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Go-on or goon (呉音; English: /ˈɡoʊ.ɒn/ GOH-on; Japanese pronunciation: [ɡo.oɴ] or [ɡoꜜoɴ], "sounds from the Wu region") are Japanese kanji readings based on the classical pronunciations of Chinese characters of the historically prestigious eastern Jiankang[1] (now Nanjing) dialect.

Go-on are the earliest form of on'yomi (音読み), preceding the kan-on (漢音) readings. Both go-on and kan-on exhibit characteristics of Middle Chinese.

History and uses

[edit]
Kentoshi route, also known as the sea route from Japan to China

Go-on readings were introduced into Japan during the 5th and 6th centuries[citation needed], when China was divided into separate Northern and Southern dynasties. They may have been imported either directly from the Southern dynasty or from the Korean Peninsula. There was an influx of thinkers from China and Korea to Japan at that time, including practitioners of both Buddhism and Confucianism. However, there is no historical documentation to demonstrate that go-on readings are actually based on Southern Chinese.

Shibatani has noted that go-on readings make up the first of three waves of Chinese loans to the Japanese language, the others being kan-on and tou-sou-on (meaning Tang Song sound), with go-on being mainly associated with Buddhism.[2]

Go-on readings are particularly common for Buddhist and legal terminology, especially those of the Nara and Heian periods. These readings were also used for the Chinese characters of the ancient Japanese syllabary used in the Kojiki.

When kan-on readings were introduced to Japan, their go-on equivalents did not disappear entirely. Even today, go-on and kan-on readings still both exist. Many characters have both readings. For instance, the name Shōtoku (which is go-on) is pronounced as such in some derived placenames, but as Seitoku (which is kan-on) in others.

However, some go-on sounds are now lost. Even though monolingual Japanese dictionaries list a complete inventory of go-on for all characters, some were actually reconstructed using the fanqie method or were inferred to be the same as their modern homophones.[3]

Names

[edit]

Go-on readings were formerly referred to as Wa-on (和音; lit. "Japanese sound"). The term 'go-on' was first introduced in the mid-Heian, likely by people who wished to promote kan-on readings.[citation needed] During the Tang dynasty, people in Chang'an referred to their own way of reading characters as qínyīn (秦音, shin'on; lit. "Qin sound") and all other readings, particularly those originating south of the Yangtze, as wúyīn (呉音, go'on; lit. "Wu sound") or one of many other similar names.[citation needed] It is thought[by whom?] that Japanese students studying in China adopted this practice, and, taking the position that the Chang'an-based manner of elocution were the correct ones, they also began to refer to the previously imported, unfashionable kanji readings as "go-on".

Go-on readings were also occasionally referred to as Tsushima-on (対馬音) and Kudara-on (百済音; literally "Baekje sound") because of a story that claims a Baekjean nun named Hōmei (法明) had taught Buddhism in Tsushima by reading the Vimalakīrti Sutra entirely in go-on.[3]

Characteristics

[edit]

Go-on readings are generally less orderly than kan-on readings, but can be characterized as follows.

  • voiced consonants in Middle Chinese were distinguished from unvoiced consonants when they occurred in syllable-initial positions.
  • Syllable-initial nasal consonants are pronounced as nasals (m-, n-) in Middle Chinese, but in kan-on, they are interpreted as voiced plosives (b-, d-).
  • In some characters, -o and -u are both acceptable and widespread, e.g., 素 (so, su), 奴 (do, nu) and 都 (to, tsu).
Examples (rare readings in parentheses)
Kanji Meaning Go-on Kan-on Middle Chinese[4]
明 bright myō mei mjaeng
京 capital kyō kei kjaeng
上 up jō shō dzyangX
下 below ge ka haeX, haeH

See also

[edit]

References

[edit]
Revisions and contributorsEdit on WikipediaRead on Wikipedia

Go-on

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from Grokipedia
Go-on (呉音), literally "Wu sounds," denotes the oldest category of on'yomi (Sino-Japanese readings) for kanji characters in Japanese, representing phonetic adaptations of ancient Chinese pronunciations from the Wu region in southern China, introduced to Japan between the 5th and 6th centuries CE via Buddhist texts and intermediaries on the Korean Peninsula. These readings form the earliest layer of Sino-Japanese vocabulary, primarily appearing in religious terminology, such as Buddhist terms like ten (天, "heaven") or butsu (仏, "Buddha"), and are characterized by their monosyllabic or disyllabic structures adapted to early Japanese phonology, often featuring consonant-vowel (CV) or CVN patterns. Historically, go-on emerged during the period in (4th–6th centuries), when Chinese script and Buddhist scriptures were transmitted to , predating more standardized borrowings and reflecting regional Wu dialects rather than central Chinese norms. Unlike later on'yomi variants, go-on pronunciations underwent significant phonological simplification in Japanese, such as the loss of certain Chinese final stops or the merger of initials, resulting in irregularities when compared to reconstructed sounds—for instance, the character 学 ("learn") is read as gaku in go-on, diverging from modern Mandarin xué. This early importation occurred mainly in the pre-Nara era (before 710 CE), with widespread use in the (710–794 CE) for compiling official documents and sutras, establishing go-on as a foundational element of Japan's literary and religious lexicon. Go-on differs markedly from subsequent readings like kan-on (漢音, "Han sounds"), which arrived in the 7th–9th centuries via influences from central China (e.g., ) and exhibit more fidelity to standardized , such as jin for 人 ("person") versus go-on's nin. Later layers, including tō-on (唐音, "Tang sounds") from the 12th century and associated with , further diversified on'yomi, but go-on remains the most archaic, limited to around 300–400 characters and often preserved in compounds where it conveys antiquity or specificity, like kenbutsu (見仏, "viewing "). Today, go-on's legacy endures in formal, ecclesiastical, and some everyday Japanese words, underscoring the layered evolution of integration into the language.

Overview

Definition and Scope

Go-on (呉音, goon) refers to the oldest layer of Sino-Japanese readings for kanji, derived from pronunciations of Middle Chinese spoken in the Jiankang region (modern Nanjing), which served as the capital during the Southern Dynasties. This dialect, an ancestor to modern Wu Chinese varieties, influenced the initial adoption of Chinese lexical elements into Japanese through Buddhist texts and diplomatic exchanges. As the earliest form of on'yomi—the broader category encompassing all Sino-Japanese kanji readings—go-on preserves phonetic traits from the mid-5th to 6th centuries, reflecting a transitional stage in Middle Chinese evolution. The scope of go-on is relatively narrow, with 30–44% of entries in the 12th-century Jiruishō dictionary possessing these readings, primarily those introduced in the earliest borrowings. These readings mark the initial wave of Chinese lexical integration into Japanese before subsequent strata like kan-on emerged, distinguishing go-on by its association with the period (386–589 CE) in . This temporal and geographical limitation underscores go-on's role as a foundational yet specialized component of and vocabulary.

Role in Japanese Lexicon

Go-on readings, derived from Early pronunciations, integrate deeply into the Japanese lexicon by forming the foundation for numerous Sino-Japanese compounds, particularly in religious and administrative contexts where they coexist alongside kun'yomi (native Japanese readings) and later on'yomi variants like kan-on in polysyllabic words. This integration occurred through early adaptations, such as the addition of epenthetic vowels to fit , allowing go-on to blend with native vocabulary in hybrid forms that enriched lexical diversity without fully supplanting indigenous terms. As a result, go-on contributes to the layered of Japanese, where Sino-Japanese elements account for 35–60% of modern vocabulary depending on the register or genre. Despite their archaic origins in the 5th–6th centuries, go-on readings persist in contemporary Japanese, especially in fixed expressions and specialized domains like and traditional scholarship, where they maintain historical continuity from the onward. Approximately 30–44% of entries in historical dictionaries like the Iroha Jiruishō possess go-on readings, reflecting their enduring presence within the Sino-Japanese stratum, though they are often listed alongside more common variants in dictionaries. In ancient texts such as the (712 CE), go-on represents the predominant reading style for Chinese-derived terms, as evidenced by kunten glosses and reading notes that prioritize these early pronunciations. However, go-on exhibits notable limitations in the Japanese lexicon, with fewer kanji assigned these readings compared to kan-on, which applies to over 1,000 characters due to dynasty influences. Post-6th century, go-on ceased to be used for new borrowings, confining its productivity to established terms and rendering it less versatile than subsequent on'yomi systems in forming modern neologisms. This restriction underscores go-on's role as a historical relic, primarily sustained in ritualistic or conservative linguistic environments rather than everyday innovation.

Historical Origins

Early Chinese Influences

Go-on pronunciations trace their roots to the Jiankang variety of Middle Chinese, a dialect spoken in the region around modern Nanjing during the Eastern Jin dynasty (317–420 CE) and the Southern Dynasties (420–589 CE). This southern dialect, associated with the culturally significant Wu region, featured phonological characteristics such as the preservation of entering tones, which distinguished it from northern varieties and contributed to the distinct sonic profile that later influenced East Asian linguistic borrowings. The historical era shaping these pronunciations coincided with the period (420–589 CE), a time of political fragmentation and cultural flourishing in , during which Buddhist sutras and Confucian classics were actively disseminated eastward through scholarly and religious networks. This era's linguistic environment, marked by regional dialectal diversity amid efforts toward standardization, provided the backdrop for the phonetic systems that would underpin go-on. The dialect, as a prestige southern form, played a key role in transmitting these texts, embedding Wu-region speech patterns into the broader Sinitic phonological tradition. Reconstructions of go-on sounds depend heavily on ancient Chinese phonological tools, including phono-semantic compounds—which broke down character pronunciations into initial and final components—and the seminal rhyme dictionary (compiled in 601 CE), which categorized syllables based on Early standards. These methods allow scholars to approximate the original dialect features, such as nasal codas and tone distinctions, by cross-referencing with later rime tables and comparative data from related languages. For instance, notations in the reveal how entering-tone syllables maintained short, checked finals in southern varieties like 's. The cultural and linguistic ties to the Wu region are evident in the very nomenclature of go-on, reflecting the dialect's origins in this southeastern area, where Jiankang served as a political and intellectual hub. Wu pronunciations, with their regional idiosyncrasies, influenced the transmission of classical texts and Buddhist terminology, preserving a snapshot of Early Middle Chinese diversity that diverged from the more centralized northern norms.

Transmission to Japan

The go-on readings of Chinese characters were transmitted to Japan primarily via the Korean Peninsula, with the kingdom of Baekje serving as a key intermediary during the 5th and 6th centuries CE, alongside possible direct contacts with Chinese envoys. Archaeological findings, such as Baekje-style metalwork, pottery, and stone artifacts discovered on Tsushima Island, provide evidence of robust maritime exchanges along this route, underscoring Baekje's role in bridging continental cultures with Yamato Japan. This transmission aligned closely with the introduction of Buddhism to Japan in 552 CE, when King Seong of Baekje dispatched a gilt-bronze statue of Śākyamuni Buddha, accompanying sutras, and a diplomatic letter to Emperor Kinmei, marking the official entry of the religion via Baekje scholars and monks. The influx of Buddhist texts necessitated phonetic adaptations for recitation and translation, establishing go-on as the dominant reading system in these early religious materials and fostering its initial spread among the Japanese elite. During the Asuka period (538–710 CE), go-on gained further traction through its use in Buddhist sutras and the drafting of legal codes, reflecting the growing integration of Chinese scholarly practices into Japanese governance. (574–622 CE), as regent under , actively promoted go-on by incorporating it into imperial edicts, such as the of 604 CE, and by sponsoring translations and studies of Confucian and Buddhist works to centralize authority and cultural advancement. The adaptation of go-on involved simplifying Middle Chinese phonological elements to fit Japanese phonotactics, including the reduction of complex syllable finals and the merger of multiple tones into a binary pitch-accent system. These changes occurred as part of broader borrowings from Chinese dialects during the Southern and Northern Dynasties period.

Terminology

Etymology of the Term

The term go-on (呉音), meaning "Wu sound," originates from the ancient Wu kingdom (呉国) in southern China, encompassing modern-day regions such as Jiangsu, Anhui, and Zhejiang, whose dialectal pronunciations influenced the earliest Sino-Japanese readings of kanji introduced to Japan. This nomenclature reflects the historical association of these readings with linguistic features from the Wu area, likely transmitted through Korean intermediaries during the 6th and 7th centuries CE, particularly via the Paekche kingdom. The compound structure combines go (呉), denoting the Wu region, with on (音), signifying "sound" or "pronunciation," highlighting the regional Chinese dialect as the source. During the Nara period (710–794 CE), these early readings were designated as wa-on (和音), literally "Japanese sound" or "Yamato sound," to differentiate them from subsequent imports and emphasize their adaptation within native Japanese phonology. The shift to the term go-on occurred in the mid-Heian period (9th–10th centuries), as part of broader scholarly efforts to classify and standardize kanji readings, thereby distinguishing the older layer from the more prestigious kan-on (漢音) derived from Tang dynasty Chinese. This renaming likely served to reframe the readings' origins as foreign and archaic, aligning with Heian-era linguistic reforms that prioritized Tang-influenced pronunciations for official and literary use. The term go-on is first attested in the Wamyō Ruijushō (和名類聚抄), a comprehensive dictionary compiled between 931 and 937 CE under the supervision of Minamoto no Shitagō, which systematically catalogs go-on readings separately from other categories to aid in phonetic and semantic organization. This text exemplifies the Heian period's push toward phonetic standardization, particularly in Buddhist contexts where go-on retained prominence for scriptural recitation despite the ascendancy of kan-on.

Alternative Designations

Go-on readings have been designated by several alternative terms in historical Japanese linguistic sources, each emphasizing different aspects of their transmission pathways from continental Asia. One prominent synonym is Tsushima-on (対馬音), referring to the influence of as a primary conduit for early Chinese pronunciations arriving via Korean kingdoms, as noted in discussions of putative transmission routes during the initial spread of and literacy. Another historical name is Kudara-on (百済音, literally "Baekje sound"), which underscores the role of the Baekje kingdom (known as Kudara in Japanese) in conveying these readings to . This designation originates from accounts of a Baekje nun named Hōmei (法明), who in 584 CE taught recitation—introducing the pronunciation system through Buddhist scriptures—to early Japanese , thereby linking the readings to Baekje's scholarly traditions. These alternative names, such as Tsushima-on and Kudara-on, were employed in early medieval texts from the Nara and Heian periods to denote the regional and cultural channels of transmission, prior to the of "go-on" as the conventional term in later linguistic .

Linguistic Characteristics

Phonological Traits

Go-on pronunciations preserve key consonantal distinctions from Early (EMC), notably maintaining voiced and unvoiced contrasts in initial stops, such as /g-/ versus /k-/, through direct mappings or prenasalization for voiced forms (e.g., [ŋg] for /g-/). This fidelity contrasts with later systems like kan-on, which exhibit mergers in certain initial consonants due to adaptations from Late Middle Chinese. Nasal codas in EMC, particularly -ŋ, are adapted in go-on by shifting to vowels such as -u or -ō, showing simplification; for instance, 明 (EMC *mjaŋ) yields myō, similar to kan-on mei. Other EMC nasals, such as -m, may evolve to -n via intermediate forms like -amu. Syllables with EMC entering tone finals, characterized by stops like -p, -t, or -k, are typically lost in go-on, leading to short open syllables reflective of the original checked quality; representative cases include 工 (EMC *kuawŋ) as ku and 都 (EMC *tɔ) as to. The overall sound inventory of go-on is constrained to a limited set of syllables, achieved by simplifying complex onsets and codas to fit Japanese CV or CVN structures while approximating early .

Syllabic and Prosodic Features

Go-on syllables predominantly follow an open CV (consonant-vowel) structure, reflecting the adaptation of early monosyllables into Japanese , where vowels serve as the nucleus and consonants are limited to onsets. Short vowels such as /a/, /i/, and /u/ predominate in these readings, with mid vowels like /e/ and /o/ appearing in reconstructions but often centralized or raised in actual pronunciation; EMC mid vowels are frequently adapted with fronting or centralization to match Japanese vowels. Diphthongs are rare, as finals were typically monophthongal and mapped onto simple vowel targets without complex gliding. The prosodic system of Go-on derives from the four-tone framework (level, rising, departing, and entering), simplified into a binary high-low tonal contrast in early Japanese, where level tones often mapped to high pitch and rising/departing to low, influencing accentual patterns in compounds. The entering tone, characterized by short syllables ending in stops, underwent shortening in Go-on, resulting in abrupt closures or remnants like glottal features; for instance, the character 八 (entering tone) is read as hacči in go-on, with brevity compared to kan-on forms. This prosodic brevity contributes to a choppier in Go-on words. In compounds, Go-on frequently exhibits of consonants or vowel shortening to maintain bimoraic footing, creating a more segmented flow distinct from the smoother, often elongated prosody of later Kan-on readings; for example, combinations like *gaku + kō may yield *gak.kō with doubled consonants. Modern reconstructions of Go-on rely on rhyme tables such as the , which categorize by tone and division to infer qualities; the character 素, for instance, is reconstructed with a as *so or *su, aligning with back- in epenthetic insertions.

Comparisons with Other Readings

Relation to Kan-on

Go-on pronunciations entered Japanese in the 5th to 6th centuries CE, primarily through and influences from southern Chinese dialects via the Korean Peninsula, particularly Paekche. In contrast, kan-on emerged later, from the 7th to 9th centuries, reflecting the standardized Late of the Tang Dynasty's Chang'an dialect, introduced via official Japanese missions to . Both reading systems stem from but were adapted to phonology, sharing features like the merger of certain rhymes into Japanese vowels and the use of for transcription. However, kan-on achieved greater standardization through governmental promotion and became the dominant layer in Sino-Japanese compounds, supplanting much of go-on's usage outside specific Buddhist contexts. Phonologically, go-on preserves Early traits, such as retaining nasal initials (e.g., *m-, *n-) and simpler finals with voiced obstruents, fitting the pre-7th-century syllable inventory of around 88 possibilities. Kan-on, drawing from Late innovations, often merges or shifts these: prenasalized consonants become plain voiced stops (e.g., Middle Chinese *nd- to Japanese d-), and final nasals denasalize into s, contributing to over 100 syllables through added distinctions like palatalized forms and s. For instance, the character 明 (Middle Chinese *mjaeng) yields myō in go-on, retaining a rounded from the nasal coda, versus mei in kan-on, where denasalization produces a simpler . A representative example of their overlap and divergence is the character 帝 (Middle Chinese *dəiʔ): go-on renders it as tai, reflecting an earlier voiced initial shift, while kan-on uses tei, with a subtle vowel adjustment from Late Middle Chinese palatalization. These differences underscore go-on's archaic, regionally influenced character against kan-on's more uniform adaptation, though both layers coexist in select compounds to preserve historical nuances.

Distinctions from Tō-on and Kan'yō-on

Go-on readings, established during the early transmission of to in the 5th to 6th centuries via the Korean peninsula and southern Chinese influences, represent a fixed phonological system that contrasts with the later tō-on readings introduced between the 10th and 14th centuries from Southern Chinese dialects during and after the . Tō-on, brought primarily by Buddhist monks and merchants, incorporated elements of Early Modern Chinese pronunciation, including retroflex sounds not present in go-on, such as the apical retroflex affricates that evolved into distinct Japanese consonants. For instance, the 張 is read as jō in go-on but chō in tō-on, reflecting this addition of retroflex articulation absent in the earlier system. Kan'yō-on consists of irregular or customary readings that developed later, from the onward, often as simplified or erroneous adaptations for specific characters applied in practical contexts like and administration. Unlike the more systematic go-on, kan'yō-on variants can deviate significantly. For example, unlike the readings gyō in go-on and kō in kan-on for 行 ("go"), tō-on uses an, illustrating how later systems prioritized utility over fidelity to original . These readings were frequently approximations of contemporary Chinese sounds, contrasting with go-on's earlier, more consistent adaptation to Japanese prosody. While go-on became entrenched early in Buddhist and legal texts, forming a broad base for , tō-on and kan'yō-on were introduced for specialized purposes such as and commercial exchanges, resulting in their relative rarity; tō-on applies to only a limited number of characters, estimated at fewer than in total usage. A notable phonological distinction is go-on's general lack of word-final -n endings, which became prevalent in tō-on due to Song Chinese influences; for example, 禅 is sem in go-on but zen in tō-on, highlighting the shift toward nasal codas in later borrowings. This scarcity underscores go-on's foundational role, with tō-on and kan'yō-on serving niche innovations rather than widespread replacements.

Usage and Examples

In Buddhist contexts, go-on pronunciations dominated early translations of s during the Asuka and Nara periods (6th–8th centuries), reflecting the dialect influences brought via Korean intermediaries when was introduced to around 538 CE. These readings were essential for rendering key terms accurately in religious texts, such as bodhisattva as bosatsu (菩薩), which appears prominently in early sutra glosses and temple inscriptions from the era. Go-on also featured in mantras (dhāraṇī) and esoteric chants, where precise phonetic reproduction was vital for ritual efficacy, as seen in texts like the Konkōmyō saishō ō kyō (early ), which employed go-on-derived tone names such as hyō-shō (level tone) and jō-shō (rising tone) for chanting. Temple names from this period, like those at (established 607 CE), often incorporated go-on elements to evoke sacred connotations tied to continental Buddhist traditions. In legal and administrative domains, go-on readings permeated the codes, the foundational legal system modeled on Tang Chinese precedents and implemented from the late onward. Prince Shōtoku's (604 CE), an early moral and governance code emphasizing harmony and Confucian-Buddhist ethics, was composed in and recited using go-on pronunciations, such as kei (刑) for "" in clauses addressing and order. This usage extended to edicts and official terminology in the (701 CE), where go-on helped standardize Sino-Japanese legal phrasing amid the Nara court's centralization efforts. Representative examples include nehan (涅槃) for "Nirvana" in Buddhist-influenced legal oaths and kokō (国王) for "king" in imperial decrees, underscoring go-on's role in blending religious and secular authority. Despite the later dominance of from the , go-on persists in formal Buddhist chants and rituals, preserving archaic phonological traits like simplified finals and voiced initials for doctrinal fidelity. This retention is evident in esoteric practices introduced by figures like Ennin (794–864 CE), who integrated go-on into Siddham script studies for recitation, ensuring continuity in temple liturgies today.

Modern Applications and Compounds

In contemporary Japanese, go-on readings contribute to the formation of Sino-Japanese compounds, often blending with other on'yomi variants or kun'yomi to create nuanced vocabulary. For instance, the character 道 (go-on: dō, meaning "way") forms 道理 (dōri, "reason" or "principle"), where dō combines with 理 (go-on: ri) to denote logical consistency; such compounds frequently mix with native Japanese elements, as in 道理を説く (dōri o toku, "to explain the reason"), integrating go-on into everyday expressions. Similarly, 禅 (go-on: zen, "meditation") appears in compounds like 禅寺 (zendera, " temple"), preserving archaic phonetic traits in religious and philosophical terms. These structures highlight go-on's role in maintaining lexical depth, with Sino-Japanese words overall comprising about 60% of modern dictionary entries and 20% of spoken usage. Go-on persists in modern nomenclature, particularly surnames, where readings like 佐 (go-on: sa, "assistant") underpin common names such as 佐藤 (Satō), one of Japan's most frequent family names derived from historical administrative titles. It also surfaces in proverbs and literature, evoking traditional resonance; for example, in classical-inspired texts, go-on infuses phrases like 道 (dō) in proverbial discussions of moral paths. In formal education, go-on is taught as an archaic layer of kanji readings, helping students distinguish historical phonetic evolutions in compounds. Modern dictionaries, such as the Daijirin, identify approximately 200 common words that rely exclusively on go-on readings, underscoring its specialized but enduring presence in the lexicon. As cultural remnants, go-on influences traditional poetic forms like and waka, where its phonetic qualities enhance rhythmic and evocative qualities, as seen in historical verses employing words like 寺 (go-on: ji, "temple") to evoke contemplative scenes. In contemporary media, such as historical dramas (), go-on sees occasional revival to authenticate archaic dialogue, blending with modern speech for dramatic effect. Originating in Buddhist contexts, this reading layer continues to subtly shape religious terminology today.

References

  1. https://brill.com/display/book/9789004437302/BP000013.xml?language=en
  2. https://people.ucsc.edu/~mester/papers/2015_ito_mester_sinojapanese_phonology.pdf
  3. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/376826450_Chinese_Readings_of_Characters_in_Japanese
  4. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/396496511_Correlations_in_the_Pronunciation_of_Sino-Japanese_Lexical_Items_in_Shanghainese_and_Japanese
  5. https://afe.easia.columbia.edu/timelines/china_timeline.htm
  6. https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/social-sciences/japanese-language
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  8. https://unitesi.unive.it/retrieve/44a3aa13-6643-4a34-8219-7c351f32e78e/Thesis%20Moschi%20Giovanni.pdf
  9. http://www.ijkaa.org/v.1/0/46/67
  10. https://digitalcommons.coastal.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1025&context=philosophy-religious-studies
  11. https://journals.library.brandeis.edu/index.php/PAJLS/article/download/1688/1076/3681
  12. https://shikeda.github.io/en/docs/krm/01-introduction/01-01-introduction/
  13. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/347557252_Japanese_linguistics_The_Japanese_language_I
  14. https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Mark-Irwin-2/publication/216842981_Mora_Obstruent_Allomorphy_in_Sino-Japanese_Morphemes/links/5cac2ec5299bf118c4bd0a8a/Mora-Obstruent-Allomorphy-in-Sino-Japanese-Morphemes.pdf
  15. https://books.google.com/books?id=v1FcAgiAC9IC
  16. https://www.davidpublisher.com/Public/uploads/Contribute/559f30f16ac29.pdf
  17. https://etd.ohiolink.edu/acprod/odb_etd/ws/send_file/send?accession=osu1486632201171712&disposition=attachment
  18. https://www2.ninjal.ac.jp/yutanaka/papers_cv/Tanaka2023_WAFL16.pdf
  19. https://www.academia.edu/9659321/The_historical_development_of_Japanese_tone_Part_1_From_proto_Japanese_to_the_modern_dialects_Part_2_The_introduction_and_adaptation_of_the_Middle_Chinese_tones_in_Japan
  20. https://web.stanford.edu/group/cslipublications/cslipublications/site/JKONLINE/29/CH21.pdf
  21. https://nirc.nanzan-u.ac.jp/journal/6/article/1271/pdf/download
  22. https://scholarworks.umass.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1355&context=ling_facpubs
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