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Prosopis cineraria
Prosopis cineraria
Prosopis cineraria
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"Ghaf" redirects here. For the asteroid, see 88055 Ghaf.

Prosopis cineraria
Scientific classification Edit this classification
Kingdom: Plantae
Clade: Tracheophytes
Clade: Angiosperms
Clade: Eudicots
Clade: Rosids
Order: Fabales
Family: Fabaceae
Subfamily: Caesalpinioideae
Clade: Mimosoid clade
Genus: Prosopis
Species:
P. cineraria
Binomial name
Prosopis cineraria
(L.) Druce
Synonyms

Adenanthera aculeata Roxb.[1]
Mimosa cineraria L.
Prosopis spicigera L.[2]
Prosopis spicata Burm.[1]

Prosopis cineraria, also known as Persian mesquite or ghaf or khejri,[3] is a species of flowering tree in the pea family, Fabaceae. It is native to arid portions of Western Asia and the Indian Subcontinent, including Afghanistan, Bahrain, Iran, India, Oman, Pakistan, Saudi Arabia, the United Arab Emirates, and Yemen. Its leaves are bipinnate. It can survive extreme drought. It is an established introduced species in parts of Southeast Asia, including Indonesia.[dead link][1]

The ghaf is the national tree of the United Arab Emirates. Through the Give a Ghaf campaign its citizens are urged to plant it in their gardens to combat desertification and preserve their country's heritage.[4] The desert village of Nazwa in the UAE is home to the Al Ghaf Conservation Reserve.[5]

Prosopis cineraria is also the state tree of Rajasthan (where it is known as khejri), Western Uttar Pradesh (where it is known as chhonkara) and Telangana (where it is known as jammi[6]) in India. A large and well-known example of the species is the Tree of Life in Bahrain; it is approximately 400 years old and growing in a desert devoid of any obvious sources of water.

In 1730 AD, the village of Khejarli near Jodhpur in Rajasthan was the scene of a violent environmental confrontation. Amrita Devi and her three young daughters gave their lives in an attempt to protect some khejri trees which Maharaja Abhai Singh of Marwar had ordered cut to make way for his new palace. This led to widespread defiance in which 363 people were killed trying to save the trees. In the 1970s, the memory of this sacrifice led to the start of the Chipko movement in India.[7]

Description

[edit]
Branch

P. cineraria is a small tree, ranging in height from 3–5 m (9.8–16.4 ft). The leaves are bipinnate, with seven to fourteen leaflets on each of one to three pinnae. Branches are thorned along the internodes. Flowers are small and creamy-yellow and followed by seeds in pods. The tree is found in extremely arid conditions, with rainfall as low as 15 cm (5.9 in) annually; but is indicative of the presence of a deep water table. As with some other Prosopis spp., P. cineraria has demonstrated a tolerance of highly alkaline and saline environments.[8]

The tree should not be confused with the similar-looking Chinese lantern tree, Dichrostachys cinerea. They can be told apart by the flowers. While the Chinese lantern tree has bicolored pink-yellow flowers, the true Shami tree has yellow-colored bristled flowers only, like most other mesquites.[citation needed]

Religious significance

[edit]

This tree is highly revered among Hindus and worshipped as part of Dusshera festival.[9] This tree takes importance during the tenth day of the Dasara Festival when it is celebrated in various parts of India. Historically, among the Rajputs, the ranas – who were the high priest and the king – used to conduct the worship and then to liberate a jay which was the sacred bird of Lord Rama.[10]: 29–30 [11] In the Deccan, as part of the tenth-day ritual of Dussahera, the marathas used to shoot arrows onto the crown of the tree and gather the falling leaves into their turbans.[10]: 36–37 [11]

The tree is known by different names across the western and northern regions of India, e.g. shami in Madhya Pradesh, Maharastra & Uttar Pradesh, jammi in Telangana & Andhra Pradesh, khijro in Gujarat, khejri in Rajasthan, janti in Haryana, and jand in the Punjab.[citation needed]

In Karnataka, Acacia ferruginea has also been locally referred to as Banni mara instead of the accepted Khejri tree, and accepted as the tree where the Pandavas hid their weapons during exile.[12] There are also some unconfirmed references which consider Acacia ferruginea as the tree which is revered and worshipped on Vijay Dashami day.[13] However, according to historical references, Prosopis cineraria is known as the Banni mara,[14][15][16][17][18][19][20][21] and holds a special place in the Mysore Dasara, where its worshipped on the Vijay-dashami day.[14][15][16][18][20][22][23]

In the Mahabharata, the Pandavas spent their thirteenth year of exile in disguise in the kingdom of Virata. Before going to Virata, they hung their celestial weapons in this tree for safekeeping for a year. When they returned after a year, they found their weapons safe in the branches of the Shami tree. Before taking the weapons, they worshipped the tree and thanked it for keeping their weapons safe.[24][11][21][14][20][23][excessive citations]

Culinary uses

[edit]

In Thar Desert the singhri or sangri pods growing on Prosopis cineraria are used in various types of bhaaji and kadhi. Singhri is one of the traditional cuisines of the Thar Desert.[25]

Medical use

[edit]

Extract from unripe fruit pods of the plant was shown to ameliorate artificially-induced damage to testes in an animal model.[26] Leaves of this tree can ameliorate mouth ulcers. Chewing its leaves for a few minutes, so releasing the juice of the leaves in the mouth can relieve the ulcers. The swelling comes down significantly. The juice is then spat out, rather than swallowed.[27]

References

[edit]
[edit]
Revisions and contributorsEdit on WikipediaRead on Wikipedia

Prosopis cineraria

View on Grokipedia
from Grokipedia
(L.) Druce is a small to medium-sized, thorny, evergreen in the family, characterized by irregular branching, an open crown, and a deep that enables survival in arid conditions. Native to the dry and semi-arid lowlands of the —including , and —and the , it thrives in areas receiving 200–800 mm of annual rainfall on coarse, sandy soils with 6.5–8.5. Known locally as Khejri in , —where it has been the state since 1983—and Ghaf in the , the plays a foundational role in desert by fixing to improve , stabilizing sand dunes against , and offering shade and in otherwise barren landscapes. Its multipurpose utility sustains arid communities: leaves and pods serve as high-protein fodder for , wood provides fuel and construction material, while pods, seeds, and bark contribute to and traditional remedies for ailments such as , , and , with documented antidiabetic effects in animal studies reducing blood glucose by up to 27%.

Taxonomy and description

Taxonomy and nomenclature

Prosopis cineraria (L.) Druce is the accepted scientific name for the species, with the basionym Mimosa cineraria L. originally described by Carl Linnaeus in 1753. The name was transferred to the genus Prosopis by George Claridge Druce in his 1914 publication The Flora of Northamptonshire. The specific epithet "cineraria" derives from Latin cinereus, meaning ash-colored, referring to the tree's grayish bark. The species belongs to the genus L., within the family Juss., subfamily DC. (sometimes classified under ). Its full taxonomic hierarchy is: Kingdom Plantae; Phylum Tracheophyta; Class Magnoliopsida; Order ; Family Fabaceae; Genus Prosopis; Species P. cineraria. This classification aligns with the , placing it in the core clade. Synonyms include Prosopis spicigera L., Prosopis spicata Burm. f., and Adenanthera aculeata Roxb., reflecting historical taxonomic revisions due to morphological similarities with other Prosopis species. These synonyms arose from early descriptions emphasizing spicate inflorescences, but P. cineraria is distinguished by its arid-adapted habit and pod morphology. The (IPNI) confirms P. cineraria (L.) Druce as the current valid name.

Morphological and physiological description

Prosopis cineraria is a small to medium-sized, thorny, irregularly branched, semi-evergreen that typically reaches a height of 5 to 8 meters, though it can grow up to 6.5 meters under natural conditions with an open crown that rounds under or lopping. The bark is thick, rough, deeply fissured, and ash-gray in color, while the branches bear numerous internodal thorns. It develops a deep system extending up to 20 meters or more, facilitating access to in arid environments. The leaves are and bipinnate, with glabrous or puberulous leaflets that are ovate, measuring 4-15 mm in length and 2-4.5 mm in width, appearing green when fresh and gray when dry; the overall length ranges from 2-7 cm. Flowers are small, yellow-green, approximately 0.6 cm in , and arranged in slender axillary spikes or racemes 5-13 cm long. The fruits are elongate, subcylindrical pods, 8-21 cm long and 4-7 mm in , containing 10-25 oval-shaped brown seeds embedded in a brittle, thin pericarp that constitutes about 70% of the pod's mass. Physiologically, Prosopis cineraria exhibits adaptations suited to arid and semi-arid conditions, including high that allows survival through 6-8 month dry periods via its extensive , which enables hydraulic redistribution of from deeper layers to the surface. As a nitrogen-fixing , it enhances and tolerates saline soils up to 11.5 dS/m electrical conductivity, alkaline , and temperatures ranging from 4°C to 50°C. Growth is slow aboveground but rapid belowground, supporting its role in sandy or dune habitats with annual rainfall of 75-800 mm.

Distribution and ecology

Geographic distribution

Prosopis cineraria is native to arid and semi-arid regions spanning the , southwestern and southern , , , and . Its range extends from and the westward through and eastward to the in and . Within the , the species occurs in countries including , , the , , and , where it thrives in desert thorn forests and dry shrublands. In , P. cineraria is prominent in the dry deciduous and desert ecosystems of northwest , particularly , and extends into Pakistan's arid zones. The tree's distribution is confined to areas with extreme , low rainfall (typically under 250 mm annually), and high temperatures, reflecting its to hyper-arid climates characteristic of these regions. While primarily native, limited introductions have occurred outside this core range, such as in the of during the 1980s for trials, though it remains rare beyond its natural habitat.

Habitat preferences and adaptations

Prosopis cineraria thrives in arid and semi-arid environments across southern and the , favoring regions with low annual rainfall of 75–300 mm, high , and temperature extremes from -6°C to 50°C. It commonly occupies alluvial plains, sandy depressions (rawdahs), and dune-stabilized areas at altitudes from to 600 m, where it forms foundational communities with species like Ziziphus spp. on sandy soils. The species exhibits broad edaphic tolerance, growing in well-drained sandy loams, loams, and clay loams with up to 9.8 and low to moderate (electrical conductivity 0.3–2.64 mS cm⁻¹). It enhances through and organic matter accumulation under its canopy, supporting without competing with shallow-rooted crops. Key adaptations include a deep system extending 25–60 m to access , enabling survival during prolonged while minimizing competition with understory vegetation. Morphologically, small bipinnate leaflets (4–14 mm long), thick cuticles, sunken stomata with wax deposits, and a wide canopy reduce and provide shade. Physiologically, it maintains retention in dry seasons, upregulates stress-response genes (e.g., AP2/ERF transcription factors), and exhibits biochemical adjustments like osmotic regulation in saline or nutrient-poor habitats. These traits confer resilience to , , and grazing, positioning it as a in desert ecosystems.

Ecological role and interactions

functions as a in arid and semi-arid ecosystems across southern and western , where it sustains , stabilizes soils, and mitigates processes. Its deep anchors shifting sands, preventing in dune-prone areas, while its canopy provides essential shade that fosters microclimates conducive to and during prolonged dry spells. This role is particularly vital in regions like the and , where sparse rainfall—often below 250 mm annually—limits other plant growth, positioning P. cineraria as a foundational element for resilience. The tree engages in symbiotic through root nodules harboring rhizobial such as Ensifer and Sinorhizobium , converting atmospheric into bioavailable forms that enhance in nutrient-poor arid soils. These associations, alongside interactions with mycorrhizal fungi, promote mineralization and , contributing to long-term accumulation observed in systems. Studies indicate that P. cineraria variations influence fixation efficiency, with higher rates in arid Indian strains supporting legume-compatible microbial communities. Ecological interactions extend to and , as the tree's foliage and pods serve as for herbivores, while its structure offers nesting sites and refuge for birds and small mammals in otherwise barren landscapes. In contrast to invasive congeners like Prosopis juliflora, which suppress native diversity via negative plant-soil feedbacks, P. cineraria exhibits neutral to positive feedbacks, preserving composition in native habitats. Its presence in desert aids revegetation efforts, reducing soil degradation and bolstering resilience against climatic extremes, though overbrowsing by livestock can disrupt these dynamics in unmanaged areas.

Human uses and cultural significance

Cultural and religious importance

In , , Prosopis cineraria, locally known as Khejri, is revered as a comparable to the holy basil (Tulsi) in Hindu traditions, underscoring its religious significance in local customs and rituals. It plays a central role during the Dussehra festival, where branches are worshipped on the tenth day to invoke prosperity and protection, a practice tied to ancient folklore viewing the tree as a life-sustaining entity in the . The Bishnoi community, followers of Guru Jambheshwar's 29 principles emphasizing , hold it in particular veneration; in 1730, 363 Bishnois, led by Amrita Devi, hugged Khejri trees to their deaths to prevent their felling for in a Maharaja's fortress, an event inspiring modern conservation movements like Chipko. In the , particularly the , the tree—known as Ghaf—is the national tree, declared as such in for its embodiment of cultural resilience and harmony with the environment. It symbolizes endurance and peace, with initiatives like the "Give a Ghaf" campaign promoting its planting to preserve heritage and combat , reflecting its deep-rooted role in Emirati identity and traditional lore. Islamic traditions attribute shelter and shade to the Prophet Muhammad during his migration to , further elevating its spiritual status, with its wood historically crafted into .

Culinary and nutritional uses

The pods of Prosopis cineraria, known locally as sangri or khokha, are widely utilized in culinary preparations across arid regions such as and . Immature green pods are consumed as s, incorporated into curries, or processed into pickles, while mature pods are dried, ground into for , , or as a partial substitute in products. Cooked pods feature in traditional dishes like sangri, often combined with other desert produce, providing a nutrient-dense option in resource-scarce environments. Nutritionally, the pods offer substantial protein content ranging from 7% to 22%, alongside high levels of (up to 30%), carbohydrates, and minerals including calcium, iron, , copper, , and . They are also rich in and sugars, serving as an energy source that helps mitigate protein and mineral deficiencies prevalent in dryland populations. The pods' composition, including 18% protein, 20.93% , 1.89% , and 5.34% , underscores their role as a with properties from polyphenols and . Leaves, referred to as loong, are occasionally dried and ground with to enhance bread's nutritional profile, contributing protein, , and carbohydrates, though primarily valued as . yield oil suitable for cooking and production, adding versatility to the tree's edible components.

Medicinal and pharmacological applications

Prosopis cineraria has been employed in across arid regions of and the for treating ailments such as , , , leucoderma, dyspepsia, earache, anxiety, and , primarily using extracts from its bark, leaves, pods, and gum. The stem bark is particularly noted for its folkloric , antirheumatic, tonic, and vermifuge properties. Phytochemical analyses reveal the presence of bioactive compounds including (e.g., ), phenolic acids, alkaloids, , and in various plant parts, which underpin its pharmacological effects. Ethanolic extracts of pods demonstrate inhibition of and dual inhibition of DPP-4 and enzymes, suggesting potential in managing and insulin resistance-related conditions. Pharmacological studies confirm activity in bark and extracts, attributed to polyphenolic content that scavenges free radicals and reduces markers in animal models. effects have been observed in extracts reducing paw edema in rats, comparable to standard drugs like indomethacin. Unripe pod extracts ameliorate and in streptozotocin-induced diabetic rats by modulating enzymatic s and lipid profiles. Antimicrobial properties are evident in aerial parts exhibiting activity against Gram-positive and , with bioassay-guided fractionation isolating novel antibacterial compounds. Anticancer potential includes from leaves inducing in K-562 cells via BCR-ABL-Ras-Raf pathway inhibition. is supported by phenolic-rich ointments from the plant accelerating tissue repair through and mechanisms in models. Hepatoprotective effects against carbon tetrachloride-induced liver damage have also been reported in preliminary studies. While promising, most evidence derives from and , with limited clinical trials validating efficacy and safety in humans.

Other utilitarian uses

The leaves of Prosopis cineraria are regularly lopped to provide high-quality for such as goats, sheep, and camels in arid regions of and , with lopping typically occurring during dry seasons to sustain animal nutrition without killing the tree. This practice integrates the tree into systems, where it supports year-round availability due to its and deep . The wood serves as an excellent source of fuelwood and , characterized by a high calorific value and slow-burning properties that make it preferable over other arid-zone for cooking and heating in rural households. Despite its utility, excessive annual lopping for fuel reduces productivity, prompting recommendations for rotational harvesting every four years to maintain tree health. Timber from P. cineraria is used for constructing poles, agricultural implements, , and rural , though its due to cultural protections limits large-scale logging; the dense heartwood also finds application in tool handles and posts. Bark extracts provide for processing, adding to its role in traditional crafts.

Cultivation, management, and conservation

Propagation and cultivation

Prosopis cineraria is primarily propagated by seeds, which exhibit 80-90% rates under suitable conditions. , caused by hard seed coats, requires treatments such as immersion in hot (100°C for 1-5 minutes followed by cooling) or chemical agents like to enhance . Recent advancements include priming with nanoparticles, which, when optimized via , can achieve rates exceeding 70% in arid conditions. For mass planting, seeds are often collected from mature pods and pretreated to break before sowing in nurseries. Vegetative propagation methods, though less common due to lower success rates, include stem cuttings treated with auxins like , achieving rooting in 20-63% of cases depending on cutting size (typically 15-20 cm) and juvenility. Air layering and suckers offer higher viability, particularly in field settings, as they leverage the species' natural suckering habit. Micropropagation protocols using nodal explants from young shoots, cultured on media supplemented with benzylaminopurine and naphthaleneacetic acid, enable multiplication for conservation or clonal , though establishment in soil remains challenging without . In cultivation, Prosopis cineraria thrives in arid and semi-arid regions with annual rainfall below 250 mm, preferring well-drained sandy or loamy soils with pH 7.0-8.5 and tolerating up to 10 dS/m. Seedlings are transplanted at 1-3 m spacing in systems, with initial irrigation every 10-15 days until establishment (typically 6-12 months), after which the tree requires minimal water due to deep taproots extending over 50 m. young plants to 30-50 cm height promotes bushy growth and survival in plantations, as demonstrated in UAE and initiatives where survival rates exceed 80% with reduced watering. No fertilizers are routinely needed, but application at planting can boost early growth in nutrient-poor sands. Pests like pod borers may necessitate monitoring, but the species' resilience limits chemical interventions.

Threats and conservation status

Prosopis cineraria is not globally assessed for the IUCN Red List, with sources indicating it has not yet been evaluated or is categorized as not evaluated. Locally, populations face threats that could impact persistence in specific regions, such as parts of the Thar Desert where regeneration is limited due to environmental pressures. Major threats include habitat loss from , development, and , which reduce available arid land for natural stands. In , , rapid deployment of projects has led to the felling, uprooting, or burial of an estimated 3 million Khejri trees since the early , prioritizing energy over ecological preservation despite legal protections as the state tree. by exacerbates decline by preventing establishment and damaging roots, compounded by excessive lopping for and fuelwood. contributes through groundwater depletion, prolonged droughts, and increased vulnerability to pests like root borers and , as well as fungal diseases. Conservation efforts vary by region but remain inconsistent. In the , initiatives like the "Give a Ghaf" campaign promote planting in gardens and protected areas, such as 600 trees in Al Faya in 2019, to counter and . In , surveys assess tree status and seed collection for , though invasive species like Prosopis juliflora pose ongoing risks. Rajasthan's measures, including community protections by groups like the Bishnoi, have historically preserved trees through cultural taboos against felling, but enforcement is weak amid development pressures, leading to calls for stricter policies. Overall, without enhanced habitat safeguards and sustainable management, localized declines may intensify ecosystem degradation in arid zones.

Management practices

In arid systems, Prosopis cineraria trees are typically maintained at densities of 100-150 trees per to optimize combined productivity of , fuelwood, and understory crops such as mustard or , with higher densities enhancing overall farm output while avoiding excessive shading that could suppress intercrop yields by more than 20%. Tree spacing is adjusted based on and rainfall, with wider intervals (10-15 meters) recommended in rain-fed conditions to facilitate manual and reduce competition for water. Lopping, the selective of branches for and fuelwood, is a primary technique, particularly during dry seasons when it supplies up to 70% of feed in the region. Mature trees with a girth exceeding 75 cm can sustain annual lopping at 50-75% canopy removal intensity, yielding 94-316% more green (averaging 25-40 kg per tree) compared to biannual or triennial cycles, without long-term detriment to radial growth or regeneration. However, for production, a four-year rotation is advised to prevent productivity declines of up to 30% from excessive annual harvesting, as continuous heavy lopping depletes reserves and weakens structural . young saplings (up to 3-5 years old) at 25-50% intensity promotes bushier growth and higher biomass accumulation, with studies showing statistically significant increases in height, diameter, and branching. Pest and disease management emphasizes integrated cultural practices over chemical reliance; for instance, annual lopping combined with mechanical removal of infested effectively curbs Eriophyes prosopidis populations by disrupting life cycles and reducing infestation rates by 40-60%. In cases of widespread mortality linked to fungal pathogens or borers, soil drenching with (20 g per tree) alongside biofungicides like Trichoderma harzianum (pre-incubated in at 1:40 ) is applied biannually for 2-3 years, restoring vigor in affected stands. Weed suppression involves manual hoeing every 15-20 days during the first 3-4 years post-planting, especially in periods, to minimize competition without herbicides that could harm mycorrhizal associations beneficial for . Overgrazing is mitigated through communal or , preserving establishment rates above 70% in managed rangelands.

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