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Mill scale
Mill scale
Mill scale
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Mill scale on an anvil

Mill scale, often shortened to just scale, is the flaky surface of hot rolled steel, consisting of the mixed iron oxides iron(II) oxide (FeO, wüstite), iron(III) oxide (Fe2O3, hematite), and iron(II,III) oxide (Fe3O4, magnetite).

Mill scale is formed on the outer surfaces of plates, sheets or profiles when they are produced by passing red hot iron or steel billets through rolling mills.[1] Mill scale is bluish-black in color. It is usually less than 1 mm (0.039 in) thick, and initially adheres to the steel surface and protects it from atmospheric corrosion provided no break occurs in this coating.[2]

Because it is electrochemically cathodic to steel, any break in the mill scale coating will cause accelerated corrosion of steel exposed at the break. Mill scale is thus a boon for a while, until its coating breaks due to handling of the steel product or due to any other mechanical cause.

Mill scale becomes a nuisance when the steel is to be processed. Any paint applied over it is wasted, since it will come off with the scale as moisture-laden air gets under it. Thus mill scale can be removed from steel surfaces by flame cleaning, pickling, or abrasive blasting, which are all tedious operations that consume energy. This is why shipbuilders and steel fixers used to leave steel and rebar delivered freshly rolled from mills out in the open to allow it to 'weather' until most of the scale fell off due to atmospheric action. Nowadays, most steel mills can supply their product with mill scale removed and steel coated with shop primers over which welding or painting can be done safely.

Mill scale generated in rolling mills will be collected and sent to a sinter plant for recycling.

In art

[edit]

Mill scale is sought after by select abstract expressionist artists[like whom?] as its effect on steel can cause unpredicted and seemingly random abstract organic visual effects. [citation needed] Although the majority of mill scale is removed from steel during its passage through scale breaker rolls during manufacturing, smaller structurally inconsequential residue can be visible. Leveraging this processing vestige by accelerating its corrosive effects through the metallurgical use of phosphoric acid or in conjunction with selenium dioxide can create a high contrast visual substrate onto which other compositional elements can be added.

In refractory production

[edit]

Mill scale can be used as a raw material in granular refractory. When this refractory is cast and preheated, these scales provide escape routes for the evaporating water vapor, thus preventing cracks and resulting in a strong, monolithic structure.

In reduced iron powder production

[edit]

Mill scale is a complex oxide that contains around 70% iron with traces of nonferrous metals and alkaline compounds. Reduced iron powder may be obtained by conversion of mill scale into a single highest oxide i.e. hematite (Fe2O3) followed by reduction with hydrogen. Shahid and Choi reported the reverse co-precipitation method for the synthesis of magnetite (Fe3O4) from mill scale and used for multiple environmental applications such as nutrient recovery,[3] ballasted coagulation in activated sludge process, and heavy metal remediation in an aqueous environment.[4]

See also

[edit]
  • Dross – Impurities in molten metal
  • Firescale – Oxidation on copper alloys
  • Hammer paint – Lacquer that looks like hammered metal when dried
  • Slag – By-product of smelting ores and used metals
  • Slag (welding) – Vitreous material produced as a byproduct of some arc welding processes

References

[edit]
Revisions and contributorsEdit on WikipediaRead on Wikipedia

Mill scale

View on Grokipedia
from Grokipedia
Mill scale is the flaky, bluish-black oxide layer that forms on the surface of during hot rolling processes, primarily composed of iron oxides including (FeO), (Fe₃O₄), and (Fe₂O₃). This byproduct arises from the oxidation of the surface at high temperatures, typically between 900°C and 1300°C, and constitutes about 1-2% of the produced in rolling mills. With an iron content of approximately 68-72%, mill scale is a valuable secondary resource despite being classified as . The formation of mill scale occurs in multiple stages during production: initial oxidation during reheating in furnaces, further layering during multi-pass hot rolling, and final adherence after cooling. Primary scale is often removed via high-pressure descaling, but secondary scale persists and must be addressed for subsequent applications like or , as it can promote under-film if left intact. Physically, mill scale appears as a brittle, layered solid with a of around 5.7 tons per cubic meter and a near 1370°C, making it insoluble in and non-combustible. Its chemical composition varies slightly based on the steel grade but generally includes trace elements like (0.61%) and (0.059%), with oil content limited to less than 1% for most uses. In industry, mill scale is recycled extensively to recover iron, reducing raw material needs and waste disposal. Key applications include incorporation into sinter or pellet feeds for blast furnaces, briquetting for electric arc furnaces, and as a in from via submerged arc furnaces. Beyond metallurgy, it serves in production as a , in heavy aggregates, battery manufacturing, production, and even as a catalyst or . Globally, millions of tons are generated annually, with transport regulated to prevent during shipping, emphasizing its role in sustainable practices.

Definition and Formation

What is Mill Scale

Mill scale is the flaky, oxidized layer that forms on the surface of hot-rolled steel or iron during the manufacturing process, serving as a byproduct of high-temperature exposure to oxygen. This layer primarily consists of iron oxides and adheres closely to the metal substrate, distinguishing it from other surface residues in metalworking. As a historical byproduct, mill scale emerged with the development of hot rolling mills in the late 18th and 19th centuries, coinciding with the Industrial Revolution's expansion of iron and production. Early rolling technologies, patented in the , enabled efficient shaping of heated metal into sheets and bars, inevitably producing this oxide scale as the material was processed. Visually, mill scale appears as bluish-black, tightly adhering flakes, typically less than 1 mm thick, that initially protect the underlying from atmospheric by acting as a temporary barrier. However, for subsequent fabrication, , or galvanizing, it is often removed, as its brittle nature can lead to underfilm if left intact. Unlike , which forms during traditional by hammer blows on heated iron and often appears as loose spheroidal particles, mill scale results specifically from the continuous pressure of rolling mills on hot .

Formation Process

Mill scale forms primarily through the oxidation of hot surfaces exposed to atmospheric oxygen during the hot rolling process. When iron or billets are reheated in a furnace to temperatures typically between 1100°C and 1300°C, initial oxidation begins, creating a primary layer that is subsequently removed by high-pressure descaling before entering the rolling mill. As the descaled progresses through the rolling stands, it is repeatedly exposed to air during inter-pass transfers, leading to the formation of secondary and tertiary scales on the surface. This oxidation occurs above 900°C, where the 's high temperature accelerates the reaction with oxygen, resulting in a thin, adherent layer that builds up progressively. The mechanism involves the of oxygen into the surface and the outward of iron ions, forming a layered structure through sequential phase transformations. The process starts with the rapid formation of an inner wustite layer, followed by outer layers of and , though the primary iron oxides involved are detailed elsewhere. Key factors influencing the thickness and adherence of this scale include the rolling , which determines the oxidation rate—higher temperatures above 1100°C promote faster growth—along with the duration of air exposure between rolling passes, typically seconds to minutes, and atmospheric conditions such as oxygen . For instance, in oxidizing atmospheres with sufficient oxygen availability, scale thickness can reach up to 0.1 mm for secondary scales under standard hot rolling conditions. Repeated rolling passes play a critical role in enhancing scale development by mechanically deforming and cracking existing layers, which exposes fresh metal surfaces to further oxidation during subsequent exposures. Each pass introduces shear stresses that cause micro-cracks in the outer , widening them from the roll gap entry to exit and allowing oxygen ingress, thereby building multiple, inhomogeneous layers with varying —up to 20% in secondary scales. This iterative deformation-oxidation cycle is unique to rolling, as it combines high thermal exposure with intense mechanical working, leading to a more adherent and multi-layered scale compared to static heating processes. In comparison to other hot-working processes like or , mill scale formation in rolling emphasizes dynamic inter-pass oxidation under continuous high-speed deformation, resulting in thinner, more uniform layers due to the shorter exposure times and frequent mechanical disruption, whereas often produces thicker, less adherent scales from prolonged static heating.

Composition and Properties

Chemical Composition

Mill scale is predominantly composed of iron oxides, with a total iron content typically ranging from 70% to 75% by weight. The primary oxide phases include wustite (FeO), (Fe₃O₄), and (Fe₂O₃), where wustite often constitutes the largest proportion, followed by magnetite and hematite. These phases form layered structures on the surface, with relative abundances varying based on formation conditions, such as wustite comprising up to 95% in primary scales under certain hot-rolling parameters. Minor elements in mill scale include traces of silica (SiO₂, typically less than 5%), alumina (Al₂O₃, less than 2%), oxides (from Mn content around 0.5-1%), and other impurities such as calcium, sodium, and , which originate from the base composition. The overall chemical makeup exhibits variability depending on the type of produced, such as versus alloyed varieties, and post-rolling cooling rates, which influence phase stability and metallic iron inclusions (up to 7%). Faster cooling tends to preserve more wustite, while slower cooling promotes transformation to and . The elemental and phase composition of mill scale is commonly analyzed using X-ray diffraction (XRD) for identifying and quantifying oxide phases like wustite, , and . (ICP) spectroscopy, often in optical emission (ICP-OES) or (ICP-MS) modes, is employed for precise determination of major and trace elemental contents, including iron and impurities.

Physical and Chemical Properties

Mill scale exhibits a bluish-black color, characteristic of its composition, which provides a distinctive appearance to the oxidized surface. Its is layered and brittle, forming thin, flaky sheets that adhere initially to the underlying but can under mechanical stress. The typical ranges from 0.1 to 1 mm in flake form, influencing its handling and processing requirements. Due to its significant (Fe₃O₄) content, mill scale displays magnetic behavior, allowing for in recovery processes. The true of mill scale falls within 5.0-5.2 g/cm³, reflecting the dense nature of its oxide phases. Chemically, mill scale demonstrates high reducibility, readily converting to metallic iron when exposed to reducing agents such as or at elevated temperatures. It maintains thermal stability up to approximately 1000°C, beyond which phase transformations may occur, but it remains suitable for high-temperature applications without decomposition under normal conditions. Mill scale shows slight solubility in acids, such as hydrochloric or , which facilitates its removal through processes. In terms of reactivity, mill scale is highly reducible and serves as a source of iron oxides in high-temperature metallurgical processes, where the oxides are reduced to metallic iron using reducing agents. On surfaces, it provides temporary protection by acting as a barrier against atmospheric oxidation until intentionally removed for further processing. Evaluation of mill scale properties often follows ASTM standards, such as ASTM A380 for assessing scale adhesion and removal efficacy during descaling of , ensuring in production.

Production and Handling

Generation in Steel Mills

Mill scale is generated primarily in steel mills during the hot rolling processes of s, slabs, and blooms into finished products such as sheets, plates, and sections. The key generation points include hot strip mills, where slabs are rolled into thin strips; plate mills, which produce thicker plates for heavy applications; and section mills, which form structural shapes like beams and channels. This occurs specifically during billet reheating in furnaces, the multi-pass rolling stages, and the subsequent cooling phase, where oxidation of the steel surface leads to scale formation as detailed in the formation process section. Global annual production of mill scale is estimated at 10-20 million tons, representing approximately 1-2% of the total rolled output worldwide. For instance, with global crude production exceeding 1.8 billion tons annually, the yield from hot rolling operations aligns with this range, though specific estimates vary based on reporting; one study pegs it at about 13.5 million tons per year. The yield of mill scale is influenced by several operational factors, including throughput rates, which directly scale production volume with output; mill efficiency, where optimized reheating and rolling practices can minimize excessive oxidation; and cooling methods, such as air cooling versus water , with the latter potentially reducing adherent scale through descaling but increasing loose flake generation during rapid temperature drops. Historically, mill scale generation has increased in tandem with global steel production growth since the 1950s, when worldwide output was around 189 million tons, expanding to over 1.8 billion tons by the 2020s—a roughly tenfold rise driven by industrialization and demand in construction and manufacturing.

Collection and Processing

Mill scale is primarily collected from steel rolling mills through a combination of mechanical and hydraulic methods to capture the oxide flakes and particles dislodged during hot rolling. Mechanical techniques include scraping the scale from rollers and collecting it at the base of rolling stands and conveyors, where it accumulates as the hot steel contracts and sheds the layer. Water flushing is commonly employed on cooling beds to dislodge and transport mill scale via high-pressure sprays, directing it into flumes or pits for settling. Additionally, vacuum systems equipped with powerful pumps are used to suction heavy mill scale particles, particularly in areas with fine dust or to minimize airborne contamination. Magnetic separation is often integrated into these processes, especially for recovering scale from flume water or wastewater, leveraging the material's inherent magnetism to attract and isolate iron oxide particles. Following collection, initial prepares mill scale for storage or by addressing its variable form and . The material, often in brittle flakes ranging from microns to several millimeters, undergoes crushing to break down larger pieces for uniformity, followed by sieving to classify particle sizes and remove oversized . is essential to reduce content, which typically ranges from 4% to 7% after water-based collection but can reach higher levels depending on handling; this step prevents issues like during transport and ensures the stays below the transportable moisture limit. These processes are conducted in settling tanks or dedicated facilities adjacent to the mill to minimize material loss. Quality control during processing focuses on contaminant removal to meet reuse standards, as mill scale can carry oils, greases, or dirt from lubricants and cooling fluids. Washing with water or solvents effectively strips soluble contaminants, while magnetic purification further isolates pure oxide fractions from non-magnetic impurities. The magnetic properties of mill scale, primarily due to its magnetite content, aid in this separation by allowing efficient extraction without chemical additives. Processed material is then sampled and analyzed to ensure low oil content (typically below 1%) and consistent particle distribution. Challenges in mill scale collection and processing include managing fine dust particles that can become airborne or lost during handling, necessitating enclosed systems or filters to capture them. Ensuring minimal loss during transport is critical, as the material's high and potential for moisture-induced clumping can lead to inefficiencies or risks like in bulk shipments. These issues are mitigated through integrated recovery systems, but variability in mill operations often requires site-specific adaptations.

Industrial Uses

In Iron and Steel Production

Mill scale plays a crucial role as a recycled feedstock in , leveraging its high content of approximately 70% to serve as an alternative to primary raw materials. In electric arc furnaces (EAF), it is commonly processed into briquettes and added to the melting charge, providing an iron-rich supplement that reduces the need for scrap metal and enhances . Similarly, in basic oxygen furnaces (BOF), mill scale briquettes function as a secondary , replacing while maintaining process stability in the converter. The primary method for reclaiming iron from mill scale involves a reduction process where the layer is heated with or at temperatures ranging from 650°C to 950°C, converting it into metallic iron. This carbothermic or hydrogen-based reduction can achieve metallization degrees exceeding 85-90%, yielding high-purity reduced iron suitable for further . In practice, tilting rotary furnaces facilitate this without pre-agglomeration, allowing integration directly into operations. Beyond direct furnace applications, mill scale is incorporated into sinter plants at levels up to 5% of the charge mix to improve sinter strength and productivity for blast furnace feed. It also supports pelletizing processes by acting as a feedstock additive, enhancing pellet quality for blast furnace use. Additionally, mill scale contributes to ferroalloy production, serving as a raw material in the manufacture of ferro-phosphorus and ferro-molybdenum, thereby closing the loop in alloy steelmaking. Recycling mill scale into these processes yields significant economic advantages, including reduced costs—up to 40% savings compared to traditional usage in induction furnaces—and lower waste disposal expenses, promoting sustainable production loops.

In Refractory Materials

Mill scale, primarily composed of s, serves as a valuable in the production of granular refractories due to its ability to introduce controlled that facilitates the escape of gases during casting and preheating processes, thereby enhancing the resistance of the final product. This helps mitigate internal stresses caused by rapid temperature changes, making the refractories more durable in high-heat environments such as industrial furnaces. The content also contributes to the formation of phases, like hercynite (FeAl₂O₄), which further improve crack resistance and overall structural integrity. In magnesite-chrome and alumina-based refractories, mill scale is incorporated at levels typically ranging from 5% to 15% by weight to boost the concentration, promoting better bonding and without requiring expensive synthetic additives. For instance, in magnesite-chrome compositions, mill scale acts as a to form bonds at operating temperatures, enhancing resistance to and peeling. Similarly, in magnesia-hercynite refractories (an alumina-influenced variant), additions of 7-16% mill scale, combined with magnesia and aluminum sources, yield materials with cold crushing strengths up to 95 MPa after firing. The manufacturing process involves mixing mill scale with primary aggregates like magnesia or alumina, along with binders such as or , to create a or pellet form, followed by shaping into bricks or castables and firing at 1550-1650°C for 1 hour to achieve densification and phase development. This approach offers a cost-effective alternative to synthetic iron oxides, steel industry waste while producing refractories suitable for steel ladle linings, where they demonstrate performance comparable to commercial products in terms of strength and resistance.

In Powder Metallurgy

Mill scale, a rich in iron oxides, is converted into reduced iron through thermochemical reduction processes suitable for applications. The primary methods involve reduction in a or carbon monoxide reduction in a fixed , typically conducted at temperatures ranging from 900 to 1100°C for durations of 120 to 180 minutes. These processes yield sponge iron with a metallic iron content exceeding 95% Fe, often reaching up to 98.4% purity after annealing to minimize residual carbon and oxygen levels to below 0.3%. The resulting exhibits a porous structure with particle sizes generally between 50 and 150 μm following grinding and sieving, making it ideal for subsequent compaction. The reduction achieves a high degree of metallization, typically 95-99%, corresponding to an iron recovery yield of 80-90% from the original mill scale, comparable to or surpassing traditional (DRI) processes that typically yield 90-95% metallization using coal or . Post-reduction, the sponge iron is milled to uniform particle distribution and tested for , apparent density, and flow rate to ensure compliance with Metal Powder Industries Federation (MPIF) Standard 35 specifications for structural parts, which define minimum purity, , and mechanical property thresholds. This standardization facilitates consistent performance in downstream processing. In , the reduced iron powder from mill scale is pressed into green compacts at pressures of 400-800 MPa and sintered at 1100-1300°C in a to form dense metallic components. Key applications include automotive , oil-impregnated bearings, porous filters, and structural bushings, where the powder's high purity and enable superior sinterability and mechanical strength, such as tensile strengths exceeding 40 in alloyed variants. These parts leverage the cost-effectiveness of mill scale as a recycled feedstock, reducing reliance on primary iron ores while maintaining properties comparable to commercially produced atomized powders.

Other Applications

In Cement and Construction

Mill scale serves as a valuable source of iron oxides in production, where it is added to the raw mix for clinkers, typically in small amounts to supply the required iron content of about 2-5% in the final clinker composition. This addition facilitates the formation of key clinker minerals, such as and , during the high-temperature process in rotary s, while also contributing to the characteristic gray color of . By providing high-purity iron oxides (>70% Fe content), mill scale integrates seamlessly into the kiln feed after screening and blending, ensuring uniform distribution without prior grinding to avoid segregation. One key benefit of mill scale in cement kilns is its role as a fluxing agent, which lowers the melting temperature of the raw materials and enhances burnability, thereby reducing and improving overall process efficiency. Furthermore, incorporating mill scale recycles a industry byproduct, minimizing the extraction of virgin iron-bearing minerals like or and supporting principles in . Beyond cement production, finds application in as a partial substitute for fine aggregates in mixes, where it acts as a dense filler to boost and mechanical performance. indicates that replacing 10-40% of with mill scale increases concrete density, (up to 20-30% improvement in some formulations), and resistance to ingress and absorption, making it suitable for self-compacting or high-strength concretes in corrosive environments. Recent studies as of 2025 confirm its use in sustainable mortar formulations, enhancing post-fire properties and . Since the 2010s, plants in have increasingly adopted mill scale to align with goals, driven by rising production waste and regulatory pressures for ; for example, Indian facilities have explored its integration to offset growing exports of unused scale.

In Art and Pigments

Mill scale contributes textural elements in metal sculptures and s, where its flaky, bluish-black surface creates rusty, metallic effects that enhance the industrial aesthetic of artworks. For instance, sculptor preserved mill scale on plates in works like Delineator (1974–75), using its grainy to contrast smooth surfaces and activate spatial perception in minimalist installations. This approach aligns with broader 20th-century trends in , where unrefined byproducts like mill scale symbolized the grit of modern manufacturing. Preparation for artistic use involves milling raw mill scale to micron-sized particles—often under 50 microns—for optimal dispersion, followed by mixing with binders like to form stable paints or accelerators. During grinding, artists must employ ventilation and protective masks, as of fine mill scale dust can irritate respiratory tracts and pose long-term health risks similar to other particulates. Recent research (2020–2024) has explored mill scale as a source for inorganic pigments in ceramics, such as in stoneware tableware and dark pigments via calcination, supporting sustainable applications in art and design materials.

Recycling and Environmental Impact

Recycling Methods

Mill scale, a byproduct rich in iron oxides, is primarily recycled through direct reintegration into steel production processes to recover its metallic value. One common method involves briquetting, where fine mill scale particles are compacted with binders such as molasses or organic agents into dense briquettes suitable for charging into electric arc furnaces (EAFs) or blast furnaces. This approach enhances handling and reduces dust loss, allowing up to 90% of mill scale to be recycled directly within steel mills. Pelletizing represents another key technique, blending 10% mill scale with iron ore fines and binders to form green pellets that are indurated for use in sintering plants or direct reduction processes; this substitution improves pellet strength and productivity without compromising metallurgical properties. For producing iron powder, chemical reduction methods are employed, often using hydrogen gas in a at temperatures between 650°C and 950°C. Mill scale is first ground to under 75 μm and briquetted, then reduced in a or thermo-balance setup, achieving high reduction efficiencies that increase with temperature and gas flow rate; this yields metallic iron powder for applications in . Advanced recycling processes target higher purity outputs. Hydrometallurgical leaching dissolves iron oxides from mill scale using acids like (HCl) or , producing pure iron salts such as ferrous sulfate heptahydrate or ferric (FeCl3); for instance, two-stage leaching with HCl recovers iron solutions that can be further processed, minimizing impurity dissolution. Emerging plasma arc utilizes high-temperature plasma torches (up to 15,000°C) in furnaces to vitrify and reduce mill scale alongside other wastes, generating high-purity iron outputs with low formation; recent pilots (as of 2025) explore hydrogen-enhanced plasma for lower energy use, though commercial adoption remains limited due to . Globally, mill scale recycling aligns with regulatory frameworks promoting , such as waste directives. In , approximately 1.3 million tons of mill scale are generated annually (as of 2025, estimated as ~1% of production), with involving bulk shipping from mills to recycling facilities to facilitate large-scale reintegration. mill scale offers savings of up to 74% compared to primary iron production from , primarily by avoiding and beneficiation steps.

Environmental and Economic Considerations

Recycling mill scale plays a crucial role in reducing , as global production reaches approximately 20 million tons annually (as of 2025, estimated as ~1% of global crude production), much of which could otherwise contribute to environmental burdens if discarded. This practice diverts significant volumes from disposal sites, promoting sustainable in the industry. Additionally, utilizing mill scale in place of virgin lowers CO2 emissions, with savings estimated at 1.5 tons of CO2 per ton recycled, akin to the benefits observed in . Economically, mill scale holds value as a , with market prices typically ranging from $50 to $100 per ton based on 2025 estimates influenced by quality, location, and demand. mills benefit from selling this material, generating revenue that offsets disposal costs and supports . Under regulatory frameworks, mill scale is classified as non-hazardous waste by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) and the European Union's REACH regulation, facilitating its reuse without stringent protocols. However, handling requires dust control measures to address risks from fine particles. Emerging policies, such as those promoted by the European Steel Association under the EU Green Deal, further incentivize its to enhance resource efficiency and reduce reliance on primary materials. Despite these advantages, challenges persist, including contamination risks from oil residues in unprocessed mill scale, which can limit recyclability if exceeding 1% content. The market for mill scale also exhibits volatility tied to broader price fluctuations, driven by supply-demand dynamics and global economic factors.

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  68. https://www.eia.gov/todayinenergy/detail.php?id=16211
  69. https://worldsteel.org/media/press-releases/2025/september-2025-crude-steel-production/
  70. https://worldsteel.org/media/press-releases/2025/worldsteel-short-range-outlook-october-2025/
  71. https://blog.newmill.com/sustainable-practices-steel-manufacturing/
  72. https://libertysteelgroup.com/uk/wp-content/uploads/sites/2/2020/12/LSS-Mill-Scale-May-2017.pdf
  73. https://www.eurofer.eu/assets/Uploads/EUROFER-Input-Consultation-on-the-New-Circular-Economy-1.pdf
  74. https://vermeulens.com/blog/steel-industry-volatility-risks-risk-mitigation
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