginza Rabba contains sections dealing with theology, creation, ethics, historical, and mythical narratives; its six colophons reveal that it was last redacted in the early Islamic Era. The Left Ginza section of Ginza Rabba deals with man's soul in the afterlife; its colophon reveals that it was redacted for the last time hundreds of years before the Islamic Era.[12][15]

There are various manuscript versions that differ from each other. The versions order chapters differently from each other, and textual content also differs.

Contents

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The Ginza Rabba is a compilation of various oral teachings and written texts, most predating their editing into the two volumes. It includes literature on a wide variety of topics, including liturgy and hymns, theological texts, didactic texts, as well as both religious and secular poetry.[12]

For a comprehensive listing of summaries of each chapter in the Ginza Rabba, see the articles Right Ginza and Left Ginza.

Manuscript versions

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See also: List of Mandaic manuscripts

Manuscript versions of the Ginza include the following. Two are held in the Bodleian Library at Oxford, three in the British Library in London, four in the Bibliothèque nationale de France in Paris, and others are in private ownership.[10] All extant manuscripts of the Ginza appear to derive from a few copies that were produced around 1500.[16]

  • Bodleian Library manuscripts
  • British Library manuscripts catalogued under the same title, Liber Adami Mendaice
    • Add. 23,599 (copied by female priests during the 1700s)
    • Add. 23,600 (copied by Yahya Bihram bar Adam, of the Manduia and ‛Kuma clans, in 1735–36, who also copied Paris Ms. D)
    • Add. 23,601 (copied by Adam Yuhana bar Sam in 1824)
  • Paris manuscripts, Bibliothèque nationale de France (consulted by Lidzbarski for his 1925 German translation)
    • Paris Ms. A (copied by Ram Baktiar in 1560)
    • Paris Ms. B (copied by Baktiar Bulbul in 1632; also called the "Norberg version," since it was used by Norberg during the early 1800s)
    • Paris Ms. C (copied by Yahya Adam in 1680)
    • Paris Ms. D (copied by Yahya Bihram in the early 1700s)
  • Rbai Rafid Collection (RRC) manuscripts[17]
    • RRC 5J (copied at the Margab quarter of Suq eš-Šuyūḵ in AH 1277 (1860–1861 AD))
    • RRC 5L (copied at the Margab quarter of Suq eš-Šuyūḵ in AH 1256 (1840–1841 AD))

For his 1925 German translation of the Ginza, Lidzbarski also consulted other Ginza manuscripts that were held at Leiden (complete) and Munich (fragmentary).[18]

Jorunn Jacobsen Buckley has also found Ginza manuscripts that are privately held by Mandaeans in the United States. Two are in San Diego, California, which belong to Lamea Abbas Amara; they were originally copied by Mhatam Zihrun (Sheikh Dakhil Aidan) in 1935, and by a copyist named Adam (Sheikh Aidan, father of Dakhil) in 1886, respectively.[19]: 54  One is in Flushing, New York, which belonged to Nasser Sobbi (1924–2018) and was originally copied by Adam Zihrun in 1928. Another one is in Lake Grove, New York, and belongs to Mamoon Aldulaimi, which was originally given to him by Sheikh Abdullah, son of Sheikh Negm and was copied by Yahya Ram Zihrun in 1940.[10] A version of the Ginza by Mhatam Yuhana[20] was also used by Carlos Gelbert in his 2011 English translation of the Ginza. Another manuscript known to Gelbert is a privately owned Ginza manuscript in Ahvaz belonging to Shaikh Abdullah Khaffaji,[18] the grandson of Ram Zihrun.[9]

Printed versions of the Ginza in Mandaic include:

  • Norberg version (Mandaic, in Syriac script): A printed Ginza in Mandaic (printed using the Syriac alphabet) was published by Matthias Norberg in 1816. Based on Code Sabéen 2 (Paris Ms. B). It was republished by Gorgias Press in 2007.[21]
  • Petermann version (Mandaic): In 1867, Julius Heinrich Petermann published Mandaic and Syriac transcriptions of the Ginza Rabba.[22] His work was based on four different Ginza manuscripts held at Paris, and relied most heavily on MS Paris A (also known as Code Sabéen 1). Only 100 copies were printed, 13 of which Petermann kept himself.[12] A three-volume set of Petermann's work was republished by Gorgias Press in 2007.[23][24][25][26]
  • Mubaraki version (Mandaic, in both Mandaic and Roman scripts): The full Ginza Rba in printed Mandaic script, compiled primarily from the Mhatam Zihrun br rbai Adam manuscript from Iraq (copied in 1898 and dated 6 July 1899),[5] was first published by Majid Fandi Al-Mubaraki, Haitham Mahdi Saed (also known as Brikha Nasoraia), and Brian Mubaraki in Sydney, Australia in March 1998 during Parwanaya.[27] Two other Ginza versions were also consulted, including one copied by Ram Zihrun in Šuštar in 1843, and another one by Sam bar Zihrun, from the Manduia and ‛Kuma clans.[10]: 73  A Roman transliteration of the entire Ginza Rba was also published in 1998 by Majid Fandi Al-Mubaraki and Brian Mubaraki.[28][29] At present, there are two published Mandaic-language editions of the Ginza published by Mandaeans themselves. The Concordance of the Mandaean Ginza Rba was published by Brian Mubaraki and Majid Fandi Al-Mubaraki in 2004.[30]
  • Gelbert version (Mandaic, in Arabic script; derived from the Mhatam Yuhana version): The full Mhatam Yuhana Ginza manuscript from Ahvaz, Iran was transcribed in Arabic script by Carlos Gelbert in 2021. As the fourth edition of the Gelbert's Arabic Ginza, Gelbert (2021) contains an Arabic translation side by side with the Mandaic transcription.[31]
  • Al-Sabti version (Mandaic): In 2022, Rbai Rafid al-Sabti published a printed Mandaic version of the Ginza Rabba based on a comparison of 22 manuscripts.[32] The Al-Sabti Ginza contains 157 chapters, 602 pages, 111,684 words, and 560,825 letters.[33]

Translations

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Notable translations and printed versions of the Ginza Rabba include:

  • Norberg version (Latin, 1816): From 1815 to 1816, Matthias Norberg published a Latin translation of the Ginza Rabba, titled Codex Nasaraeus liber Adami appellatus (3 volumes). The original Mandaic text, based on MS Paris B, was also printed in Syriac script alongside the Latin translation.[1] There are also additional Onomasticon (glossary of names) and Lexidion (dictionary) volumes. Norberg's Codex Nasaraeus is known for influencing Helena Blavatsky, the 19th-century founder of the Theosophy movement, by way of Samuel Fales Dunlap's works.[34]
  • Lidzbarski version (German, 1925): In 1925, Mark Lidzbarski published the German translation Ginzā: Der Schatz, oder das grosse Buch der Mandäer.[35] Lidzbarski translated an edition of the Ginza by Julius Heinrich Petermann from the 1860s, which in turn relied upon four different Ginza manuscripts held at Paris. Lidzbarski was also able to include some material from a fifth Ginza which was held at Leiden. In 2022, an unproofed English translation of Lidzbarski (1925) was published online by Ram Al Sabiry.[36]
  • Baghdad version (Arabic, abridged, 2000): An Arabic version of the Ginza Rabba, similar to that of the Al-Saadi (Drabsha) version, was first published in Baghdad in 2000.[37][38] A Persian translation based on the 2000 Arabic Ginza was completed by Salem Choheili in 2021.[39][40][41][42]
  • Al-Saadi (Drabsha) version (English, abridged, 2012): Under the official auspices of the Mandaean spiritual leadership, Drs. Qais Al-Saadi and Hamed Al-Saadi published an English translation of the Ginza Rabba: The Great Treasure in 2012. In 2019, the second edition was published by Drabsha in Germany. The translation, endorsed by the Mandaean rishamas Salah Choheili (Salah Jabbar Tawos) and Sattar Jabbar Hilo, is designed for contemporary use by the Mandaean community and is based on an Arabic translation of the Ginza Rabba that was published in Baghdad.[43][44][45] However, it has been criticized for being overly abridged and paraphrased.[46]
  • Gelbert version (English translation in 2011; Arabic translation in 2000, revised 2021): The first full English translation of the Ginza Rba was published by Carlos Gelbert in 2011, with the collaboration of Mark J. Lofts and other editors.[18] The Mandaic transcription is mostly based on the Mhatam Yuhana Ginza Rba from Iran (transcribed in the late 1990s and published in 2004 under the supervision of Mhatam Yuhana, the ganzibra or head-priest of the Mandaean Council of Ahvaz in Iran). Most of the English translation was based on Mark Lidzbarski's 1925 German translation of the Ginza, along with additional English translations of passages from the Mubaraki and Mhatam Yuhana Ginzas that are not found in Lidzbarski (1925).[47] Gelbert's 2011 edition is currently the only full-length English translation of the Ginza that contains detailed commentary, with extensive footnotes and many original Mandaic phrases transcribed in the text. An Arabic translation of the Ginza was also published by Gelbert in 2000,[48] with the fourth edition published in 2021.[31] The Arabic edition also contains the original Mandaic text transcribed in Arabic script.
  • Häberl (2022): An English translation and analysis of the Book of Kings, the final book of the Right Ginza.[49]

See also

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References

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[edit]
Revisions and contributorsEdit on WikipediaRead on Wikipedia

Ginza Rabba

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The Ginza Rabba, also known as the Great Treasure or Sidra Rabba, is the central canonical scripture of , an ancient Gnostic religion primarily practiced by ethnic in southern and southwestern . Written in Mandaic, an Eastern dialect unique to the faith, it serves as the foundational text encapsulating , theology, ethics, and rituals, emphasizing themes of , the soul's origin and ascent, and opposition to material entrapment. The text is structured in two inverted sections bound together: the (Ginza Yamina), comprising 18 tractates that address theological doctrines, including creation myths, moral instructions, and philosophical discourses on the nature of God () and the spiritual world; and the Left Ginza (Ginza Smala), consisting of liturgical and eschatological content such as hymns, prayers, soul-journey narratives, and accounts of figures like and cosmic adversaries. This dual format reflects , with the Right Ginza oriented toward doctrinal exposition and the Left toward ritual and guidance, often read in sequence by turning the book upside down after the former. The Rabba's content underscores Mandaean dualism—contrasting the luminous divine realm with the dark material world—and promotes practices like (masbuta) as paths to redemption. Historically, Mandaean tradition attributes the Ginza Rabba's revelation to Adam, the first human, with its composition drawing from oral and written sources possibly originating in the 2nd or 3rd century CE amid interactions between Jewish, Christian, and pagan communities in Mesopotamia or Palestine. Scholarly consensus places its final compilation in the early Islamic era (7th–9th centuries CE), though the oldest extant manuscripts date to the 16th century due to persecution and secrecy in transmission. As the ultimate religious authority, the Ginza Rabba not only preserves Mandaean identity against assimilation but also influences daily life, priestly ordination, and community rituals, remaining a living text recited in Mandaic during ceremonies.

Introduction

Definition and Etymology

The Ginza Rabba is the longest and most sacred text in , serving as the central holy scripture of this Gnostic religion and encompassing a vast collection of theological doctrines, cosmological narratives, hymns, prayers, and ethical instructions. It is revered as the primary work, often kept in Mandaean homes to safeguard the in both this world and the . Comprising over 650 pages in traditional manuscripts, it is divided into two main parts: the , focused on doctrines for the living, and the Left Ginza, addressing themes related to the dead. The name "Ginza Rabba" derives from Mandaic Aramaic, where ginza signifies "treasure" or "collection," referring to a storehouse of sacred knowledge, and rabba denotes "great," thus translating literally to "Great Treasure." In early European scholarship, it was commonly known as Sidra Rabba, meaning "Great Book," reflecting its status as the comprehensive of Mandaean teachings. Another historical Latin title, Codex Nasaraeus or "Codex of the Nazarenes," emerged from 19th-century studies associating it with the Mandaeans' self-designation as nasoraeans. In some non-Mandaean traditions and early interpretations, the text has been referred to as the "Book of Adam," stemming from its inclusion of creation myths involving and , though this is not an indigenous Mandaean appellation.

Role in Mandaeism

The Ginza Rabba holds a central position as the primary holy scripture of , revered as the most authoritative text that every Mandaean household is expected to possess for daily reading, study, and ritual application. It is considered the first divine revelation granted to , encapsulating the core principles of the faith and serving as an essential tool for spiritual guidance among both and . Mandaean tradition emphasizes that owning and engaging with the Ginza Rabba ensures the preservation of one's name in this world and safeguards the soul in the , likening it to a protective sheltering from harm. In Mandaean theology, the Ginza Rabba profoundly shapes doctrines on salvation, the ritual of known as masbuta, and a distinct opposition to other religious traditions. The text outlines the 's journey toward redemption through repeated baptisms in living waters, which purify the spirit, body, and from and facilitate ascent to the , positioning salvation as the religion's paramount concern. It portrays masbuta not merely as a rite but as a transformative act essential for eternal life, drawing on narratives like the of Ziua in the to illustrate divine intervention in human redemption. Furthermore, the Ginza Rabba articulates Mandaeism's polemical stance against and , depicting Jewish practices such as observance and synagogue rituals as outdated or embryonic stages superseded by Mandaean , thereby reinforcing the faith's unique identity through conversion motifs like that of Miriai. Culturally, the Ginza Rabba preserves ancient Mandaean oral traditions in written form, transitioning them into a codified guide that sustains the community's amid historical and . Priests, known as tarmida, rely on it for copying manuscripts as a meritorious act and for conducting rituals, while laypeople use its ethical teachings and prayers to navigate moral duties and cosmogonic understandings. This dual accessibility—found in both priestly and household settings—ensures the text's role in fostering communal cohesion and transmitting knowledge of saviors, messengers, and the soul's ethical path across generations.

Textual Characteristics

Language

The Ginza Rabba is composed in Classical Mandaic, a dialect of Eastern that serves as the liturgical language unique to the Mandaean community. This dialect, also known as Southeastern Aramaic, exhibits phonological and morphological traits such as the loss of final short unstressed vowels in second-person pronouns, distinguishing it from other Eastern Aramaic varieties like Syriac. Classical Mandaic preserves ancient Aramaic features while developing specialized terminology for and rituals, maintaining its exclusivity to sacred texts and priestly recitations among . The text employs the Mandaic script, a alphabet derived from the script prevalent in the and later adapted through regional variants like Palmyrene and Nabataean. This 24-letter script includes orthographic traits such as the use of four matres lectionis—letters , he, waw, and yudh—derived from consonants to indicate vowels, representing six phonemic vowels without full diacritical vocalization in classical manuscripts. In some later copies, an optional vocalization mark resembling an (Unicode U+085A) distinguishes vowel quality, though the Rabba's primary transmission relies on consonantal skeletal text supplemented by context and tradition. Linguistically, the Ginza Rabba blends poetic hymns with expositions, creating a rhythmic and metaphorical style that conveys through repetition and parallelism. While showing influences from Syriac in syntax and shared roots, as well as Hebrew loanwords in certain terms, it maintains a distinct vocabulary for core religious ideas, such as "manda" denoting salvific or central to Mandaean . This lexical independence underscores the text's role in preserving Mandaean identity amid surrounding Semitic linguistic traditions.

Authorship

The Ginza Rabba exhibits anonymous authorship, a hallmark of Mandaean sacred texts, where no specific individuals are named as creators or compilers. This aligns with the communal and esoteric nature of Mandaean literature, emphasizing collective spiritual transmission over personal attribution. The text's composition draws from oral traditions and pre-existing written materials gathered by Mandaean across generations, forming a repository of doctrinal and cosmological teachings. Its composite structure reveals layers of contributions from multiple authors or redactors, as seen in the stylistic diversity and occasional inconsistencies between sections, such as varying portrayals of cosmological figures. In Mandaean lore, certain portions, including tractate 7 of the , are legendarily ascribed to the John the Baptist, underscoring the text's role in venerating key prophetic figures. Scholarly analysis highlights ongoing debates about whether the stems from a unified original source or accreted from disparate works, with evidence favoring multiplicity due to interwoven themes and linguistic variations within its Classical Mandaic framework. The final form owes much to scribal traditions, where priests and copyists preserved, edited, and harmonized content through successive generations, ensuring doctrinal continuity without altering core attributions.

Chronology

Dating of the Left Ginza

The dating of the Left Ginza remains a subject of scholarly debate, with evidence pointing to its origins in the CE. A key colophon at the conclusion of the text (GRL p. 169) records that the Mandaean Zazai d-Gawazta copied the work in 272 CE, calculated as 368 years before the Arab conquest of circa 640 CE. This colophon represents one of the earliest datable references in Mandaean literature, suggesting that the Left Ginza had achieved a relatively stable form by the late Sasanian period. Internal evidence supports an early composition timeline, including references to Jewish and early Christian sects that align with 2nd- to 3rd-century contexts in the . For instance, the text's polemical allusions to Jewish origins—"from the Jews all nations and sects came forth"—reflect influences from heterodox Jewish baptizing groups, while mentions of figures like draw on shared traditions with nascent Christian communities without direct engagement with later doctrinal developments. Although the Left Ginza lacks explicit Islamic allusions unlike parts of the , some subtle post-conquest redactions may indicate minor adjustments around the 7th century to preserve liturgical coherence amid changing political landscapes. Scholars generally view the Left Ginza as a compilation spanning the 2nd to 5th centuries CE, with its core liturgical and cosmological content emerging in the 3rd century before final stabilization post-Islamic conquest. T. Säve-Söderbergh dated it to the 3rd century AD based on linguistic and thematic parallels with Coptic Manichaean Psalms of Thomas. Similarly, Rudolf Macuch placed the classical redaction in the pre-7th century period, while Kurt Rudolph and earlier analyses by Helmut Brandt proposed a gradual assembly between 300 and 600 CE, incorporating older oral traditions into written form. However, Kevin van Bladel (2017) has argued that the Ginza Rabba as a whole, including the Left Ginza, was likely composed in the early Islamic period, casting doubt on earlier datings and suggesting a 5th-century emergence for Mandaeism itself. These views emphasize the text's role as a repository of ancient Gnostic elements, predating more systematic Islamic-era Mandaean writings.

Dating of the Right Ginza

The , comprising eighteen doctrinal tractates, is generally believed to have been composed primarily between the 1st and 3rd centuries CE, reflecting early layers of Mandaean , cosmology, and that parallel other Late Antique Gnostic traditions. These tractates exhibit pre-Islamic conceptual frameworks, such as dualistic cosmogonies and ethical teachings on soul ascent, which scholars date to this period based on linguistic analysis and comparisons with contemporaneous texts from . However, the collection underwent significant redaction and compilation in the early Islamic period, around the 7th century CE, incorporating minor interpolations to adapt to the socio-political context of the time. A notable exception is the eighteenth tractate, known as the Book of Kings (GR 18), which recent scholarship places in the late Sasanian era under Lakhmid rule, specifically between 531 and 602 CE. Charles G. Häberl's 2022 analysis argues for this pre-Islamic dating, drawing on colophons, external historical references to kings and conquests, and the tractate's chronological structure that culminates in events prior to the Muslim invasions. This positions the Book of Kings as a capstone to Mandaean universal history, composed amid the shifting alliances of the Lakhmid dynasty in southern . Debates persist regarding potential anachronisms in the , such as veiled allusions possibly interpreted as references to or early caliphs, which some attribute to later Islamic-era ; however, these are contested, with many scholars emphasizing the predominance of pre-Islamic cosmological and ethical strata that lack direct Islamic influence. Kevin van Bladel (2017) further challenges the early dating, proposing that the , like the rest of the Rabba, was composed in the early Islamic period as part of Mandaeism's 5th-century development. In contrast to the more poetic and unified Left Ginza, the 's doctrinal diversity supports a layered composition, with core materials predating the 4th century CE magic bowls that already attest to Mandaean mythology.

Organization

Structure of the Right Ginza

The is divided into 18 distinct tractates, or books, which form its core organizational framework. These tractates are numbered sequentially from GR 1 to GR 18, providing a structured yet loosely ordered compilation of doctrinal material. In traditional manuscripts, the is oriented right-side up when the codex is opened from the front, beginning with GR 1 on the cosmology of creation and concluding with GR 18, known as the Book of Kings. This binding convention ensures that the 's content flows continuously from the initial pages, emphasizing its role as the primary doctrinal section. The tractates exhibit a thematic progression from cosmological origins to ethical and eschatological themes, though detailed contents are explored elsewhere. Physically, the is frequently bound together with the Left Ginza in a single , yet it remains conceptually distinct as the larger, more systematic portion of the . The tractates vary significantly in length, with no standardized size, ranging from brief expositions to extended discourses that reflect the text's composite nature.

Structure of the Left Ginza

The Left Ginza is organized into three distinct books, each contributing to its overarching focus on eschatological themes and the soul's post-mortem experiences. Unlike the Right Ginza's structured tractates, the Left Ginza's books blend and in a fluid, liturgical format without rigid numerical divisions across the entire corpus, allowing for interpretive flexibility in and use. This arrangement reflects its primary role in Mandaean funerary and baptismal ceremonies, where selections are drawn contextually rather than sequentially. Book 1 consists of four prose sections centered on narratives of and initial journeys, including accounts of Adam's demise, his pleas for mercy, and the mourning of figures like Haua (). These texts serve as foundational prayers and exhortations, emphasizing themes of separation from the body and the 's tentative ascent. Book 2 comprises 28 shorter pieces, often introduced with invocations like "I am a Mana of the Great Life," which explore the 's exile in the material world, its trials, and pathways to redemption through . These segments employ a more style, addressing the directly to guide its spiritual progression. Book 3, the most extensive with 62 poems, features repetitive hymns and praises that form the core of Mandaean masiqta ( ) rituals, depicting the 's by celestial guardians, its purification, and ultimate reunion with the Great Life. The poetic structure here relies on rhythmic repetition—such as recurring phrases like "Blessed and praised be the Life"—to evoke liturgical chanting, reinforcing communal recitation over individual study. A distinctive physical feature of Left Ginza manuscripts is their upside-down binding relative to the within the same , a that requires flipping the volume end-to-end to access the Left side. This inversion facilitates reading in the right-to-left Mandaic script while symbolically underscoring the Left Ginza's orientation toward the otherworldly realm of the dead, contrasting the Right Ginza's earthly doctrines for the living. The lack of uniform numbering, combined with the repetitive and modular structure, enables to adapt excerpts fluidly during ceremonies, prioritizing ritual efficacy over linear narrative.

Thematic Contents

Contents of the Right Ginza

The Right Ginza of the Ginza Rabba comprises eighteen tractates that articulate core Mandaean doctrines through prose discussions, myths, and poetic elements, emphasizing the eternal struggle between and as foundational to cosmology and . These tractates, preserved in Classical Mandaic, draw on gnostic motifs to explain the origins of the , the of divine beings, and the path to , often contrasting the luminous realms of the divine with the material world's corrupting influences. Scholarly editions highlight how these texts integrate instructions with philosophical reflections, serving as both theological and practical guide for Mandaean priests. Tractates 1 through 5 focus primarily on cosmology and creation myths, delineating the emanation of divine entities from the primordial Lightworld and their interactions with the emerging Darkworld. Tractate 1 presents a systematic of creation, structured in 130 sections that outline the progression from the First Life () through successive emanations, including the establishment of ethical commandments to maintain cosmic order. Tractate 2 complements this with a concise chronology of cosmic events, emphasizing cycles of , , and redemption, while underscoring the separation between the pure of the Lightworld and the chaotic black waters of materiality. Tractate 3, the longest at over 2,700 lines, delves into the origins of , narrating how arises as a perversion within the divine and how figures like , the , inadvertently contribute to the world's flawed architecture. Tractate 4 recounts the mythic descent of Hibil-Ziwa (a key or light-being) into the to retrieve knowledge, culminating in a baptismal rite that symbolizes purification and the restoration of divine harmony. Tractate 5 extends these themes across five subsections, describing journeys through the , the destruction of idols representing false powers, and the soul's ascent aided by emanations like Manda-d-Hiia, with a particular emphasis on John the Baptist's role in initiating salvific baptisms. Collectively, these early tractates establish the dualistic framework of Lightworld (alma d-nhura) versus Darkworld (alma d-hshuka), portraying creation as an ongoing emanative process fraught with tension between divine purity and material entrapment. Tractates 6 through 17 shift toward , , pointed critiques of rival faiths, and detailed practices, providing practical guidance for navigating the moral perils of existence. Tractate 6 narrates the ascent of Dinanukt, a figure, to the , illustrating the ethical imperative of truth (kushta) and adherence to overcome planetary guardians. Tractate 7 collects 113 proverbs attributed to , offering ethical maxims on humility, avoidance of deceit, and the pursuit of righteousness as prerequisites for . Tractate 8 warns against the seductions of , the demonic spirit of the Darkworld, linking her deceptions to the broader ethical battle against evil forces in creation. Tractate 9 explicitly critiques and , portraying their prophets as misguided and their rituals as corruptions of true , while affirming the creation of Great Mana as a counter to such falsehoods. Tractate 10 details the sacrament of pihta () and mambuha (), tying these rituals to mythic that ensure nourishment and communal purity. Tractate 11 depicts cosmic battles between and , emphasizing ethical vigilance and sealing (mshunia kushta) for protection. Tractate 12 introduces core beliefs through acrostic hymns, exploring the and directions of , with ethical exhortations against . Tractate 13 serves as a transitional for tarmida priests, invoking through immersion. Tractate 14 retells creation myths with emphasis on emanative hierarchies, underscoring as the ethical rite for liberation. Tractates 15 through 17 consist of poetic compositions—21 in 15, 11 in 16, and 2 in 17—focusing on teachings from figures like Anush and Shitil, the 's ascent via masiqta (death mass), and admonitions against planetary oppression, all reinforcing ethical living and efficacy for . These middle tractates integrate with praxis, portraying and related rites as essential mechanisms for ethical fortification and eschatological ascent, while sharply delineating from Abrahamic traditions. Tractate 18, known as the Book of Kings, adopts a unique narrative style blending historical with eschatological , tracing Mandaean origins through lists of kings and prophets to affirm communal identity. Structured in 123 paragraphs, it chronicles world history from through biblical and post-biblical figures, reinterpreting them as flawed intermediaries contrasted with Mandaean exemplars like John and the uthras. The tractate positions as descendants of a pure priestly line originating in the East (possibly or Media), emphasizing their separation from corrupted and . It culminates in apocalyptic visions of the end times, where the forces of darkness are vanquished, souls are redeemed en masse, and the Lightworld is fully realized, serving as an ethical capstone that motivates adherence to Mandaean ways amid historical adversity. This tractate's prose narrative, distinct from the more discursive style of prior sections, underscores themes of divine election and ultimate vindication.

Contents of the Left Ginza

The Left Ginza, comprising three main books, serves as a key liturgical and eschatological text in , detailing the 's post-mortem journey, its purification, and ultimate reunion with the divine realm of light. These books employ a mix of narratives and poetic hymns to explore themes of , ascent, and moral admonition, often invoking light beings (uthras) and celestial guardians to guide the away from material entrapment. This contrasts with the Right Ginza's doctrinal expositions by prioritizing ritualistic prayers and mythic vignettes that accompany Mandaean ceremonies, such as the masiqta ( ). Book 1 focuses on the initial stages of death and the 's release through prose accounts centered on primordial figures, emphasizing eschatological rites that prepare the deceased for ascent. It opens with the of , the first human, where his son Šitil performs a sacrificial act and receives a vision of the , symbolizing the transition from earthly bonds to . A messenger then liberates 's , overcoming his reluctance to leave the body, and facilitates its initial ascent amid warnings against excessive mourning. The narrative extends to Haua (), who laments 's passing until aided by Ziua and Manda d-Hiia—emanations of light—who guide her similarly. Hymns and invocations to these light beings underscore the redemptive power of divine intervention, while embedded prayers outline death rites, including preparations for the 's departure and brief allusions to baptismal purification as a prerequisite for worthy ascent. The book culminates in descriptions of the navigating toll-stations (matartas), where guardians test its purity, reinforcing the liturgical framework for Mandaean funeral practices. Book 2 shifts to poetic explorations of the soul's ongoing ascent through the heavenly spheres, portraying its encounters with angels and protective entities in 28 short sections, each introduced by the declaration "I am a Mana of the Great Life." Here, the soul, personified as a divine particle (mana) trapped in the physical body, expresses lament over its and seeks aid from a celestial helper (naṣibta), a guardian spirit that intercedes on its behalf. These vignettes depict the soul's perilous journey past adversarial planetary forces and demonic toll-keepers, with the naṣibta negotiating passage by invoking higher light beings and affirming the soul's origins in the Great Life (Haii ). Eschatological elements highlight the soul's progressive purification, encounters with benevolent uthras who offer guidance and reassurance, and the ultimate goal of reintegration into the luminous realms. The poetic form lends a rhythmic, chant-like quality suitable for during rituals, emphasizing themes of divine companionship and over cosmic obstacles. Book 3 comprises 62 poems that delve into dialogues between the soul and body, mythic retellings, and stern warnings against , forming the core of the Left Ginza's liturgical for eschatological ceremonies. The soul-body dialogues dramatize the conflict at , where the rebukes the body's attachments to worldly desires, urging detachment to ensure safe passage; these exchanges serve as parables, cautioning against and sensuality that could bind the soul to lower realms. Interwoven are myths expanding on and Eve's experiences, portraying their entrapment in the world due to by dark forces and their eventual through light emissaries, which parallel the reader's own spiritual journey. Many poems function as practical prayers, including call-and-response 'nianas (responses) and hymns sung during the masiqta, alongside oil-anointing rituals that symbolize ethereal cleansing. These elements invoke beings for protection and celebrate the soul's triumphant arrival in the , with the collection's antiquity—traced to before the CE via colophons—underscoring its foundational role in Mandaean .

Manuscripts and Editions

Major Manuscripts

The major manuscripts of the Ginza Rabba, the central scripture of , are primarily preserved in European institutional libraries, with additional copies held in private collections among Mandaean communities. These handwritten texts, typically in Classical Mandaic script on paper, date from the early onward and often include colophons—notes by scribes detailing copying dates, locations, and genealogies—that provide insights into their and transmission. All known manuscripts appear to stem from a limited number of archetypes produced around 1500 CE in southwestern , particularly from Mandaean priestly families in regions like and . One of the most influential is the (BnF Mandaic 1, also known as Paris A), a complete copy dated 1560 CE, produced by the scribe Ram Baktiar bar Bihram Šadan in . This 16th-century volume, held at the , served as the primary basis for Julius Heinrich Petermann's 1867 edition of the Sidra Rabba, the first published version of the Ginza Rabba, and was collated with three other Paris holdings for that work. Its colophon records the scribe's lineage and the meritorious act of copying as a ritual practice to accumulate spiritual merit. The at houses significant early copies, including DC 22, a complete of both the Right and Left copied in 1831 CE by Ram Zihrun, son of Sam Bihram, in Kupašia, . Acquired in the 20th century as part of E. S. Drower's donated collection, this volume has been pivotal for textual comparisons due to its fidelity to the archetypal structure. Another notable Bodleian holding is Hunt. 6 (also known as Huntington MS 6), a copied in 1615 CE. These highlight the text's circulation among Mandaean priests before European acquisition. The maintains several 19th-century copies from Iraqi Mandaean communities, such as Or. 1234, transcribed in 1856 CE by Yahya bar Adam in , and Add. 23,599, copied by female priests during the 1700s. These volumes, acquired through diplomatic channels in the Ottoman era, bear colophons with precise scribal dates and locations, linking them to urban Mandaean centers like Qurna and ; for instance, Or. 1234's colophon notes the copyist's intent to preserve the text amid community displacements. Such manuscripts often reflect minor orthographic variations but maintain the core division into Right and Left . Post-1500 manuscripts from Iraqi and Iranian sources also survive in private collections, including those of diaspora Mandaeans in the United States and the , such as the Rbai Rafid Collection (RRC) in , which holds variant copies with differences in tractate sequencing and occasional glosses. These privately held texts, often family heirlooms wrapped in cloths, underscore the Ginza Rabba's role in domestic worship and its ongoing transmission outside institutional settings, though access is limited due to their sacred status. Colophons in these copies occasionally aid in dating, aligning with broader chronological analyses of Mandaean scribal practices.

Printed Editions

The first printed edition of the Ginza Rabba appeared in 1815–1816 as a Syriac transcription with Latin notes by Matthias Norberg, titled Codex Nasaraeus, liber Adami appellatus, prepared from a held in the library. This three-volume work marked the initial scholarly dissemination of the text in , though it relied on a single source and included some inaccuracies in transcription. The standard critical edition for modern scholarship is Mark Lidzbarski's Ginzā: Der Schatz oder das große Buch der Mandäer, published in , which presents the Mandaic text alongside a German translation and is based on of multiple manuscripts for improved accuracy. This edition remains the foundational reference, addressing textual variants and providing extensive philological notes. In 2000, Carlos Gelbert issued an Arabic translation derived from 16th-century manuscripts, followed by an English edition in 2011 titled Ginza Rba: The Great Treasure, which includes facsimiles to facilitate access to the original script. A more recent English edition was published in 2012 by Qais Mughashghash Al-Saadi and Hamed Mughashghash Al-Saadi under the title Ginza Rabba, offering a direct rendering aimed at broader readership while preserving the text's structure. In 2022, Rbai Rafid al-Sabti published a critical printed Mandaic edition based on a comparison of 22 manuscripts. Digital facsimiles of key manuscripts, such as those from the Rbai Rafid Collection, have been made available online as of 2023 through projects.

Translations and Scholarship

Historical Translations

The first complete translation of the Ginza Rabba into a European language was the Latin rendition by Swedish Orientalist Matthias Norberg, published as Codex Nasaraeus, liber Adami appellatus in three volumes from 1815 to 1816. Based on a single manuscript acquired in the , Norberg's work represented an ambitious early effort but was incomplete, with significant errors arising from the rudimentary knowledge of Mandaic grammar and vocabulary available at the time. In 1867, German scholar Julius Heinrich Petermann issued the first printed edition of the text, Sidra Rabba, drawing from four manuscripts held in the . Petermann's publication featured a Latin parallel to the Mandaic transcription, establishing a critical textual basis that influenced later studies, though its philological inaccuracies and reliance on limited sources have rendered it outdated by modern standards. A landmark in historical translations was Mark Lidzbarski's 1925 German prose version, Ginzā: der Schatz oder das Große Buch der Mandäer, which provided the first scholarly full rendering of the entire corpus. Utilizing Petermann's edition supplemented by complete and fragmentary manuscripts from Leiden and Munich libraries, Lidzbarski's work offered improved accuracy and readability, serving as the authoritative reference for Ginza Rabba studies until the mid-20th century. These early translations were hampered by scholarly biases that prioritized parallels with Christian doctrines, often resulting in misinterpretations of core Mandaean terminology. Translators like Norberg and Lidzbarski, operating within a Christian-dominated academic framework, tended to interpret concepts such as ("The Great Life") through monotheistic lenses akin to "" or "," thereby distorting the text's emphasis on abstract principles of life, light, and emanation unique to .

Modern Scholarship

Modern scholarship on the Ginza Rabba has advanced significantly since the mid-20th century, building on earlier philological work to incorporate interdisciplinary approaches, including , , and . Scholars have focused on interpretive frameworks, textual dating, and accessibility for contemporary audiences, often collaborating with Mandaean communities to refine understandings of the text's theological and cultural implications. These efforts have addressed longstanding gaps in translation accuracy and contextual analysis, while exploring the Ginza Rabba's relevance to the Mandaean . A key contribution came from Jorunn Jacobsen Buckley in her 2002 monograph, which examines gender roles in Mandaean texts, including those from the Ginza Rabba, highlighting the portrayal of female figures like Miriai as symbols of spiritual authority and resistance against patriarchal constraints in ritual and cosmology. Buckley's analysis draws on ethnographic fieldwork with diaspora communities in Australia and North America, revealing how these textual depictions influence modern Mandaean gender dynamics and identity formation amid displacement. This work underscores the Ginza Rabba's role in sustaining cultural continuity for a community facing existential threats. In 2023, Buckley published 1800 Years of Encounters with Mandaeans, an updated study combining academic analysis with autobiographical accounts of her long-term engagements with the community, further illuminating the living interpretation of sacred texts like the Ginza Rabba. In translation efforts, Carlos Gelbert's 2011 edition of the Ginza Rabba provides the first complete English rendering with extensive commentary, incorporating input from Mandaean priests to enhance fidelity to the original Mandaic and clarify esoteric concepts. Similarly, Qais and Hamed Al-Saadi's 2012 translation emphasizes equivalence to the source language, consulting native speakers to resolve ambiguities in cosmological and ethical passages, thereby improving accessibility for non-specialists while preserving ritual nuances. These publications mark a shift toward community-informed , contrasting with earlier European efforts that lacked such collaboration. Charles G. Häberl's 2022 study of the Book of Kings (a section of the Left ) employs philological evidence, such as loanwords and historical references, to date its composition to the late Sasanian period, predating Islamic influences and challenging prior 7th-century compilations. This dating reframes the as a repository of pre-Islamic Gnostic traditions, with Häberl's analysis linking its universal history to broader Late Antique religious discourses. In the 2020s, initiatives for have gained momentum, with projects like the University of Exeter's Mandaean Digital Archive—funded by the Arcadia Fund—digitizing Ginza Rabba manuscripts and related texts to safeguard them from loss in conflict zones, enabling global access for researchers and communities. These efforts address preservation challenges while facilitating new interpretive studies. Concurrently, scholarship on Mandaean interpretations, as explored in Buckley's ongoing ethnographic lens, examines how exiled communities in , , and the U.S. reinterpret Ginza Rabba themes of and redemption to navigate hybrid identities. Ongoing debates center on the Ginza Rabba's origins in relation to , with recent analyses questioning whether represents a distinct ethno-religious or a late variant of broader Gnostic currents, based on shared motifs like dualism and baptismal . These discussions, informed by Häberl's philological dating, emphasize the text's independent development from Christian or Hellenistic , prioritizing its Mesopotamian roots.

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