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Near-field communication
Near-field communication
Near-field communication
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The Secure Element chip, an NFC chip that contains data such as the Secure Element identifier (SEID) for secure transactions. This chip is commonly found in smartphones and other NFC devices.

Near-field communication (NFC) is a set of communication protocols that enables communication between two electronic devices over a distance of 4 cm (1+1⁄2 in) or less.[1] NFC offers a low-speed connection through a simple setup that can be used for the bootstrapping of capable wireless connections.[2] Like other proximity card technologies, NFC is based on inductive coupling between two electromagnetic coils present on an NFC-enabled device such as a smartphone. NFC communicating in one or both directions uses a frequency of 13.56 MHz in the globally available unlicensed radio frequency ISM band, compliant with the ISO/IEC 18000-3 air interface standard at data rates ranging from 106 to 848 kbit/s.

The NFC Forum has helped define and promote the technology, setting standards for certifying device compliance.[3][4] Secure communications are available by applying encryption algorithms as is done for credit cards[5] and if they fit the criteria for being considered a personal area network.[6]

NFC standards

[edit]

NFC standards cover communications protocols and data exchange formats and are based on existing radio-frequency identification (RFID) standards including ISO/IEC 14443 and FeliCa.[7] The standards include ISO/IEC 18092[8] and those defined by the NFC Forum. In addition to the NFC Forum, the GSMA group defined a platform for the deployment of GSMA NFC Standards[9] within mobile handsets. GSMA's efforts include Trusted Services Manager,[10][11] Single Wire Protocol, testing/certification and secure element.[12] NFC-enabled portable devices can be provided with application software, for example to read electronic tags or make payments when connected to an NFC-compliant system. These are standardized to NFC protocols, replacing proprietary technologies used by earlier systems.

A patent licensing program for NFC is under deployment by France Brevets, a patent fund created in 2011. This program was under development by Via Licensing Corporation, an independent subsidiary of Dolby Laboratories, and was terminated in May 2012.[13] A platform-independent free and open source NFC library, libnfc, is available under the GNU Lesser General Public License.[14][15]

Present and anticipated applications include contactless transactions, data exchange and simplified setup of more complex communications such as Wi-Fi.[16] In addition, when one of the connected devices has Internet connectivity, the other can exchange data with online services.[citation needed]

NFC wireless charging (WLC)

[edit]

Near-field communication (NFC) technology not only supports data transmission but also enables wireless charging, providing a dual-functionality that is particularly beneficial for small portable devices. The NFC Forum has developed a specific wireless charging specification, known as NFC Wireless Charging (WLC), which allows devices to charge with up to 1W of power over distances of up to 2 cm (3⁄4 in).[17] This capability is especially suitable for smaller devices like earbuds, wearables, and other compact Internet of Things (IoT) appliances.[17]

Compared to the more widely known Qi wireless charging standard by the Wireless Power Consortium, which offers up to 15W of power over distances up to 4 cm (1+5⁄8 in), NFC WLC provides a lower power output but benefits from a significantly smaller antenna size (as small as 3 × 3 mm).[17][18] This makes NFC WLC an ideal solution for devices where space is at a premium and high power charging is less critical.[17]

The NFC Forum also facilitates a certification program, labeled as Test Release 13.1 (TR13.1), ensuring that products adhere to the WLC 2.0 specification. This certification aims to establish trust and consistency across NFC implementations, minimizing risks for manufacturers and providing assurance to consumers about the reliability and functionality of their NFC-enabled wireless charging devices.[17]

History

[edit]

NFC is rooted in radio-frequency identification technology (known as RFID) which allows compatible hardware to both supply power to and communicate with an otherwise unpowered and passive electronic tag using radio waves. This is used for identification, authentication and tracking. Similar ideas in advertising and industrial applications were not generally successful commercially, outpaced by technologies such as QR codes, barcodes and UHF RFID tags.[citation needed]

  • May 17, 1983: The first patent to be associated with the abbreviation "RFID" was granted to Charles Walton.[19]
  • 1997: Early form patented and first used in Star Wars character toys for Hasbro. The patent was originally held by Andrew White and Marc Borrett at Innovision Research and Technology. The device allowed data communication between two units in close proximity.[20]
  • March 25, 2002: Philips and Sony agreed to establish a technology specification and created a technical outline.[21] Philips Semiconductors applied for the six fundamental patents of NFC, invented by the Austrian and French engineers Franz Amtmann and Philippe Maugars who received the European Inventor Award in 2015.[22]
  • December 8, 2003: NFC was approved as an ISO/IEC standard and later as an ECMA standard.
  • 2004: Nokia, Philips and Sony established the NFC Forum[23]
  • 2004: Nokia launched NFC shell add-on for Nokia 5140 and later Nokia 3220 models, to be shipped in 2005.[24][25]
  • 2005: Mobile phone experimentations in transports, with payment in May in Hanau (Nokia) and as well validation aboard in October in Nice with Orange and payment in shops in October in Caen (Samsung) with first reception of "Fly Tag" informations[26][27][28]
  • 2006: Initial specifications for NFC Tags[29]
  • 2006: Specification for "SmartPoster" records[30]
  • 2007: Innovision's NFC tags used in the first consumer trial in the UK, in the Nokia 6131 handset.[31]
  • 2008: AirTag launched what it called the first NFC SDK.[32]
  • 2009: In January, NFC Forum released Peer-to-Peer standards to transfer contacts, URLs, initiate Bluetooth, etc.[33]
  • 2009: NFC first used in transports by China Unicom and Yucheng Transportation Card in the tramways and bus of Chongqing on 19 January 2009,[34] then implemented for the first time in a metro network, by China Unicom in Beijing on 31 December 2010.[35]
  • 2010: Innovision released a suite of designs and patents for low cost, mass-market mobile phones and other devices.[36]
  • 2010: Nokia C7: First NFC-capable smartphone released.[37] NFC feature was enabled by software update in early 2011.[38]
  • 2010: Samsung Nexus S: First Android NFC phone shown[39][40]
  • May 21, 2010: Nice, France, launches, with "Cityzi", the "Nice City of contactless mobile" project, the first in Europe to provide inhabitants with NFC bank cards and mobile phones (like Samsung Player One S5230), and a "bouquet of services" covering transportation (tramways and bus), tourism and student's services[41][42][43]
  • 2011: Google I/O "How to NFC" demonstrates NFC to initiate a game and to share a contact, URL, app or video.[44]
  • 2011: NFC support becomes part of the Symbian mobile operating system with the release of Symbian Anna version.[45]
  • 2011: Research In Motion devices are the first ones certified by MasterCard Worldwide for their PayPass service[46]
  • 2012: UK restaurant chain EAT. and Everything Everywhere (Orange Mobile Network Operator), partner on the UK's first nationwide NFC-enabled smartposter campaign. A dedicated mobile phone app is triggered when the NFC-enabled mobile phone comes into contact with the smartposter.[47]
  • 2012: Sony introduced NFC "Smart Tags" to change modes and profiles on a Sony smartphone at close range, included with the Sony Xperia P Smartphone released the same year.[48]
  • 2013: Samsung and VISA announce their partnership to develop mobile payments.
  • 2013: IBM scientists, in an effort to curb fraud and security breaches, develop an NFC-based mobile authentication security technology. This technology works on similar principles to dual-factor authentication security.[49]
  • October 2014: Dinube becomes the first non-card payment network [50][51] to introduce NFC contactless payments natively on a mobile device, i.e. no need for an external case attached or NFC 'sticker' nor for a card. Based on Host card emulation with its own application identifier (AID),[52] contactless payment was available on Android KitKat upwards and commercial release commenced in June 2015.[53]
  • 2014: AT&T, Verizon and T-Mobile released Softcard (formerly ISIS mobile wallet). It runs on NFC-enabled Android phones and iPhone 4 and iPhone 5 when an external NFC case is attached. The technology was purchased by Google and the service ended on March 31, 2015.
  • September 2015: Google's Android Pay function was launched, a direct rival to Apple Pay, and its roll-out across the US commenced.[54]
  • November 2015: Swatch and Visa Inc. announced a partnership to enable NFC financial transactions using the "Swatch Bellamy" wristwatch. The system is currently online in Asia, through a partnership with China UnionPay and Bank of Communications. The partnership will bring the technology to the US, Brazil, and Switzerland.[55]

Ultra-wideband (UWB) another radio technology has been hailed as a future possible alternatives to NFC technology due to further distances of data transmission, as well as Bluetooth and wireless technology.[56]

Design

[edit]

NFC is a set of short-range wireless technologies, typically requiring a separation of 10 cm (3+7⁄8 in) or less. NFC operates at 13.56 MHz on ISO/IEC 18000-3 air interface and at rates ranging from 106 kbit/s to 424 kbit/s. NFC always involves an initiator and a target; the initiator actively generates an RF field that can power a passive target. This enables NFC targets to take very simple form factors such as unpowered tags, stickers, key fobs, or cards. NFC peer-to-peer communication is possible, provided both devices are powered.[57]

NFC tags contain data and are typically read-only, but may be writable. They can be custom-encoded by their manufacturers or use NFC Forum specifications. The tags can securely store personal data such as debit and credit card information, loyalty program data, PINs and networking contacts, among other information. The NFC Forum defines five types of tags that provide different communication speeds and capabilities in terms of configurability, memory, security, data retention and write endurance.[58]

As with proximity card technology, NFC uses inductive coupling between two nearby loop antennas effectively forming an air-core transformer. Because the distances involved are tiny compared to the wavelength of electromagnetic radiation (radio waves) of that frequency (about 22 metres), the interaction is described as near field. An alternating magnetic field is the main coupling factor and almost no power is radiated in the form of radio waves (which are electromagnetic waves, also involving an oscillating electric field); that minimises interference between such devices and any radio communications at the same frequency or with other NFC devices much beyond its intended range. NFC operates within the globally available and unlicensed radio frequency ISM band of 13.56 MHz. Most of the RF energy is concentrated in the ±7 kHz bandwidth allocated for that band, but the emission's spectral width can be as wide as 1.8 MHz[59] in order to support high data rates.

Working distance with compact standard antennas and realistic power levels could be up to about 20 cm (7+7⁄8 in) (but practically speaking, working distances never exceed 10 cm or 3+7⁄8 in). Note that because the pickup antenna may be quenched in an eddy current by nearby metallic surfaces, the tags may require a minimum separation from such surfaces.[60]

The ISO/IEC 18092 standard supports data rates of 106, 212 or 424 kbit/s.

The communication takes place between an active "initiator" device and a target device which may either be:

Passive
The initiator device provides a carrier field and the target device, acting as a transponder, communicates by modulating the incident field. In this mode, the target device may draw its operating power from the initiator-provided magnetic field.
Active
Both initiator and target device communicate by alternately generating their own fields. A device stops transmitting in order to receive data from the other. This mode requires that both devices include power supplies.
Speed (kbit/s) Active device Passive device
424 Manchester, 10% ASK Manchester, 10% ASK
212 Manchester, 10% ASK Manchester, 10% ASK
106 Modified Miller, 100% ASK Manchester, 10% ASK

NFC employs two different codings to transfer data. If an active device transfers data at 106 kbit/s, a modified Miller coding with 100 percent modulation is used. In all other cases Manchester coding is used with a modulation ratio of 10 percent.

Every active NFC device can work in one or more of three modes:

NFC card emulation
Enables NFC-enabled devices such as smartphones to act like smart cards, allowing users to perform transactions such as payment or ticketing. See Host card emulation
NFC reader/writer
Enables NFC-enabled devices to read information stored on inexpensive NFC tags embedded in labels or smart posters.
NFC peer-to-peer
Enables two NFC-enabled devices to communicate with each other to exchange information in an ad hoc fashion.

NFC tags are passive data stores which can be read, and under some circumstances written to, by an NFC device. They typically contain data (as of 2015 between 96 and 8,192 bytes) and are read-only in normal use, but may be rewritable. Applications include secure personal data storage (e.g. debit or credit card information, loyalty program data, personal identification numbers (PINs), contacts). NFC tags can be custom-encoded by their manufacturers or use the industry specifications.

Security

[edit]

Although the range of NFC is limited to a few centimeters, standard plain NFC is not protected against eavesdropping and can be vulnerable to data modifications. Applications may use higher-layer cryptographic protocols to establish a secure channel.

The RF signal for the wireless data transfer can be picked up with antennas. The distance from which an attacker is able to eavesdrop the RF signal depends on multiple parameters, but is typically less than 10 meters.[61] Also, eavesdropping is highly affected by the communication mode. A passive device that doesn't generate its own RF field is much harder to eavesdrop on than an active device. An attacker can typically eavesdrop within 10 m of an active device and 1 m for passive devices.[62]

Because NFC devices usually include ISO/IEC 14443 protocols, relay attacks are feasible.[63][64][65][page needed] For this attack the adversary forwards the request of the reader to the victim and relays its answer to the reader in real time, pretending to be the owner of the victim's smart card. This is similar to a man-in-the-middle attack.[63] One libnfc code example demonstrates a relay attack using two stock commercial NFC devices. This attack can be implemented using only two NFC-enabled mobile phones.[66]

Standards

[edit]
NFC protocol stack overview

NFC standards cover communications protocols and data exchange formats, and are based on existing RFID standards including ISO/IEC 14443 and FeliCa.[7] The standards include ISO/IEC 18092[8] and those defined by the NFC Forum.

ISO/IEC

[edit]

NFC is standardized in ECMA-340 and ISO/IEC 18092. These standards specify the modulation schemes, coding, transfer speeds and frame format of the RF interface of NFC devices, as well as initialization schemes and conditions required for data collision-control during initialization for both passive and active NFC modes. They also define the transport protocol, including protocol activation and data-exchange methods. The air interface for NFC is standardized in:

  • ISO/IEC 18092 / ECMA-340—Near Field Communication Interface and Protocol-1 (NFCIP-1)[67]
  • ISO/IEC 21481 / ECMA-352—Near Field Communication Interface and Protocol-2 (NFCIP-2)[68]

NFC incorporates a variety of existing standards including ISO/IEC 14443 Type A and Type B, and FeliCa (also simply named F or NFC-F). NFC-enabled phones work at a basic level with existing readers. In "card emulation mode" an NFC device should transmit, at a minimum, a unique ID number to a reader. In addition, NFC Forum defined a common data format called NFC Data Exchange Format (NDEF) that can store and transport items ranging from any MIME-typed object to ultra-short RTD-documents,[69] such as URLs. The NFC Forum added the Simple NDEF Exchange Protocol (SNEP) to the spec that allows sending and receiving messages between two NFC devices.[70]

GSMA

[edit]

The GSM Association (GSMA) is a trade association representing nearly 800 mobile telephony operators and more than 200 product and service companies across 219 countries. Many of its members have led NFC trials and are preparing services for commercial launch.[71]

GSM is involved with several initiatives:

  • Standards: GSMA is developing certification and testing standards to ensure global interoperability of NFC services.[71]
  • Pay-Buy-Mobile initiative: Seeks to define a common global approach to using NFC technology to link mobile devices with payment and contactless systems.[72][73]
  • On November 17, 2010, after two years of discussions, AT&T, Verizon and T-Mobile launched a joint venture to develop a platform through which point of sale payments could be made using NFC in cell phones. Initially known as Isis Mobile Wallet and later as Softcard, the venture was designed to usher in broad deployment of NFC technology, allowing their customers' NFC-enabled cell phones to function similarly to credit cards throughout the US. Following an agreement with—and IP purchase by—Google, the Softcard payment system was shuttered in March, 2015, with an endorsement for its earlier rival, Google Wallet.[74]

StoLPaN

[edit]

StoLPaN (Store Logistics and Payment with NFC) is a pan-European consortium supported by the European Commission's Information Society Technologies program. StoLPaN will examine the potential for NFC local wireless mobile communication.[75]

NFC Forum

[edit]
Logo of the NFC Forum

NFC Forum is a non-profit industry association formed on March 18, 2004, by NXP Semiconductors, Sony and Nokia to advance the use of NFC wireless interaction in consumer electronics, mobile devices and PCs. Its specifications include the five distinct tag types that provide different communication speeds and capabilities covering flexibility, memory, security, data retention and write endurance. NFC Forum promotes implementation and standardization of NFC technology to ensure interoperability between devices and services. As of January 2020, the NFC Forum had over 120 member companies.[76]

NFC Forum promotes NFC and certifies device compliance[5] and whether it fits in a personal area network.[5]

Other standardization bodies

[edit]

GSMA defined a platform for the deployment of GSMA NFC Standards[9] within mobile handsets. GSMA's efforts include,[77] Single Wire Protocol, testing and certification and secure element.[12] The GSMA standards surrounding the deployment of NFC protocols (governed by NFC Forum) on mobile handsets are neither exclusive nor universally accepted. For example, Google's deployment of Host Card Emulation on Android KitKat provides for software control of a universal radio. In this HCE Deployment[78] the NFC protocol is leveraged without the GSMA standards.

Other standardization bodies involved in NFC include:

  • ETSI / SCP (Smart Card Platform) to specify the interface between the SIM card and the NFC chipset.
  • EMVCo for the impacts on the EMV payment applications

Applications

[edit]
N-Mark logo for NFC-enabled devices

NFC allows one- and two-way communication between endpoints, suitable for many applications.

NFC devices can act as electronic identity documents and keycards.[2] They are used in contactless payment systems and allow mobile payment replacing or supplementing systems such as credit cards and electronic ticket smart cards. These are sometimes called NFC/CTLS or CTLS NFC, with contactless abbreviated as CTLS. NFC can be used to share small files such as contacts and for bootstrapping fast connections to share larger media such as photos, videos, and other files.[79]

Commerce

[edit]

NFC devices can be used in contactless payment systems, similar to those used in credit cards and electronic ticket smart cards, and allow mobile payment to replace/supplement these systems.

In Android 4.4, Google introduced platform support for secure NFC-based transactions through Host Card Emulation (HCE), for payments, loyalty programs, card access, transit passes and other custom services. HCE allows any Android 4.4 app to emulate an NFC smart card, letting users initiate transactions with their device. Apps can use a new Reader Mode to act as readers for HCE cards and other NFC-based transactions.

On September 9, 2014, Apple announced support for NFC-powered transactions as part of Apple Pay.[80] With the introduction of iOS 11, Apple devices allow third-party developers to read data from NFC tags.[81]

As of 2022, there are five major NFC apps available in the UK: Apple Pay, Google Pay, Samsung Pay, Barclays Contactless Mobile and Fitbit Pay. The UK Finance's UK Payment Markets Summary 2021 looked at Apple Pay, Google Pay and Samsung Pay and found 17.3 million UK adults had registered for mobile payment (up 75% from the year before) and of those, 84% had made a mobile payment.[82]

Bootstrapping other connections

[edit]

NFC offers a low-speed connection with simple setup that can be used to bootstrap more capable wireless connections.[2] For example, Android Beam software uses NFC to enable pairing and establish a Bluetooth connection when doing a file transfer and then disabling Bluetooth on both devices upon completion.[83] Nokia, Samsung, BlackBerry and Sony[84] have used NFC technology to pair Bluetooth headsets, media players and speakers with one tap.[85] The same principle can be applied to the configuration of Wi-Fi networks. Samsung Galaxy devices have a feature named S-Beam—an extension of Android Beam that uses NFC (to share MAC address and IP addresses) and then uses Wi-Fi Direct to share files and documents. The advantage of using Wi-Fi Direct over Bluetooth is that it permits much faster data transfers, running up to 300 Mbit/s.[57]

Social networking

[edit]

NFC can be used for social networking, for sharing contacts, text messages and forums, links to photos, videos or files[79] and entering multiplayer mobile games.[86]

Identity and access tokens

[edit]

NFC-enabled devices can act as electronic identity documents found in passports and ID cards, and keycards for the use in fare cards, transit passes, login cards, car keys and access badges .[2] NFC's short range and encryption support make it more suitable than less private RFID systems.

Smartphone automation and NFC tags

[edit]

NFC-equipped smartphones can be paired with NFC Tags or stickers that can be programmed by NFC apps. These programs can allow a change of phone settings, texting, app launching, or command execution.

Such apps do not rely on a company or manufacturer, but can be utilized immediately with an NFC-equipped smartphone and an NFC tag.[87]

The NFC Forum published the Signature Record Type Definition (RTD) 2.0 in 2015 to add integrity and authenticity for NFC Tags. This specification allows an NFC device to verify tag data and identify the tag author.[88]

Gaming

[edit]
Main article: List of gaming NFC platforms

NFC has been used in video games starting with Skylanders: Spyro's Adventure.[89] After connecting the included "Portal of Power" (a toy pedestal that contains an NFC reader) to their game system, players can summon any of the game's 32 unique playable characters ("Skylanders") by physically placing a figurine of their desired Skylander atop the "Portal", which reads the NFC tag embedded within the figurine, and loads the corresponding character into play. Each collectible figurine contains personal data, so no two are exactly alike. Nintendo's Wii U was the first console system to include NFC technology out of the box- the Wii U GamePad controller was NFC-enabled. This made it compatible with Nintendo's Amiibo range of accessories. Like Skylanders, Amiibo figurines contain NFC tags, and can unlock relevant in-game content when placed on a supported NFC reader, though what particular Amiibo are supported (if any), and what affect each one has, can vary from game to game. NFC technology was later included in the Nintendo 3DS range (being built into the New Nintendo 3DS/XL and in a separately sold reader which uses Infrared to communicate to older 3DS family consoles) and the Nintendo Switch range (being built within the right Joy-Con controller and directly in the Nintendo Switch Lite), all of which remain compatible with Amiibo.

Sports

[edit]

Adidas Telstar 18 is a soccer ball that contains an NFC chip within.[90] The chip enables users to interact with the ball using a smartphone.[91]

Bluetooth comparison

[edit]
Aspect NFC Bluetooth Bluetooth low energy
Tag requires power No Yes
Cost of tag US$0.10 US$5.00
RFID compatible ISO/IEC 18000-3 Active
Standardisation body ISO/IEC Bluetooth SIG
Network standard ISO/IEC 13157 etc. was IEEE 802.15.1; now by SIG specs
Topology Point-to-point Wireless personal area network (WPAN)
Cryptography Not with RFID Available
Range < 20 cm (7+7⁄8 in) ≈ 100 m (class 1) ≈ 50 m
Frequency 13.56 MHz 2.4–2.5 GHz
Bit rate 424 kbit/s 2.1 Mbit/s 1 Mbit/s
Set-up time < 0.1 s < 6 s < 0.006 s
Current consumption < 15 mA (read) Varies with class < 15 mA (read and transmit)

NFC and Bluetooth are both relatively short-range communication technologies available on mobile phones. NFC operates at slower speeds than Bluetooth and has a much shorter range, but consumes far less power and doesn't require pairing.[92]

NFC sets up more quickly than standard Bluetooth, but has a lower transfer rate than Bluetooth low energy. With NFC, instead of performing manual configurations to identify devices, the connection between two NFC devices is automatically established in less than .1 second. The maximum data transfer rate of NFC (424 kbit/s) is slower than that of Bluetooth V2.1 (2.1 Mbit/s).

NFC's maximum working distance of less than 20 cm (7+7⁄8 in) reduces the likelihood of unwanted interception, making it particularly suitable for crowded areas that complicate correlating a signal with its transmitting physical device (and by extension, its user).[93]

NFC is compatible with existing passive RFID (13.56 MHz ISO/IEC 18000-3) infrastructures. It requires comparatively low power, similar to the Bluetooth V4.0 low-energy protocol. However, when NFC works with an unpowered device (e.g. on a phone that may be turned off, a contactless smart credit card, a smart poster), the NFC power consumption is greater than that of Bluetooth V4.0 Low Energy, since illuminating the passive tag needs extra power.[92]

Devices

[edit]
Main article: List of NFC-enabled mobile devices

In 2011, handset vendors released more than 40 NFC-enabled handsets with the Android mobile operating system. BlackBerry devices support NFC using BlackBerry Tag on devices running BlackBerry OS 7.0 and greater.[94]

MasterCard added further NFC support for PayPass for the Android and BlackBerry platforms, enabling PayPass users to make payments using their Android or BlackBerry smartphones.[95] A partnership between Samsung and Visa added a 'payWave' application on the Galaxy S4 smartphone.[96]

In 2012, Microsoft added native NFC functionality in their mobile OS with Windows Phone 8, as well as the Windows 8 operating system. Microsoft provides the "Wallet hub" in Windows Phone 8 for NFC payment, and can integrate multiple NFC payment services within a single application.[97]

In 2014, iPhone 6 was released from Apple to support NFC.[98] and since September 2019 in iOS 13 Apple now allows NFC tags to be read out as well as labeled using an NFC app.[citation needed]

Deployments

[edit]
Main article: List of applications of near-field communication

As of April 2011 hundreds of NFC trials had been conducted. Some firms moved to full-scale service deployments, spanning one or more countries. Multi-country deployments include Orange's rollout of NFC technology to banks, retailers, transport, and service providers in multiple European countries,[43] and Airtel Africa and Oberthur Technologies deploying to 15 countries throughout Africa.[99]

  • China Telecom (China's 3rd largest mobile operator) made its NFC rollout in November 2013. The company signed up multiple banks to make their payment apps available on its SIM Cards. China telecom stated that the wallet would support coupons, membership cards, fuel cards and boarding passes. The company planned to achieve targets of rolling out 40 NFC phone models and 30 Mn NFC SIMs by 2014.
  • Softcard (formerly Isis Mobile Wallet), a joint venture from Verizon Wireless, AT&T and T-Mobile, focuses on in-store payments making use of NFC technology. After doing pilots in some regions, they launched across the US.
  • Vodafone launched the NFC-based Vodafone SmartPass mobile payment service in Spain in partnership with Visa. It enables consumers with an NFC-enabled SIM card in a mobile device to make contactless payments via their SmartPass credit balance at any POS.
  • OTI, an Israeli company that designs and develops contactless microprocessor-based smart card technology, contracted to supply NFC-readers to one of its channel partners in the US. The partner was required to buy $10MM worth of OTI NFC readers over 3 years.
  • Rogers Communications launched virtual wallet Suretap to enable users to make payments with their phone in Canada in April 2014. Suretap users can load up gift cards and prepaid MasterCards from national retailers.[100]
  • Sri Lanka's first workforce smart card uses NFC.
  • As of December 13, 2013 Tim Hortons TimmyME BlackBerry 10 Application allowed users to link their prepaid Tim Card to the app, allowing payment by tapping the NFC-enabled device to a standard contactless terminal.[101]
  • Google Wallet allows consumers to store credit card and store loyalty card information in a virtual wallet and then use an NFC-enabled device at terminals that also accept MasterCard PayPass transactions.[102]
  • Germany,[103] Austria,[104] Finland,[105] New Zealand,[106] Italy,[107] Iran,[108] Turkey[109] and Greece[110] trialed NFC ticketing systems for public transport. The Lithuanian capital of Vilnius fully replaced paper tickets for public transportation with ISO/IEC 14443 Type A cards on July 1, 2013.[111]
  • NFC sticker-based payments in Australia's Bankmecu and card issuer Cuscal completed an NFC payment sticker trial, enabling consumers to make contactless payments at Visa payWave terminals using a smart sticker stuck to their phone.
  • India was implementing NFC-based transactions in box offices for ticketing purposes.[112]
  • A partnership of Google and Equity Bank in Kenya introduced NFC payment systems for public transport in the Capital city Nairobi under the branding BebaPay.
  • January 2019 saw the start of trial using NFC-enabled Android mobile phones to pay public transport fares in Victoria, Australia.[113]

See also

[edit]

Notes

[edit]

References

[edit]
[edit]
Revisions and contributorsEdit on WikipediaRead on Wikipedia

Near-field communication

View on Grokipedia
from Grokipedia
Near-field communication (NFC) is a standards-based short-range connectivity technology that enables two electronic devices to exchange over a distance of typically 4 cm (1.6 in) or less, operating at a of 13.56 MHz with transfer rates ranging from 106 kbit/s to 848 kbit/s. Developed as an extension of (RFID) technology, NFC allows devices to function both as initiators (readers) and targets (tags), facilitating contactless interactions such as payments, , and without requiring . The technology was first standardized in 2004 under ISO/IEC 18092 and further developed through contributions from ISO/IEC 14443 and other protocols, ensuring interoperability across compatible hardware. The NFC Forum, established in 2004 by , (now ), and , serves as the primary organization promoting global adoption and certification of NFC devices, with over 700 member companies as of 2024 contributing to specifications for tags, devices, and protocols. Key features include low latency for quick connections (under 0.1 seconds), power harvesting for passive tags that operate without batteries, and inherent security due to the limited range, which minimizes risks of unauthorized interception compared to longer-range wireless technologies like . NFC supports three operational modes: for bidirectional data exchange between active devices, reader/writer for interacting with passive tags, and card emulation for mimicking contactless smart cards in scenarios like mobile payments. Widely integrated into smartphones, wearables, and point-of-sale terminals since the mid-2010s, NFC has revolutionized contactless applications, including tap-to-pay transactions via services like and , public transit ticketing, and smart posters for instant . In addition to consumer uses, it enables industrial applications such as inventory tracking, healthcare device authentication, and integration with emerging standards like for (IoT) ecosystems—such as using NFC tags for device onboarding—supporting wireless charging up to 1 W for low-power devices. Despite its brevity, NFC's simplicity and security have driven tens of billions of transactions annually worldwide as of 2025, positioning it as a foundational technology for seamless, intuitive connectivity.

Fundamentals

Definition and Operating Principles

Near-field communication (NFC) is a set of communication protocols that enable contactless exchange of data between two electronic devices over short distances, typically 0 to 4 cm (1.6 in), with a maximum practical range up to 10 cm depending on implementation, using between two loop antennas located in each . This technology facilitates intuitive interactions, such as tapping a against a tag or another device to initiate data transfer, without requiring physical connections or line-of-sight alignment. NFC operates on principles derived from (RFID) technology, utilizing a high-frequency band of 13.56 MHz to generate an alternating that induces a current in the nearby antenna. In this setup, communication occurs via near-field magnetic coupling, where the proximity ensures low interference and enhanced security compared to longer-range wireless methods. NFC supports both active and passive modes: in active mode, both devices are powered independently and can generate their own fields to exchange data bidirectionally; in passive mode, one device (such as a tag) is powered solely by the from the active initiator device, enabling operation without an internal battery. Data exchange is initiated automatically upon proximity detection, with transfer rates ranging from 106 kbit/s to 848 kbit/s in standard modes, and up to 1.7 Mbit/s in extended configurations per NFC Forum specifications. NFC devices can function in three primary communication modes to support diverse applications. In peer-to-peer mode, two active NFC-enabled devices exchange data symmetrically, such as sharing contact information or initiating a pairing by tapping phones together. Reader/writer mode allows an active device, like a , to read from or write to a passive NFC tag, for example, retrieving a from a tag to open a or updating inventory data on a product label. Card emulation mode enables a device to mimic a , powering passively from a reader's field, as seen when a phone emulates a during a transaction at a point-of-sale terminal. Central to NFC's interoperability is the NFC Data Exchange Protocol (NDEF), a standardized format for structuring and encapsulating data messages exchanged between devices or tags. NDEF organizes information into a sequence of records, each containing a (such as text, URIs, or ) prefixed with type identifiers and length fields, allowing devices to parse and act on the data uniformly across applications. For instance, an NDEF message on a tag might include a URI record that triggers a browser to load a webpage upon detection, ensuring seamless integration without formatting. This protocol supports extensibility through well-known record types defined by the NFC Forum, promoting broad adoption in scenarios like smart posters or digital business cards.

Physical Characteristics

Near-field communication (NFC) operates at a carrier of 13.56 MHz within the high-frequency (HF) band of the , as defined by international standards for short-range interactions. This enables between devices and supports data rates from 46 kbit/s to 1.7 Mbit/s as of NFC Forum specifications in 2025, with standard operating modes at 106 kbps, 212 kbps, 424 kbps, and up to 848 kbps in extended ISO/IEC 14443 implementations, balancing efficiency with the constraints of near-field propagation. The effective communication range of NFC is typically limited to 0–4 cm (1.6 in), with a practical maximum up to 10 cm depending on antenna design and power; the certified compliant range is up to 2 cm following NFC Release 15 (June 2025), arising from the dominance of near-field effects where the strength decays rapidly with distance according to an inverse cube law (1/r³) for the reactive component in scenarios. This rapid attenuation ensures secure, proximity-based interactions but restricts applications to close-range use cases. NFC systems employ loop coil antennas to facilitate , generating and detecting the alternating necessary for data exchange. In mobile devices, these antennas commonly feature diameters of 1–5 cm, optimized for compact integration while maintaining sufficient at the operating . Power consumption in NFC varies by device type and mode. Passive tags, which lack an independent power source, harvest from the reader's , typically drawing 10–50 μW to power their operations during communication. Active devices, such as readers in smartphones, consume up to 100 mW during transmission to generate the interrogating field.

History and Evolution

Origins and Early Development

The origins of near-field communication (NFC) trace back to advancements in radio frequency identification (RFID) technology during the late 1980s and early 1990s, when engineers sought to create secure, short-range contactless interfaces for smart cards. RFID standards like ISO/IEC 14443, first published in 1995, defined key parameters for contactless cards operating at 13.56 MHz with ranges up to 10 cm, focusing initially on unidirectional communication between readers and passive tags. NFC emerged as an extension of this framework, enabling peer-to-peer interactions by allowing devices to alternate between initiator and target roles, thus overcoming the limitations of traditional RFID for applications requiring mutual data exchange. In the early 1990s, Semiconductors (now part of NXP) advanced technology through systems like , acquired from Mikron in 1995, which became a cornerstone for contactless identification in and ticketing. These developments emphasized low-power, secure transmission for smart cards, influencing NFC's core principles of simplicity and security. The term "Touch and Go" later described intuitive proximity interactions in ' research, highlighting the goal of seamless, touch-based operations without complex pairing. By the late 1990s, engineers, including Franz Amtmann, contributed to over 50 RFID-related patents, refining modulation techniques and antenna designs that would enable NFC's passive powering of devices. NFC's formal invention crystallized in through a collaboration between Semiconductors and , where Amtmann and Philippe Maugars filed the six fundamental patents for the technology, earning them the European Inventor Award in for enabling secure contactless data transfer. Initial prototypes in the late 1990s and early 2000s focused on extensions for mobile integration, with demonstrations in regions like and exploring contactless payments, though full NFC implementations arrived later. These efforts prioritized conceptual simplicity, allowing devices to communicate within 4 cm without batteries in passive mode, setting the stage for broader adoption.

Key Milestones and Adoption

In 2004, Nokia Corporation, Royal Philips Electronics (now ), and Sony Corporation founded the NFC Forum to advance the development and interoperability of near-field communication technology across devices and services. This industry collaboration aimed to standardize NFC implementations, fostering widespread adoption by addressing compatibility challenges in early wireless proximity applications. The forum's establishment marked a pivotal shift from proprietary developments to a unified , enabling manufacturers to integrate NFC more reliably into . That same year, the NFC Forum released the NFC Interface and Protocol-1 (NFCIP-1) specification, which defined the core communication framework for NFC devices operating at 13.56 MHz, supporting data rates up to 424 kbps in active and passive modes. Building on this, NFCIP-2 followed in 2005, introducing enhancements for communication and better handling of , which allowed two active NFC devices to exchange data bidirectionally without relying on a host system. These protocols, later formalized as ISO/IEC 18092 and ISO/IEC 21481, provided the foundational standards that propelled NFC from niche trials to commercial viability. Commercial integration accelerated with the launch of the Nokia 6212 classic in 2008, one of the first mass-market mobile phones to embed NFC hardware for tasks like contactless and tag reading. Widespread adoption gained momentum in 2010 when introduced native NFC support in Android 2.3 (), enabling developers to build applications for payments, pairing, and tag interactions on compatible devices like the . Apple followed suit in 2017 with , which added the Core NFC framework to allow third-party apps on and later models to read NFC tags, expanding beyond to general-purpose uses. In the 2020s, NFC's evolution extended to payment ecosystems through deeper integration with EMVCo specifications, which standardized contactless transactions using NFC-enabled cards and mobiles for secure, global interoperability in retail and transit. Concurrently, the NFC Forum advanced wireless charging capabilities with the NFC Wireless Charging (WLC) specification version 2.0, approved in 2021 but seeing broader industry rollout by 2023, enabling up to 1 W power transfer over 2 cm using the same 13.56 MHz antenna for combined data and charging in compact IoT devices. In October 2025, the NFC Forum launched Release 15, introducing support for extended range up to 20 cm to enable new use cases in access control and device pairing. These developments underscored NFC's maturation into a versatile, low-power standard for seamless proximity interactions.

Standards and Specifications

ISO/IEC and Global Standards

The (ISO) and the (IEC) have established foundational standards for near-field communication (NFC) through the ISO/IEC 18092 specification, originally published in 2004 and updated in subsequent editions, including the 2023 version. This standard, known as the Near Field Communication Interface and Protocol 1 (NFCIP-1), defines communication modes for NFC using inductively coupled devices operating at 13.56 MHz, supporting both active and passive configurations for devices in networked products and consumer equipment. It specifies the transport protocol, including activation procedures, exchange methods, modulation schemes, coding, , frame formats, and initialization schemes for the RF interface, while incorporating collision control during initialization. Complementing NFCIP-1, the ISO/IEC 14443 series provides the basis for NFC's reader/writer mode by standardizing contactless proximity cards, with Type A and Type B variants distinguished by their modulation techniques. Published in parts since , with updates continuing into the 2020s including amendments up to 2023, ISO/IEC 14443-1 defines the physical characteristics of proximity cards (PICCs), while ISO/IEC 14443-2 outlines the RF power and signal interface for proximity coupling devices (PCDs) and PICCs, including the magnetic field strength and load modulation for bi-directional communication. ISO/IEC 14443-3 further details initialization, anticollision protocols, and higher-layer framing, employing (ASK) for PCD-to-PICC communication in Type A and load modulation for PICC responses, enabling reliable operation within a short range. These elements form the core for NFC devices emulating contactless cards or readers. For mobile NFC integration, the European Telecommunications Standards Institute (ETSI) and the (GSMA) developed specifications in 2011 to leverage the universal integrated circuit card (UICC), or , as a . ETSI TS 102 412 (initially V11.1.0 in December 2011; latest V18.2.0, 2024) outlines requirements for the UICC in NFC-enabled terminals, supporting card emulation, reader, and modes while ensuring secure storage, execution, and management of applications through firewalled third-party areas and cryptographic protections like 3DES and AES. Similarly, GSMA's SGP.03 NFC UICC Requirements Specification (initial versions from 2011) mandates for SIM-based NFC services, incorporating ETSI TS 102 622 for host controller interface (HCI) and TS 102 613 for contactless tunneling, with support for ISO/IEC 14443 Type A protocols and establishment between the UICC and terminal. These standards facilitate secure mobile NFC deployments for services like payments and . As of 2025, enhancements to NFC protocols are reflected in ISO/IEC 21481:2021, the NFCIP-2 standard for communication mode selection and switching, which enables devices to detect external RF fields at 13.56 MHz and dynamically select among NFCIP-1, ISO/IEC 14443, or ISO/IEC 15693 modes without disrupting ongoing communications. This update builds on earlier 2005 and 2012 editions, supporting data rates up to 424 kbps as defined in the underlying ISO/IEC 14443 specifications for improved efficiency in multi-protocol environments. The NFC Forum promotes the adoption and certification of these ISO/IEC standards to ensure global interoperability.

NFC Forum and Industry Protocols

The NFC Forum has developed several key specifications to promote interoperability among NFC devices, with the NFC Data Exchange Format (NDEF) introduced in 2006 serving as a standardized binary format for encapsulating and exchanging application between NFC-enabled devices and tags. NDEF supports various record types, enabling flexible storage and transmission of payloads such as text, URIs, or smart posters, and forms the foundation for handling in NFC interactions. Building on NDEF, the Simple NDEF Exchange Protocol (SNEP) defines a lightweight method for exchanging NDEF between two NFC Forum devices in mode, using a request-response mechanism over an established connection. Complementing these, the Protocol (LLCP) provides an OSI layer-2 framework for communication, supporting both connectionless and connection-oriented services to enable reliable transfer between devices at 13.56 MHz. To standardize tag operations, the NFC Forum defines five tag types (1 through 5), each specifying detection, reading, and writing of NDEF messages while ensuring compatibility with underlying radio frequency protocols. Type 1 tags offer basic read/write capabilities with limited memory (up to 512 bytes), suitable for simple applications. Type 2 tags, exemplified by NXP's NTAG series, provide low-cost, rewritable memory options (144 to 888 bytes) and are widely used for consumer tags due to their affordability and ease of integration. Type 3 tags, based on Sony's FeliCa technology, support high-speed data rates up to 424 kbit/s for secure transactions. Type 4 tags comply with ISO/IEC 14443 Type A and B standards, incorporating the ISO Data Exchange Protocol (ISO-DEP) for advanced command structures and security features like those in ISO/IEC 7816. Type 5 tags align with ISO/IEC 15693, offering longer read ranges (up to 1.5 meters) for inventory and logistics use cases. Industry groups have extended NFC protocols for specific sectors, particularly mobile payments. The GSMA's Pay-Buy-Mobile initiative in the 2010s facilitated operator-led trials of NFC-based contactless payments, integrating SIM-based secure elements for secure transactions at points of sale, as demonstrated in pilots at involving over 400 devices. Similarly, the StoLPaN consortium, a pan-European project launched in 2007, developed protocols for NFC-enabled handsets to handle store , product , and payment bootstrapping, enabling bi-directional communication for (PAN) setup in retail environments. In 2021, the NFC Forum released the Wireless Charging (WLC) 2.0 specification, which leverages the 13.56 MHz NFC carrier for efficient power transfer to low-power devices like wearables and trackers, using a single shared antenna for both communication and charging without additional hardware. NFC Release 15, announced in June 2025, extends the certified operating range of compliant NFC connections up to 2 cm for improved reliability and user experience, and incorporated support for the Digital Product Passport (DPP), enabling NFC tags to store standardized lifecycle and sustainability data for products, supporting transparency in supply chains and regulatory compliance.

Technical Design

Modulation and Data Transmission

Near-field communication (NFC) employs distinct modulation techniques for bidirectional data exchange between devices operating at 13.56 MHz. In the forward direction, from the initiator (active device) to the target (passive or active device), (ASK) is used, with modulation depths typically ranging from 10% to 100% to ensure robust signal detection amid varying field strengths. This ASK modulation varies the amplitude of the carrier signal to encode , where a 100% depth fully suppresses the carrier for a '0' bit in certain schemes, while lower depths like 10% provide subtler variations for compatibility with specific protocols. Conversely, in the reverse direction from target to initiator, load modulation is applied by the target device, which alters its antenna load to induce detectable changes in the initiator's , effectively superimposing data onto the existing carrier without generating its own RF field in passive mode. Data rates in NFC are standardized at 106 kbps, 212 kbps, or 424 kbps to balance speed and reliability in short-range . These rates utilize specific coding schemes to represent bits on the modulated carrier: modified Miller coding for 106 kbps transmissions, which employs variable pulse widths to encode data with pauses indicating bit transitions, and coding for higher rates of 212 kbps and 424 kbps, which ensures a transition in every bit period for and DC balance. The choice of coding minimizes errors from and supports half-duplex communication, where devices alternate transmitting to avoid interference. To manage potential overlaps in multi-device environments, NFC incorporates and resolution mechanisms, particularly relevant in scenarios with multiple targets. Bit-level collision detection monitors for simultaneous bit transmissions by analyzing field distortions, enabling the initiator to identify and halt conflicting signals during the initial response phase. Resolution occurs through methods such as the time slot technique, where the initiator defines discrete time windows for targets to respond, reducing overlap probability, or bit-level arbitration in compatible modes, which prioritizes devices based on bit patterns to sequentially select and communicate with one target at a time. These protocols ensure orderly data exchange without requiring complex . Frame formatting in NFC standardizes data packets for reliable transmission and error checking, as defined in ISO/IEC 18092. Each frame begins with a start-of-frame (SOF) delimiter to signal the onset of transmission, followed by the data payload containing the encoded information bytes. This is appended with a cyclic redundancy check (CRC) checksum, typically 16 bits, to detect transmission errors, and concludes with an end-of-frame (EOF) delimiter to demarcate the packet boundary. This structure facilitates efficient parsing and verification, supporting applications from simple tag reading to peer-to-peer exchanges.

Power and Range Considerations

Near-field communication (NFC) relies on through a generated at 13.56 MHz to transfer power and data between devices. This process involves two coils where the transmitter induces a voltage in the receiver's antenna via mutual inductance, with efficiency determined by the coupling coefficient kk, which quantifies the fraction of linking the two coils. In typical NFC scenarios, kk ranges from 0.01 to 0.1 and drops below 0.1 at the maximum operational range of around 10 cm due to the inverse relationship with distance, limiting power transfer to short distances and necessitating precise coil design for optimal performance. In passive mode, the NFC tag or target device harvests from the initiator's without its own power source, inducing a voltage of approximately 1-5 V across the tag's antenna depending on and load. This harvested , typically yielding 1-3 mW of power, powers basic operations like modulating the backscattered signal but restricts the tag to simple, low-computation tasks such as and retrieval, as higher demands would exceed the available power. In contrast, active mode enables both devices to generate their own fields using internal batteries, allowing bidirectional communication and higher data rates, though it increases power draw on the devices to around 10-15 mA during transmission. NFC range, nominally up to 10 cm, is influenced by several factors including antenna alignment, as misalignment reduces the coupling coefficient by up to 70% due to decreased between coils. Material interference, particularly from metals, induces eddy currents that oppose the , potentially halving the effective range by absorbing or detuning the signal; for instance, proximity to metallic surfaces can drop read distances from 10 cm to 5 cm or less. Regulatory limits further constrain range by capping strength; under FCC Part 15.225, emissions at 13.56 MHz are limited to 15,848 μV/m at 30 meters, with fields not exceeding general radiated limits, ensuring while preventing excessive power that could extend range uncontrollably. To mitigate these limitations, optimizations such as range boosters employ additional resonant coils or amplifiers to enhance , extending operational distance up to 20 cm in specialized systems while maintaining compatibility with NFC standards. Low-power modes, including listen or sense configurations, further improve battery efficiency by reducing current consumption to as low as 100 nA during polling waits, compared to 1-15 mA in full active operation, enabling prolonged device standby without frequent recharges. These techniques integrate with modulation schemes to balance energy use and performance in practical deployments.

Security Features

Common Vulnerabilities

One primary vulnerability in NFC technology is , where attackers intercept unshielded electromagnetic fields during data transmission between devices. Although NFC is designed for short-range operation, typically under 10 cm, the signals can be detected at greater distances using high-gain antennas, potentially up to 1 meter for passive modes. This risk arises from the inherent broadcast nature of the 13.56 MHz signals, allowing unauthorized listeners to capture sensitive data such as payment details without the users' knowledge. Relay attacks represent another significant threat, functioning as a man-in-the-middle exploit where paired attacker devices extend the communication range by relaying signals between the victim and the target system. These attacks bypass NFC's proximity limitations by using intermediate hardware, such as NFC-enabled mobile phones, to forward commands and responses in real-time. A practical demonstration of this vulnerability against systems was achieved in 2011 using off-the-shelf NFC mobile devices, highlighting the feasibility of unauthorized transactions at extended distances. As of 2025, relay attacks have surged, with over 760 malicious Android apps detected abusing NFC and Host Card Emulation (HCE) to steal payment data, particularly in and , marking a significant increase since April 2024. Data corruption and cloning pose risks particularly to passive NFC tags, which lack inherent unique identifiers or in basic implementations, making them susceptible to unauthorized duplication or alteration. Attackers can overwrite or replicate tag data using readily available reader-writer devices, leading to fraudulent use in scenarios like . This vulnerability stems from the passive nature of these tags, which rely solely on the interrogator's field for power and do not incorporate robust anti-cloning mechanisms without additional proprietary layers. can occur through targeted interference during transmission, requiring elevated power levels to disrupt the modulated . Denial-of-service attacks via field jamming target the 13.56 MHz carrier frequency, overwhelming the to prevent legitimate communication between NFC devices. In early NFC deployments, such as initial trials, simple broadband jammers could effectively disrupt operations by emitting noise in the same bandwidth, rendering tags unreadable and halting transactions. This form of interference exploits the unshielded RF environment, where even low-power jamming devices can saturate the field and cause service unavailability.

Mitigation Techniques

To secure NFC communications against threats such as and data interception, standards play a central role, particularly in card emulation modes for applications. The (AES-128) is widely implemented within secure elements to protect sensitive data during transmission and storage, providing robust symmetric for cardholder information and transaction details. These secure elements, tamper-resistant hardware modules embedded in NFC-enabled devices, ensure that cryptographic operations occur in a protected environment isolated from the main processor. For scenarios, NFC implementations comply with EMV standards, which mandate dynamic data authentication and cryptograms to verify transaction integrity and prevent replay attacks. Relay attacks, where adversaries extend the effective communication range by relaying signals between devices, are countered through distance-bounding protocols that measure the round-trip time (RTT) of challenge-response exchanges to enforce proximity limits. These protocols impose strict timing constraints on signal propagation, typically on the order of 2–20 microseconds, corresponding to short ranges like 10 cm based on NFC's operational physics and processing delays. By aborting interactions if the RTT exceeds predefined thresholds—such as a 7 μs limit tailored to the 10 cm NFC range—these mechanisms ensure that only physically close devices can complete , effectively blocking remote relays. Hardware-based protections further enhance NFC security in consumer devices like smartphones by incorporating shields and detection systems to disrupt unauthorized interactions. Active jamming techniques, such as those in systems like EnGarde, use self-powered patches with dual coils to harvest NFC energy and emit interference signals, such as 20 μs pulses or subcarrier jamming at 847.5 kHz, preventing malicious readers or tags from completing transactions within a 1 mm effective shield radius. These hardware solutions include mutual coupling detection to identify NFC field presence with 95% accuracy via voltage sampling, allowing devices to switch to protective modes without relying on software modifications. User-centric controls provide an additional layer of mitigation by empowering device owners to manage NFC risks directly. Device locking mechanisms, such as PIN or via trusted execution environments, restrict access to NFC functions until verified, reducing unauthorized use in case of theft. Transaction confirmations require explicit user approval, often through on-screen prompts or biometrics, before processing payments or data exchanges. Host Card Emulation (HCE), introduced in Android 4.4 in 2013, enables software-based card emulation without dedicated secure elements, relying on cloud-stored tokenized credentials and these user controls to maintain security while broadening NFC accessibility.

Applications

Commerce and Payments

Near-field communication (NFC) has become integral to contactless payments, enabling secure, rapid transactions through EMV standards that facilitate tap-to-pay interactions between NFC-enabled devices and point-of-sale (POS) terminals. These standards, developed by EMVCo, ensure interoperability for chip-based cards and mobile wallets, with over 14.7 billion EMV chip cards in global circulation as of the end of 2024, where contactless methods account for over 50% of card-present payments in the United States and over 60% in Europe as of 2025. Mobile payment systems exemplify NFC's commercial impact, with Apple Pay, launched in 2014, utilizing NFC alongside tokenization to replace actual card details with unique, single-use tokens during transactions, enhancing security without exposing sensitive data. Similarly, Google Pay employs NFC for in-store payments and integrates tokenization through device-specific and server-side mechanisms to protect user information across ecosystems. These platforms have accelerated NFC's shift from niche to mainstream, supporting seamless commerce in retail settings. POS terminals supporting NFC must comply with Payment Card Industry Data Security Standard (PCI DSS) requirements, which mandate , access controls, and secure data handling to safeguard transaction information. In many regions, such as parts of and , contactless limits allow tap-to-pay up to $100 without PIN entry, promoting efficiency for low-value purchases while requiring verification for higher amounts. As of September 2025, the UK proposed raising the limit to between £150 and £250 or removing it entirely, following . Emerging NFC applications extend to unattended commerce, including vending machines equipped with contactless readers for instant purchases using mobile wallets or cards. In transit, systems like London's have evolved from dedicated RFID cards to supporting NFC-enabled bank cards and phones for fare payments, reducing the need for physical tickets and integrating with broader payment networks. These uses highlight NFC's role in streamlining monetary exchanges beyond traditional retail.

Access Control and Identity

Near-field communication (NFC) plays a pivotal role in and identity verification by enabling secure, contactless through short-range interactions between devices and tags. This technology facilitates the use of smart cards and badges for physical access in environments such as buildings and hotels, where proximity-based reading ensures quick yet protected entry. By integrating cryptographic protocols, NFC minimizes unauthorized access risks while supporting scalable deployment in high-traffic areas. Smart cards and badges leveraging NFC, particularly those based on MIFARE chips with DESFire , are widely adopted for building and hotel access systems. MIFARE DESFire employs advanced symmetric and asymmetric , including AES-128 , to secure credential storage and transmission, preventing cloning or unauthorized sharing of access keys. These chips comply with ISO/IEC 14443 standards for contactless communication, allowing users to tap badges against readers for seamless entry without physical contact. In hotel settings, this integration enhances guest security by enabling room key provisioning via NFC-enabled mobile devices or cards, reducing the need for traditional magnetic stripes. Similarly, in corporate environments, smartphones store digital credentials in wallet apps such as Apple Wallet or Google Wallet, acting as virtual badges for access control and time clocking; these transmit encrypted data wirelessly to NFC readers via short-range contactless taps, mirroring the process used in mobile payment systems like Apple Pay or Google Pay. Digital identities further exemplify NFC's utility in official verification, as seen in ePassports and mobile driver's licenses. ePassports incorporate NFC chips compliant with ICAO Doc 9303 and ISO/IEC 14443 Type A standards, storing biometric data such as facial images and fingerprints in a secure logical for . This setup uses Basic Access Control (BAC) or Extended Access Control (EAC) to protect against skimming, ensuring data is only readable after physical inspection or cryptographic challenge. Similarly, mobile driver's licenses (mDLs) adhere to the ISO/IEC 18013-5 standard, first drafted in 2020 and published in 2021, which specifies NFC as a primary interface for selective disclosure of driving privileges and identity attributes during interactions with verifiers like devices. This standard supports encrypted data exchange via NFC Forum protocols, allowing users to present credentials from smartphones without revealing full . Biometric integration enhances NFC's access control by linking physiological identifiers to NFC tags for multi-factor verification. In door unlocking systems, fingerprint-linked NFC tags store hashed biometric templates that are matched against a user's live scan upon tap, combining the tag's proximity authentication with on-device or reader-based biometrics to prevent relay attacks. Such implementations, often using NFC-enabled wearables or cards, ensure that access is granted only if both the tag and biometric align, providing robust security for residential or enterprise doors. Research demonstrates this approach's efficacy in reducing false positives while maintaining user convenience through short-range NFC interactions. In healthcare, NFC-enabled patient wristbands facilitate secure access to medical records, streamlining identification and care delivery in hospitals. These wristbands embed NFC chips that store encrypted patient IDs and link to centralized electronic health records (EHRs), allowing authorized staff to tap a reader for instant, read-only access to vital information like allergies or treatment history without manual lookups. Compliant with standards such as ISO/IEC 14443, the technology incorporates access controls to limit data exposure, ensuring compliance with privacy regulations like HIPAA. This application reduces errors in patient matching and enables real-time updates, as demonstrated in deployments where wristbands integrate with hospital IoT systems for seamless record retrieval.

Connectivity and Automation

Near-field communication (NFC) plays a pivotal role in facilitating seamless connectivity and by enabling quick, proximity-based interactions that bootstrap higher-bandwidth protocols or trigger predefined routines. In connectivity scenarios, NFC acts as an initiator for establishing links with technologies like and , allowing devices to exchange configuration data rapidly without manual pairing. For , NFC tags and modes support context-aware actions, such as launching applications or controlling smart environments, enhancing user efficiency in daily tasks. One key application is bootstrapping connections through NFC handoff protocols, where NFC exchanges negotiation data to activate alternative wireless links. The NFC Forum's Connection Handover Technical Specification defines the structure for two NFC-enabled devices to establish a or connection by sharing carrier and service parameters during a brief tap. For instance, Android Beam, introduced in Android 4.0, utilized NFC to initiate peer-to-peer transfers of URLs, contacts, or media, handing off the actual data transmission to for larger files; this feature was deprecated in in 2019 due to evolving sharing paradigms. Its successor, (rebranded as Quick Share in 2021), retains NFC tap-to-send functionality for initiating or transfers, enabling users to share photos or documents by simply touching devices together. NFC smart tags further automate interactions by storing programmable data that triggers actions upon detection. These passive tags, compliant with the NFC Forum's NDEF (NFC Data Exchange Format) standard, can encode URLs, text records, or application launch commands, allowing a tap to execute routines like opening a navigation app or adjusting device settings. In home automation, users program tags with (If This Then That) applets to link NFC detection to controls; for example, tapping a tag near a can activate lights or adjust thermostats via integrated APIs from platforms like or Google Home. Such implementations simplify daily workflows, as seen in setups where bedside tags silence notifications and dim screens at night, or entryway tags initiate "leaving home" modes by locking and arming security systems. In social networking, NFC's peer-to-peer mode enables direct sharing of between devices, fostering quick exchanges without dependency. Devices in this mode, operating at 106–424 kbit/s, can transmit NDEF messages containing files for contacts or image metadata for photos, as standardized by the NFC Forum's Peer-to-Peer Technical Specification. Early Android implementations, such as those in version 4.0, allowed users to beam vCards by tapping phones, facilitating networking events where professionals shared details instantaneously; this evolved into broader file-sharing capabilities in apps like , which use NFC to initiate handoffs for photos and videos. While adoption has waned with cloud-based alternatives, NFC remains useful for offline scenarios, such as event check-ins or impromptu contact swaps. For (IoT) commissioning, NFC streamlines the pairing of screenless s and devices, particularly in utility and industrial settings. By tapping an NFC reader to a tag-embedded , users transfer keys, network credentials, or updates via secure NDEF records, bypassing complex manual configurations. In smart metering, NFC-enabled devices like gas or meters from manufacturers such as Zenner integrate proximity-based commissioning to join IoT networks, enabling technicians to activate remote monitoring without proprietary tools; this has driven growth in the , with global smart meter adoption projected to reach 54% of meters by 2030. NXP's NFC solutions further support bi-directional commissioning in smart homes, where a tap configures IoT hubs for s monitoring temperature or motion, ensuring secure initial setup before handover to or .

Comparisons

With Bluetooth

Near-field communication (NFC) operates over a very short range of typically up to 4 cm (1.6 in), with a theoretical maximum of around 10 cm under ideal conditions, which contrasts sharply with 's operational range of 10 to 100 meters depending on the class and environment. This proximity requirement in NFC enhances security by limiting unintended connections, while 's broader coverage suits applications like wireless audio streaming across rooms. Regarding setup, NFC enables near-instantaneous in seconds through simple physical contact, bypassing manual discovery processes, whereas typically requires scanning and confirmation that can take 5 to 30 seconds or longer in congested settings. In terms of power efficiency, NFC demands minimal energy for initiation—often in the range of 100 to 500 microwatts during short interactions, particularly in passive modes where tags draw power from the reader—making it ideal for quick, low-duty-cycle tasks without draining batteries significantly. However, NFC is not optimized for prolonged data transmission, where (BLE) outperforms it by maintaining ongoing connections with average power consumption in the microwatt to milliwatt range over extended periods, such as in fitness trackers. NFC supports data rates of 106–848 kbit/s, suitable for short bursts but slower than Bluetooth's up to 3 Mbps, limiting it to quick exchanges rather than sustained streaming. NFC and Bluetooth often complement each other in use cases, with NFC facilitating secure key exchange for Bluetooth devices via out-of-band (OOB) pairing methods, where temporary encryption keys are transferred over NFC to establish a protected Bluetooth link without exposing them to longer-range interception. For instance, in Bluetooth audio devices, NFC handles initial authentication, reducing vulnerability during pairing. In wearables, this synergy is evident in products like Apple's AirPods, where an NFC tap on the charging case near a compatible smartphone initiates seamless Bluetooth connectivity for audio playback. Interoperability between the technologies has been advanced through standards such as 5.0, released in December 2016, which incorporates NFC-assisted discovery to streamline by leveraging NFC for initial device identification and parameter exchange before switching to for sustained communication. This integration allows NFC to act as a secure bootstrap for connections, enhancing in hybrid devices without requiring separate protocols.

With RFID Technologies

Near-field communication (NFC) represents a specialized subset of radio-frequency identification (RFID) technology, primarily distinguished by its operational spectrum and interaction model. NFC exclusively utilizes the high-frequency (HF) band at 13.56 MHz, aligning with ISO/IEC 14443 and ISO/IEC 18092 standards for short-range applications. In contrast, broader RFID variants span multiple bands: low-frequency (LF) at 125-134 kHz for proximity applications like access control, and ultra-high-frequency (UHF) at 860-960 MHz for extended-range systems such as the EPCglobal Gen2 protocol, which enables tag reads up to 10 meters in inventory and logistics scenarios. This spectral limitation in NFC inherently restricts its range to typically 0–4 cm (0–1.6 in), with a theoretical maximum of around 10 cm, prioritizing security and precision over the broader coverage of UHF RFID, which supports passive tag interrogation across pallets or shelves without physical contact. A core evolution in NFC lies in its bidirectionality, enabling peer-to-peer (P2P) communication between two active devices, unlike the predominantly unidirectional reader-to-tag model in traditional RFID. In conventional RFID, a powered reader transmits energy and commands to passive or semi-passive tags, eliciting a one-way response for identification or data retrieval, as seen in LF systems for asset tagging. NFC's P2P mode, however, facilitates symmetric data exchange—such as sharing contacts or configuration settings—between equally capable devices, fostering interactive use cases while maintaining backward compatibility with RFID tag emulation. This bidirectional capability stems from NFC's support for both initiator and target roles, marking a shift from RFID's hierarchical structure to more collaborative paradigms. NFC data rates of 106–848 kbit/s align with HF RFID but are generally lower than UHF RFID's up to ~640 kbps, suiting NFC for precise, low-volume interactions over RFID's higher-throughput scanning. NFC implementations often entail higher cost and complexity compared to basic RFID solutions, reflecting their enhanced versatility. Chips like the PN532 from integrate multiple NFC protocols, including and , alongside RFID reader functionality, but command premium pricing—typically $0.30–$0.50 per unit in volume (as of 2025)—due to onboard microcontrollers and security features. Basic LF RFID tags for applications like animal tracking, by comparison, cost under $0.10 each and require minimal processing, relying on simple without the need for active . This trade-off positions NFC for multifunctional devices in , while simpler RFID variants dominate low-cost, high-volume deployments. Hybrid applications increasingly leverage NFC to augment RFID in supply chains, combining long-range tracking with precise, close-range verification for enhanced inventory detail. As of 2025, integrations in platforms use UHF RFID for bulk pallet scanning and NFC for item-level at checkpoints, enabling full-process visibility and reducing errors in dynamic environments like e-commerce fulfillment. Such overlaps, often via multi-protocol readers, illustrate NFC's role in evolving RFID ecosystems toward intelligent, data-rich management without supplanting established UHF infrastructures.

Devices and Deployments

Hardware Implementations

Near-field communication (NFC) hardware primarily revolves around integrated chips and modules that enable short-range wireless interactions at 13.56 MHz, supporting standards like ISO/IEC 14443 and NFC Forum specifications. Leading implementations include the NXP PN5xx series, such as the PN532 and PN7150 controllers, which provide versatile NFC functionality including reader/writer, peer-to-peer, and card emulation modes, often integrated via or SPI interfaces for embedded systems. These chips are widely used in consumer devices due to their low power consumption and support for multiple protocols. Complementing these, modules like the BCM2079x series combine NFC with (BLE) in a single package, facilitating seamless integration in smartphones for dual-mode connectivity without additional board space. Antenna integration in printed circuit boards (PCBs) typically involves etched coil designs optimized for compact form factors, with matching networks tuned to minimize impedance mismatches and ensure efficient energy transfer within the 0-10 cm range. NFC-enabled devices span several categories, with smartphones achieving approximately 94% , driven by standard inclusion in flagship and mid-range models from manufacturers like and Apple. Wearables, such as NFC rings from providers like the NFC Ring company, embed passive tags or active chips in titanium or ceramic housings to enable contactless authentication and data exchange, offering a discreet alternative to larger devices. Point-of-sale (POS) terminals and readers, exemplified by Square's Contactless and Chip Reader, incorporate dedicated NFC front-ends with secure processors to handle high-volume transactions, often featuring USB or connectivity for integration with existing retail systems. Security in NFC hardware is bolstered by secure elements (SEs), tamper-resistant chips that store sensitive data like cryptographic keys and credentials. Embedded SEs, integrated directly into the device's SoC or as a dedicated module (e.g., in Apple's Secure Enclave), provide hardware isolation for multiple applets, supporting over 20 profiles simultaneously while complying with GlobalPlatform standards. In contrast, Host Card Emulation (HCE) on Android devices virtualizes card functionality in software using the phone's , bypassing the need for an embedded SE and enabling broader compatibility across devices, though it relies on cloud-based tokenization for security. primarily utilizes embedded SEs for NFC operations, ensuring controlled access via the operating system's NFC controller. A key integration challenge in NFC hardware is antenna detuning caused by proximity to metal casings in devices like smartphones, where conductive surfaces induce eddy currents that shift the resonant frequency and reduce read range by up to 50%. This is commonly resolved by incorporating thin ferrite sheets between the antenna coil and metal components, which channel and restore performance without significantly increasing device thickness.

Global Adoption and Case Studies

Near-field communication (NFC) has seen widespread global adoption, driven by the proliferation of NFC-enabled devices in smartphones, wearables, and IoT applications. As of 2025, the number of NFC-enabled devices worldwide approaches 4.5 billion, reflecting cumulative shipments exceeding 4 billion units by 2024. This growth is fueled by the integration of NFC chips in over 1.5 billion devices manufactured annually, with the global NFC market valued at USD 33.7 billion in 2025. leads this expansion, accounting for 41.3% of the market share in 2024, where NFC supports rapid advancements in contactless payments and initiatives. Regional variations highlight diverse implementation priorities. In the , NFC is prominently used for public transit systems, exemplified by the ' OVpay platform, an open-loop EMV-based system launched in June 2023 that allows contactless payments via bank cards or mobile devices. By December 2023, OVpay facilitated 22 million monthly taps, capturing 30% of full-fare transactions; by 2025, open-loop payments account for approximately 25% of all journeys across the nationwide network with 60,000 terminals serving over 5 million daily trips. In contrast, the has emphasized mobile payments since 2020, with contactless NFC transactions growing strongly through 2023, particularly via card-based tap-and-go methods that dominate over mobile alternatives. Notable case studies illustrate NFC's practical impact. Singapore's Singpass, launched as a national platform in 2019, enables secure face-to-face verification and data sharing through NFC tags or QR codes, allowing citizens to authenticate identity for services like visitor registration and transactions without physical documents. In the automotive sector, introduced its Digital Key in 2021 for compatible models, leveraging NFC to transform smartphones into secure vehicle keys for locking, unlocking, and starting engines, with shareable access for up to five users and customizable permissions. Despite these successes, NFC adoption faces barriers such as the high costs of upgrading legacy infrastructure, which has slowed integration in sectors reliant on older magnetic stripe or RFID systems. Additionally, privacy regulations like the EU's (GDPR) impose stringent data handling requirements, increasing compliance costs and complicating deployments that involve transfer, thereby influencing the pace of NFC rollout in Europe.

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