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NetWare
Logo of NetWare, this variant introduced with NetWare 4.x. The symbol is a tilted rendition of Novell's "teeth" logo used until 1996.
DeveloperNovell, Inc.
Working stateDiscontinued
Source modelClosed source
Initial release1983
Final release6.5 SP8 (last) / 6 May 2009; 16 years ago (2009-05-06)
Available inEnglish, Japanese
Supported platformsx86 (IBM PC–compatible and PC-98), MIPS, DEC Alpha, SPARC, PowerPC[1]
Kernel typeHybrid kernel
Default
user interface		Command-line interface, text user interface
LicenseProprietary
Succeeded byOpen Enterprise Server
Official websitenovell.com/netware

NetWare[2] is a discontinued computer network operating system developed by Novell, Inc. It initially used cooperative multitasking to run various services on a personal computer, using the IPX network protocol. The final update release was version 6.5SP8 in May 2009,[3] and it has since been replaced by Open Enterprise Server.[4]

The original NetWare product in 1983 supported clients running both CP/M and MS-DOS, ran over a proprietary star network topology and was based on a Novell-built file server using the Motorola 68000 processor. The company soon moved away from building its own hardware, and NetWare became hardware-independent, running on any suitable Intel-based IBM PC compatible system, and able to utilize a wide range of network cards. From the beginning NetWare implemented a number of features inspired by mainframe and minicomputer systems that were not available in its competitors' products.

In 1991, Novell introduced cheaper peer-to-peer networking products for DOS and Windows, unrelated to their server-centric NetWare. These are NetWare Lite 1.0 (NWL), and later Personal NetWare 1.0 (PNW) in 1993. In 1993, the main NetWare product line took a dramatic turn when version 4 introduced NetWare Directory Services (NDS, later in February 2004 renamed eDirectory),[5] a global directory service based on ISO X.500 concepts (six years later, Microsoft released Active Directory). The directory service, along with a new e-mail system (GroupWise), application configuration suite (ZENworks), and security product (BorderManager) were all targeted at the needs of large enterprises.

By 2000, however, Microsoft was taking more of Novell's customer base and Novell increasingly looked to a future based on a Linux kernel. The successor to NetWare, Open Enterprise Server (OES), released in March 2005, offers all the services previously hosted by NetWare 6.5, but on a SUSE Linux Enterprise Server; the NetWare kernel remained an option until OES 11 in late 2011. NetWare 6.5SP8 General Support ended in 2010; Extended Support was available until the end of 2015, and Self Support until the end of 2017.

History

[edit]
A networking card with a sticker indicating certification with NetWare

NetWare evolved from a very simple concept: file sharing instead of disk sharing. By controlling access at the level of individual files, instead of entire disks, files could be locked and better access control implemented. In 1983 when the first versions of NetWare originated, all other competing products were based on the concept of providing shared direct disk access. Novell's alternative approach was validated by IBM in 1984, which helped promote the NetWare product.

Novell NetWare shares disk space in the form of NetWare volumes, comparable to logical volumes. Client workstations running DOS run a special terminate and stay resident (TSR) program that allows them to map a local drive letter to a NetWare volume. Clients log into a server in order to be allowed to map volumes, and access can be restricted according to the login name. Similarly, they can connect to shared printers on the dedicated print server, and print as if the printer is connected locally.

At the end of the 1990s, with Internet connectivity booming, the Internet's TCP/IP protocol became dominant on LANs. Novell had introduced limited TCP/IP support in NetWare 3.x (c. 1992) and 4.x (c. 1995), consisting mainly of FTP services and UNIX-style LPR/LPD printing (available in NetWare 3.x), and a Novell-developed webserver (in NetWare 4.x). Native TCP/IP support for the client file and print services normally associated with NetWare was introduced in NetWare 5.0 (released in 1998). There was also a short-lived product, NWIP, that encapsulated IPX in TCP/IP, intended to ease transition of an existing NetWare environment from IPX to IP.

During the early to mid-1980s Microsoft introduced their own LAN system in LAN Manager, based on the competing NBF protocol. Early attempts to compete with NetWare failed, but this changed with Windows NT and the windows Domain concept, which, offered similar functionality to NetWare's eDirectory services, but on a system that could also be used on a desktop, and due to the vertical integration there was no need for a third-party client.

Early years

[edit]

NetWare originated from consulting work by SuperSet Software, a group founded by the friends Drew Major, Dale Neibaur, Kyle Powell and later Mark Hurst. This work stemmed from their classwork at Brigham Young University in Provo, Utah, starting in October 1981.

In 1981, Raymond Noorda engaged[clarification needed] the work by the SuperSet team. The team was originally assigned to create a CP/M disk sharing system to help network the Motorola 68000-based hardware that Novell sold at the time. The first S-Net is CP/M-68K-based and shares a hard disk. In 1983, the team was privately convinced that CP/M was a doomed platform and instead came up with a successful file-sharing system for the newly introduced IBM-compatible PC. They also wrote an application called Snipes – a text-mode game – and used it to test the new network and demonstrate its capabilities. Snipes [aka 'NSnipes' for 'Network Snipes'] is the first network application ever written for a commercial personal computer, and it is recognized as one of the precursors of many popular multiplayer games such as Doom and Quake.[6][7]

First called ShareNet or S-Net, this network operating system (NOS) was later called Novell NetWare. NetWare is based on the NetWare Core Protocol (NCP), which is a packet-based protocol that enables a client to send requests to and receive replies from a NetWare server. Initially, NCP was directly tied to the IPX/SPX protocol, and NetWare communicated natively using only IPX/SPX.

The first product to bear the NetWare name was released in 1983. The original product, NetWare 68 (AKA S-Net), ran on Novell's proprietary 68000-based file server hardware, and used a star network topology. This was later joined by NetWare 86, which could use conventional Intel 8086-based PCs for the server. This was replaced in 1985 with Advanced NetWare 86, which allowed more than one server on the same network. In 1986, after the Intel 80286 processor became available, Novell released Advanced NetWare 286. Two versions were offered for sale; the basic version was sold as ELS I, plus an enhanced version, ELS II. *ELS* stood for "Entry Level System".

NetWare 286 2.x

[edit]
Floppy disks for NetWare 2.2

Advanced NetWare version 2.x, launched in 1986, was written for the then-new 80286 CPU. The 80286 CPU features a new 16-bit protected mode that provides access to up to 16 MiB RAM as well as new mechanisms to aid multi-tasking. (Prior to the 80286, PC CPU servers used the Intel 8088/8086 8-/16-bit processors, which are limited to an address space of 1 MiB with not more than 640 KiB of directly addressable RAM.) The combination of a higher 16 MiB RAM limit, 80286 processor feature utilization, and 256 MB NetWare volume size limit (compared to the 32 MB that DOS allowed at that time) allowed the building of reliable, cost-effective server-based local area networks for the first time. The 16 MiB RAM limit was especially important, since it makes enough RAM available for disk caching to significantly improve performance. This became the key to Novell's performance while also allowing larger networks to be built.

In a significant innovation, NetWare 286 is also hardware-independent, unlike competing network server systems. Novell servers can be assembled using any brand system with an Intel 80286 CPU, any MFM, RLL, ESDI, or SCSI hard drive and any 8- or 16-bit network adapter for which NetWare drivers are available – and 18 different manufacturer's network cards were supported at launch.[8]

The server could support up to four network cards,[8] and these can be a mixture of technologies such as ARCNET, Token Ring and Ethernet. The operating system is provided as a set of compiled object modules that required configuration and linking. Any change to the operating system requires a re-linking of the kernel. Installation also requires the use of a proprietary low-level format program for MFM hard drives called COMPSURF.

The file system used by NetWare 2.x is NetWare File System 286, or NWFS 286, supporting volumes of up to 256 MB. NetWare 286 recognizes 80286 protected mode, extending NetWare's support of RAM from 1 MiB to the full 16 MiB addressable by the 80286. A minimum of 2 MiB is required to start up the operating system; any additional RAM is used for FAT, DET and file caching. Since 16-bit protected mode is implemented in the 80286 and every subsequent Intel x86 processor, NetWare 286 version 2.x will run on any 80286 or later compatible processor.

NetWare 2.x implements a number of features inspired by mainframe and minicomputer systems that were not available in other operating systems of the day. The System Fault Tolerance (SFT) features includes standard read-after-write verification (SFT-I) with on-the-fly bad block re-mapping (at the time, disks did not have that feature built in) and software RAID1 (disk mirroring, SFT-II). The Transaction Tracking System (TTS) optionally protects files against incomplete updates. For single files, this requires only a file attribute to be set. Transactions over multiple files and controlled roll-backs are possible by programming to the TTS API.

NetWare 286 2.x normally requires a dedicated PC to act as the server, where the server uses DOS only as a boot loader to execute the operating system file NET$OS.EXE. All memory is allocated to NetWare; no DOS ran on the server. However, a "non-dedicated" version was also available for price-conscious customers. In this, DOS 3.3 or higher remains in memory, and the processor time-slices between the DOS and NetWare programs, allowing the server computer to be used simultaneously as a network file server and as a user workstation. Because all extended memory (RAM above 1 MiB) is allocated to NetWare, DOS is limited to only 640 KiB; expanded memory managers that used the MMU of 80386 and higher processors, such as EMM386, do not work; 8086-style expanded memory on dedicated plug-in cards is possible however. Time slicing is accomplished using the keyboard interrupt, which requires strict compliance with the IBM PC design model, otherwise performance is affected.

Server licensing on early versions of NetWare 286 is accomplished by using a key card. The key card was designed for an 8-bit ISA bus, and has a serial number encoded on a ROM chip. The serial number has to match the serial number of the NetWare software running on the server. To broaden the hardware base, particularly to machines using the IBM MCA bus, later versions of NetWare 2.x do not require the key card; serialised license floppy disks are used in place of the key cards.

Licensing is normally for 100 users, but two ELS versions were also available. First a 5-user ELS in 1987, and followed by the 8-user ELS 2.12 II in 1988.[9]

NetWare 386 and 3.x

[edit]

NetWare's 386 / 3.x range was a major step forward. The first version released in 1989 was called NetWare 386 V1.0, then came V1.1. Those first iterations contained simplified versions of some of the core product features that were fleshed out when the product line was updated and renamed to NetWare V3.0 in 1990 - notable examples were the file system and loadable modules (see later). Versions 3.10 and 3.11 followed in 1991.

Due to the change in naming convention, the product range was sometimes later referred to as NetWare 386 V3.x. For simplification, the term 3.x is used from this point onward to refer to both versions unless there is a need for differentiation.

A key feature was support for 32-bit protected mode, eliminating the 16 MiB memory limit of NetWare 286 and therefore allowing larger hard drives to be supported (since NetWare 3.x cached the entire file allocation table and directory entry table into memory for improved performance).

PC described installing NetWare 286 as an "impossible task ... elevated to an art form". Version 3.x is also much simpler to install,[10] with disk and network support provided by software modules called a NetWare Loadable Module (NLM) loaded either at start-up or when it was needed. NLMs could also add functionality such as anti-virus software, backup software, database and web servers. Support for long filenames was also provided by an NLM.

A new file system was introduced by NetWare 3.x – "NetWare File System 386", or NWFS 386, which significantly extended volume capacity (1 TB, 4 GB files), and could handle up to 16 volume segments spanning multiple physical disk drives. Volume segments could be added while the server was in use and the volume was mounted, allowing a server to be expanded without interruption.

In NetWare 3.x all NLMs ran on the server at the same level of processor memory protection, known as "ring 0". This provided the best possible performance, it sacrificed reliability because there was no memory protection, and furthermore NetWare 3.x used a co-operative multitasking model, meaning that an NLM was required to yield to the kernel regularly. For either of these reasons a badly behaved NLM could result in a fatal (ABEND) error.

NetWare continued to be administered using console-based utilities.

Beginning in 1992, Novell's third-party vendors received license to use the above logo to market their NetWare-compatible products, for a fee.
Beginning in 1992, Novell's third-party vendors received license to use the above logo to market their NetWare-compatible products, for a fee.

With version 3.x, Novell increased the rigors of compatibility testing with their third-party vendors, revamping their certification program in October 1992 and unveiling a two-tier cooperating marketing program. The first tier provided Novell's vendors a package containing a compatibility guideline book, engineering support lines, self-testing tools, and limited marketing resources, the latter including a license to promote products with a logo stating "Yes, it runs with NetWare" – all free of charge and followed at the vendors' discretion. The second tier required a one-time application fee of $7,000 but replaced the logo's byline with a more confident-sounding "Yes, it's NetWare tested and approved" and accorded partners with more extensive support, including on-location testing by Novell Labs.[11][12] Initially limited to the United States, this program was rolled out in the United Kingdom in the following year.[13][14]

For a while, Novell also marketed an OEM version of NetWare 3, called Portable NetWare. Originally announced in 1989 by Prime Computer as a product for its Prime EXL range, along with a distinct product for Unix System V,[15] Novell attracted support from a number of other OEMs including Data General, Hewlett-Packard, NCR Corporation, Sun Microsystems and Unisys.[16] An implementation provided by Altos was described in one review as "NetWare 386 for PC Unix systems", running in the standard Unix environment, utilising the native filesystem and network interfaces.[17] Portable NetWare's primary purpose was to offer file and print sharing facilities, but a "native" port of Netware to other platforms was considered necessary to offer the broader feature set of Novell's traditional NetWare products.[18] Alongside Hewlett-Packard, IBM collaborated with Novell to offer Portable NetWare and more comprehensive "native" ports of NetWare for its platforms.[19] Portable NetWare was later known as NetWare for UNIX. As a version of NetWare written in the C programming language, Novell would port functionality from its traditional product to a reference platform, leaving OEMs to port the Novell source code to run on top of their own, typically Unix, operating systems.[20]

While NetWare 3.x was current, Novell introduced its first high-availability clustering system, named NetWare SFT-III, which allowed a logical server to be completely mirrored to a separate physical machine. Implemented as a shared-nothing cluster, under SFT-III the OS was logically split into an interrupt-driven I/O engine and the event-driven OS core. The I/O engines serialized their interrupts (disk, network etc.) into a combined event stream that was fed to two identical copies of the system engine through a fast (typically 100 Mbit/s) inter-server link. Because of its non-preemptive nature, the OS core, stripped of non-deterministic I/O, behaves deterministically, like a large finite-state machine. The outputs of the two system engines were compared to ensure proper operation, and two copies fed back to the I/O engines. Using the existing SFT-II software RAID functionality present in the core, disks could be mirrored between the two machines without special hardware. The two machines could be separated as far as the server-to-server link would permit. In case of a server or disk failure, the surviving server could take over client sessions transparently after a short pause since it had full state information. SFT-III was the first NetWare version able to make use of SMP hardware – the I/O engine could optionally be run on its own CPU. NetWare SFT-III, ahead of its time in several ways, was a mixed success.

With NetWare 3 an improved routing protocol, NetWare Link Services Protocol, has been introduced which scales better than Routing Information Protocol and allows building large networks.

NetWare 4.x

[edit]
NetWare 4 and NDS were the subjects of many technical sessions at the Novell BrainShare conference, here seen during a break in 1995.
Packages of NetWare 4.x

Version 4 in 1993 introduced NetWare Directory Services, later re-branded as Novell Directory Services (NDS), based on X.500, which replaced the Bindery with a global directory service, in which the infrastructure was described and managed in a single place. Additionally, NDS provided an extensible schema, allowing the introduction of new object types. This allowed a single user authentication to NDS to govern access to any server in the directory tree structure. Users could therefore access network resources no matter on which server they resided, although user license counts were still tied to individual servers. (Large enterprises could opt for a license model giving them essentially unlimited per-server users if they let Novell audit their total user count.)

Version 4 also introduced a number of useful tools and features, such as transparent compression at file system level and RSA public/private encryption.

Another new feature was the NetWare Asynchronous Services Interface (NASI). It allowed network sharing of multiple serial devices, such as modems. Client port redirection occurred via a DOS or Windows driver allowing companies to consolidate modems and analog phone lines.[21]

NetWare for OS/2

[edit]

Promised as early as 1988, when the Microsoft-IBM collaboration was still ongoing and OS/2 1.x was still a 16-bit product,[22] the product didn't become commercially available until after IBM and Microsoft had parted ways and OS/2 2.0 had become a 32-bit, pre-emptive multitasking and multithreading OS.

By August 1993,[23] Novell released its first version of "NetWare for OS/2". This first release supported OS/2 2.1 (1993) as the base OS, and required that users first buy and install IBM OS/2, then purchase NetWare 4.01, and then install the NetWare for OS/2 product. It retailed for $200.[23]

By around 1995, and coincidental with IBM's renewed marketing push for its 32-bit OS/2 Warp OS, both as a desktop client and as a LAN server (OS/2 Warp Server), NetWare for OS/2 began receiving some good press coverage. "NetWare 4.1 for OS/2" allowed to run Novell's network stack and server modules on top of IBM's 32-bit kernel and network stack. It was basically NetWare 4.x running as a service on top of OS/2. It was compatible with third party client and server utilities and NetWare Loadable Modules.[24]

Since IBM's 32-bit OS/2 included Netbios, IPX/SPX and TCP/IP support, this means that sysadmins could run all three most popular network stacks on a single box, and use the OS/2 box as a workstation too. NetWare for OS/2 shared memory on the system with OS/2 seamlessly. The book "Client Server survival Guide with OS/2" described it as "glue code that lets the unmodified NetWare 4.x server program think it owns all resources on a OS/2 system". It also claimed that a NetWare server running on top of OS/2 only suffered a 5% to 10% overhead over NetWare running over the bare metal hardware, while gaining OS/2's pre-emptive multitasking and object oriented GUI.[25]

Novell continued releasing bugfixes and updates to NetWare for OS/2 up to 1998.[26]

Strategic mistakes

[edit]

NetWare was very successful. International Data Corporation (IDC) reported in 1988 a 53% market share for it among network operating systems, compared to 17.1% for MS-Net and 8.5% for AppleTalk. While no dominant technology or vendor of PC networking hardware existed, IDC noted that NetWare was used regardless of hardware "including a significant amount of IBM gear".[27] PC estimated in 1989 that version  286 2.x had 40-60% of the network operating system market, while LAN Manager "has made a very small impression on the market"; both 3Com and IBM admitted that they sold more networking cards for use with NetWare than with their own software.[10] Before the arrival of Windows NT Server, Novell claimed 90% of the market for PC based servers.

However, unlike its predecessor NetWare 3.x uses a DOS partition to load NetWare server files, and cannot boot from the Novell partition NetWare 286 creates. While NetWare 386 boots much faster,[10] and of little technical import,[a] this feature became a liability due to the system administration it required. Compounding this, the NetWare console remained text-based at a time the Windows graphical interface gained widespread acceptance. New users preferred the Windows graphical interface to learning DOS commands necessary to build and control a NetWare server. Novell could have eliminated at least the separately bootable DOS partition requirement at the outset, by retaining the design of NetWare 286. Novell finally added support for this in a Support Pack for NetWare 6.5.

As Novell initially used IPX/SPX instead of TCP/IP, they were poorly positioned to take advantage of the Internet in 1995. This resulted in Novell servers being bypassed for routing and Internet access in favor of hardware routers, Unix-based operating systems such as FreeBSD, and SOCKS and HTTP Proxy Servers on Windows and other operating systems.[citation needed]

A decision by the management of Novell also took away the ability of independent resellers and engineers to recommend and sell the product. The reduction of their effective sales force created this downward spiral in sales.

NetWare 4.1x and NetWare for Small Business

[edit]
A book on NetWare published in Thai

Novell priced NetWare 4.10 similarly to NetWare 3.12, allowing customers who resisted NDS (typically small businesses) to try it at no cost.

Later Novell released NetWare version 4.11 in 1996 which included many enhancements that made the operating system easier to install, easier to operate, faster, and more stable. It also included the first full 32-bit client for Microsoft Windows-based workstations, SMP support and the NetWare Administrator (NWADMIN or NWADMN32), a GUI-based administration tool for NetWare. Previous administration tools used the Cworthy interface, the character-based GUI tools such as SYSCON and PCONSOLE with blue text-based background. Some of these tools survive to this day, for instance MONITOR.NLM.

Novell packaged NetWare 4.11 with its Web server, TCP/IP support and the Netscape browser into a bundle dubbed IntranetWare (also written as intraNetWare). A version designed for networks of 25 or fewer users was named IntranetWare for Small Business and contained a limited version of NDS and tried to simplify NDS administration. The intranetWare name was dropped in NetWare 5.

During this time Novell also began to leverage its directory service, NDS, by tying their other products into the directory. Their e-mail system, GroupWise, was integrated with NDS, and Novell released many other directory-enabled products such as ZENworks and BorderManager.

NetWare still required IPX/SPX as NCP used it, but Novell started to acknowledge the demand for TCP/IP with NetWare 4.11 by including tools and utilities that made it easier to create intranets and link networks to the Internet. Novell bundled tools, such as the IPX/IP gateway, to ease the connection between IPX workstations and IP networks. It also began integrating Internet technologies and support through features such as a natively hosted web server.

NetWare 5.x

[edit]

With the release of NetWare 5 in October 1998 Novell switched its primary NCP interface from the IPX/SPX network protocol to TCP/IP to meet market demand.[28] Products continued to support IPX/SPX, but the emphasis shifted to TCP/IP. New features included:

The Cluster Services improved on SFT-III, as NCS did not require specialized hardware or identical server configurations.

Novell released NetWare 5 during a time when NetWare's market share had started dropping precipitously; many companies and organizations replaced their NetWare servers with servers running Microsoft's Windows NT operating system.

Around this time Novell also released their last upgrade to the NetWare 4 operating system, NetWare 4.2.

NetWare 5 and above supported Novell NetStorage for Internet-based access to files stored within NetWare.[30][31] Novell released NetWare 5.1 in January 2000. It introduced a number of tools, such as:

NetWare 6.0

[edit]

NetWare 6 was released in October 2001, shortly after its predecessor. This version has a simplified licensing scheme based on users, not server connections. This allows unlimited connections per user to any number of NetWare servers in the network.[32] Novell Cluster Services was also improved to support 32-node clusters;[33] the base NetWare 6.0 product included a two-node clustering license.

NetWare 6.5

[edit]

NetWare 6.5 was released in August 2003. Some of the new features in this version included:

  • more open-source products such as PHP, MySQL and OpenSSH
  • a port of the Bash shell and a lot of traditional Unix utilities such as wget, grep, awk and sed to provide additional capabilities for scripting
  • iSCSI support (both target and initiator)
  • Virtual Office – an "out of the box" web portal for end users providing access to e-mail, personal file storage, company address book, etc.
  • Domain controller functionality
  • Universal password
  • DirXML Starter Pack – synchronization of user accounts with another eDirectory tree, a Windows NT domain or Active Directory.
  • exteNd Application Server – a Java EE 1.3-compatible application server
  • support for customized printer driver profiles and printer usage auditing
  • NX bit support
  • support for USB storage devices
  • support for encrypted volumes

The latest – and apparently last – Service Pack for NetWare 6.5 is SP8, released May 2009.

Open Enterprise Server

[edit]
Main article: Novell Open Enterprise Server

1.0

[edit]

In 2003, Novell announced the successor product to NetWare: Open Enterprise Server (OES). First released in March 2005, OES completes the separation of the services traditionally associated with NetWare (such as Directory Services, and file-and-print) from the platform underlying the delivery of those services. OES is essentially a set of applications (eDirectory, NetWare Core Protocol services, iPrint, etc.) that can run atop either a Linux or a NetWare kernel platform. Clustered OES implementations can even migrate services from Linux to NetWare and back again, making Novell one of the very few vendors to offer a multi-platform clustering solution.

Consequent to Novell's acquisitions of Ximian and the German Linux distributor SuSE, Novell moved away from NetWare and shifted its focus towards Linux. Marketing was focused on getting faithful NetWare users to move to the Linux platform for future releases.[34] The clearest indication of this direction was Novell's controversial decision to release Open Enterprise Server on Linux only, not NetWare. Novell later watered down this decision and stated that NetWare's 90 million users would be supported until at least 2015.[35] Meanwhile, many former NetWare customers rejected the confusing mix of licensed software running on an open-source Linux operating system in favor of moving to complete Open Source solutions such as those offered by Red Hat.[36]

2.0

[edit]

OES 2 was released on 8 October 2007. It includes NetWare 6.5 SP7, which supports running as a paravirtualized guest inside the Xen hypervisor and new Linux based version using SLES10.

New features include
  • 64-bit support
  • Virtualization
  • Dynamic Storage Technology, which provide Shadow Volumes
  • Domain services for Windows (provided in OES 2 service pack 1)

From the 1990s

[edit]

As of 2010 some organizations still used Novell NetWare, but it had started to lose popularity from the mid-1990s, when NetWare was the de facto standard for file- and printer-sharing software for the Intel x86 server platform.[37]

Microsoft successfully took market share from NetWare products from the late-1990s.[38][39] Microsoft's more aggressive marketing was aimed directly at non-technical management through major magazines, while Novell NetWare's was through more technical magazines read by IT personnel.[citation needed]

Novell did not adapt their pricing structure to current market conditions, and NetWare sales suffered.[40]

NetWare Lite / Personal NetWare

[edit]
Main articles: NetWare Lite and Personal NetWare

NetWare Lite and Personal NetWare were a series of peer-to-peer networks developed by Novell for DOS- and Windows-based computers aimed at personal users and small businesses between 1991 and 1995.

Performance

[edit]
The success of NetWare as a product is what allowed Novell to have sales-related offices around the world, as the back side of this mid-1990s Novell presentation folder shows.

NetWare dominated the network operating system (NOS) market from the mid-1980s through the mid- to late-1990s due to its extremely high performance relative to other NOS technologies. Most benchmarks during this period demonstrated a 5:1 to 10:1 performance advantage over products from Microsoft, Banyan, and others. One noteworthy benchmark pitted NetWare 3.x running NFS services over TCP/IP (not NetWare's native IPX protocol) against a dedicated Auspex NFS server and an SCO Unix server running NFS service. NetWare NFS outperformed both 'native' NFS systems and claimed a 2:1 performance advantage over SCO Unix NFS on the same hardware.[citation needed]

The reasons for NetWare's performance advantage are given below.

File service instead of disk service

[edit]

When first developed, nearly all LAN storage was based on the disk server model. This meant that if a client computer wanted to read a particular block from a particular file it would have to issue the following requests across the relatively slow LAN:

  1. Read first block of directory
  2. Continue reading subsequent directory blocks until the directory block containing the information on the desired file was found, could be many directory blocks
  3. Read through multiple file entry blocks until the block containing the location of the desired file block was found, could be many directory blocks
  4. Read the desired data block

NetWare, since it was based on a file service model, interacted with the client at the file API level:

  1. Send file open request (if this hadn't already been done)
  2. Send a request for the desired data from the file

All of the work of searching the directory to figure out where the desired data was physically located on the disk was performed at high speed locally on the server. By the mid-1980s, most NOS products had shifted from the disk service to the file service model. Today, the disk service model is making a comeback, see SAN.

Aggressive caching

[edit]

From the start, the NetWare design focused on servers with copious amounts of RAM. The entire file allocation table (FAT) was read into RAM when a volume was mounted, thereby requiring a minimum amount of RAM proportional to online disk space; adding a disk to a server would often require a RAM upgrade as well. Unlike most competing network operating systems prior to Windows NT, NetWare automatically used all otherwise unused RAM for caching active files, employing delayed write-backs to facilitate re-ordering of disk requests (elevator seeks). An unexpected shutdown could therefore corrupt data, making an uninterruptible power supply practically a mandatory part of a server installation.

The default dirty cache delay time was fixed at 2.2 seconds in NetWare 286 versions 2.x. Starting with NetWare 386 3.x, the dirty disk cache delay time and dirty directory cache delay time settings controlled the amount of time the server would cache changed ("dirty") data before saving (flushing) the data to a hard drive. The default setting of 3.3 seconds could be decreased to 0.5 seconds but not reduced to zero, while the maximum delay was 10 seconds. The option to increase the cache delay to 10 seconds provided a significant performance boost. Windows 2000 and 2003 server do not allow adjustment to the cache delay time. Instead, they use an algorithm that adjusts cache delay.

Efficiency of NetWare Core Protocol (NCP)

[edit]

Most network protocols in use at the time NetWare was developed didn't trust the network to deliver messages. A typical client file read would work something like this:

  1. Client sends read request to server
  2. Server acknowledges request
  3. Client acknowledges acknowledgement
  4. Server sends requested data to client
  5. Client acknowledges data
  6. Server acknowledges acknowledgement

In contrast, NCP was based on the idea that networks worked perfectly most of the time, so the reply to a request served as the acknowledgement. Here is an example of a client read request using this model:

  1. Client sends read request to server
  2. Server sends requested data to client

All requests contained a sequence number, so if the client didn't receive a response within an appropriate amount of time it would re-send the request with the same sequence number. If the server had already processed the request it would resend the cached response, if it had not yet had time to process the request it would only send a "positive acknowledgement". The bottom line to this 'trust the network' approach was a 2/3 reduction in network transactions and the associated latency.

Non-preemptive OS designed for network services

[edit]

One of the raging debates of the 1990s was whether it was more appropriate for network file service to be performed by a software layer running on top of a general purpose operating system, or by a special purpose operating system. NetWare was a special purpose operating system, not a timesharing OS. It was written from the ground up as a platform for client-server processing services. Initially it focused on file and print services, but later demonstrated its flexibility by running database, email, web and other services as well. It also performed efficiently as a router, supporting IPX, TCP/IP, and Appletalk, though it never offered the flexibility of a 'hardware' router.

In 4.x and earlier versions, NetWare did not support preemption, virtual memory,[41] graphical user interfaces, etc. Processes and services running under the NetWare OS were expected to be cooperative, that is to process a request and return control to the OS in a timely fashion. On the down side, this trust of application processes to manage themselves could lead to a misbehaving application bringing down the server.

See also

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Notes

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References

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Further reading

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NetWare

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NetWare is a family of network operating systems developed by , Inc., first introduced in 1983 as a dedicated server platform optimized for providing high-performance , , and services to client computers over local area networks (LANs). Designed specifically for networked environments rather than general-purpose , it emphasized in handling concurrent requests from multiple clients through a non-preemptive kernel, NetWare Loadable Modules (NLMs) for extensibility, and its IPX/SPX , which enabled seamless connectivity in pre-TCP/IP dominant eras. At its peak in the late 1980s and early , NetWare captured over 70% of the network operating system market, powering millions of servers worldwide and becoming a cornerstone for enterprise LANs. Novell, originally founded as Novell Data Systems in 1979 and renamed in 1983, released the initial version of NetWare (version 1.0) on the platform before transitioning to 80x86 architecture, where it gained widespread adoption. Key evolutionary versions included NetWare 3.0 (1989), which introduced support for the 80386 processor and enhanced scalability; NetWare 4.0 (1993), featuring the Directory Services (NDS) for centralized user and ; and later iterations like NetWare 5.0 (1998) and 6.0 (2001), which shifted toward TCP/IP integration, web-based administration, and cross-platform compatibility with Unix, , and Windows environments. NetWare 6.5 (2003) further advanced these capabilities with features such as iFolder for , iPrint for internet-based , and improved clustering for , supporting up to 32 processors and facilitating server consolidation. The system's prioritized delivery over local interactivity, using a single-address-space model with protection domains, software-based like Server (SFT III) for server mirroring, and efficient thread management via work objects to ensure low-latency responses in multi-user scenarios. By the late 1990s, however, NetWare faced increasing competition from and later , which offered better integration with desktop environments and broader application support, leading to a decline in market share from its dominant position. responded by open-sourcing elements of NetWare and integrating it into the (OES) platform starting in 2004, blending NetWare services with SUSE Linux. NetWare's general support ended on March 31, 2010, with extended support for version 6.5 available until December 31, 2016, after which it entered a sustaining phase under (now ), the successor to following its 2010 acquisition. Despite its discontinuation, NetWare's innovations in directory services—evolving into NDS and influencing modern systems like —and its role in pioneering scalable LAN infrastructure left a lasting legacy in enterprise networking.

Introduction

Overview

NetWare is a (NOS) developed by , Inc., specifically designed for local area networks (LANs) with a primary focus on enabling efficient file and print sharing among connected devices. As a server-based operating system, NetWare runs exclusively on dedicated servers, providing centralized network services without supporting direct desktop or general-purpose tasks. This specialization distinguishes it from general-purpose operating systems like or early Windows versions, which were not optimized for high-volume network operations. In its operational model, NetWare employs a , where NetWare servers manage and deliver network resources such as file storage, printing, and directory services to clients. It supports a diverse range of client operating systems, including DOS, Windows, and Unix variants, allowing heterogeneous environments to access shared resources seamlessly. Communication between clients and servers relies on protocols like IPX/SPX, which facilitate reliable data transmission tailored to LAN environments. A key architectural feature of NetWare is its use of NetWare Loadable Modules (NLMs), which allow for modular loading of network services and extensions directly into the server's memory, enhancing and customization without requiring a full system . This modular design underscores NetWare's emphasis on performance and reliability in networking scenarios, positioning it as a foundational for enterprise LANs during its prominence.

Historical Significance

NetWare played a pivotal role in the evolution of enterprise networking by achieving dominant and establishing the paradigm for dedicated network operating systems (NOS). First released in 1983, in the early , NetWare captured over 70% of the LAN server market, serving as the primary platform for file and print sharing in both small and medium-sized businesses (SMBs) and large enterprises. This dominance stemmed from its design as the first true dedicated NOS, optimized for efficient resource sharing over local area networks without the overhead of general-purpose operating systems. Among its key innovations, NetWare introduced the first widely adopted multi-protocol routing capabilities, enabling seamless support for diverse network protocols such as IPX/SPX, , and early TCP/IP implementations within a single environment. Additionally, the introduction of Novell Directory Services (NDS) in NetWare 4.0 marked a groundbreaking advancement in directory services, providing a hierarchical, scalable database for managing users, resources, and access controls that was contemporary with early developments in standards like LDAP and influenced their evolution. NetWare significantly shaped networking standards through its promotion of IPX/SPX as the predominant protocol suite for LANs in the late 1980s and early 1990s, facilitating widespread adoption before TCP/IP became ubiquitous. Its NDS architecture also inspired Microsoft's , with the latter drawing on NDS's hierarchical model and directory-enabled management features to address similar enterprise needs. The long-term legacy of NetWare endures as a foundational influence on modern file-sharing and directory systems, with its emphasis on secure, centralized informing contemporary NOS designs. Despite the end of official extended support on December 31, 2016, NetWare remains operational in select legacy environments as of 2025, underscoring its reliability in mission-critical applications where migration costs outweigh risks.

History

Origins and Early Versions

NetWare originated at , Inc., where it was developed in the early 1980s as a dedicated drawing from the (XNS) protocol suite to enable efficient local area networking for personal computers. Novell's team, including principal engineers Drew Major, Dale Neibaur, and Kyle Powell—who had been contracted in 1981 through their SuperSet Software group—focused on creating a file server-based system optimized for emerging x86 hardware, emphasizing low overhead and reliability for business environments. In 1983, Novell formally acquired SuperSet Software, incorporating its networking innovations to accelerate development. The inaugural release, NetWare 1.0, launched in 1983 and targeted x86 PCs with clients, marking the debut of the NetWare Core Protocol (NCP) for structured client-server communication and the (IPX) protocol for routing datagrams across networks. This version supported a star topology initially but emphasized on the server side to handle multiple file and print requests without requiring dedicated hardware beyond standard PCs, positioning NetWare as an accessible alternative to systems. A key milestone came in 1985 with the introduction of Advanced NetWare 1.0 (sometimes referenced as NetWare 1.5 in contemporary documentation), which enhanced server efficiency by supporting multiple servers per network, improved file locking for concurrent via NCP extensions, and refined multitasking to better manage workloads on processors. These updates addressed early limitations in and resource sharing, solidifying NetWare's foundation for enterprise use while maintaining a focus on minimal resource consumption.

NetWare 2.x and 3.x

NetWare 2.x, released starting in 1986 with version 2.0a, represented a significant advancement in network operating systems by leveraging the 286 processor's capabilities, allowing efficient memory management above 1 MB without relying on DOS for dedicated servers. This architecture supported up to 100 concurrent users, making it suitable for small to medium-sized networks, and introduced the Sequenced Packet Exchange (SPX) protocol as part of the IPX/SPX stack to provide reliable, connection-oriented transport over the network. The series culminated in version 2.2 in 1991, which consolidated prior offerings like the Entry Level Solution (ELS) for limited users and Advanced NetWare for broader scalability, emphasizing stability through features such as system (SFT) with to protect against single disk failures. NetWare 3.x, building on the 2.x foundation, shifted to the Intel 386 processor for 32-bit operations from its initial 3.0 release in 1989, but gained prominence in the 1993-1996 period with versions like 3.12, introducing demand paging and linear memory addressing to enable more efficient use of and support for over 1,000 users per server. This allowed for scalable multi-user environments, with the final major update in 3.2 enhancing performance and reliability for enterprise deployments. Key enhancements included the Open Data-Link Interface (ODI), which facilitated support for multiple network interface cards (NICs) on diverse media, enabling workstations to handle various protocols simultaneously without dedicated drivers per interface. The bindery served as the central database for user , storing details on users, groups, passwords, , and resources in a flat, server-specific that simplified administration but required manual synchronization across multiple servers. Fault tolerance was further improved in both 2.x and 3.x through SFT Level I , which duplicated data across volumes in real-time to ensure continuity during hardware failures, alongside read-after-write verification for . The Service Advertising Protocol () enabled servers to broadcast their availability and services, such as file and print sharing, across the IPX network, facilitating dynamic discovery without manual configuration. Installation typically involved booting from a for non-dedicated modes or direct server setup without DOS for dedicated operation, with broad compatibility for Ethernet and networks using the default SPX/IPX protocol stack. This setup supported mixed environments, including DOS, , and Macintosh clients, prioritizing reliable multi-protocol communication over heterogeneous hardware.

NetWare 4.x Evolution

NetWare 4.0, released in October 1993, marked a significant advancement in Novell's by introducing Novell Directory Services (NDS), a hierarchical and designed for centralized, global management of users, printers, and other network resources across multiple servers. Unlike the flat bindery structure of prior versions, NDS enabled scalable enterprise environments, supporting up to 16 million objects per server and facilitating replication for and load balancing in large networks. The system also expanded protocol support beyond the traditional IPX/SPX to include TCP/IP for broader compatibility and for integration with Macintosh environments, allowing seamless connectivity in heterogeneous setups. Subsequent updates refined NDS and added enterprise features. NetWare 4.1, released in 1995, enhanced NDS replication mechanisms to improve and reduce administrative overhead in distributed environments, alongside better performance for multi-protocol operations. In 1996, NetWare 4.11 introduced initial clustering capabilities through Cluster Services, enabling high-availability configurations where two NetWare 4.11 servers could provide support for critical applications, minimizing downtime in mission-critical deployments. That same year, launched IntraNetWare as a bundled edition of NetWare 4.11, incorporating a high-performance , the browser, TCP/IP stack, ManageWise for , and GroupWise for collaborative messaging, positioning it as a complete platform for emerging web-based networking needs. To address smaller-scale deployments, NetWare 4.2, released in November 1998 as , streamlined the operating system for networks with fewer than 100 users by simplifying installation, providing an integrated console, and including bundled tools like antivirus and utilities, making it more accessible for resource-constrained organizations. The 4.x series faced challenges, including Year 2000 (Y2K) compliance issues in early builds, such as date-handling flaws in NDS and file timestamps, which addressed through dedicated patches and support packs to ensure reliability as the millennium approached. Strategically, used bundling in releases like IntraNetWare to counter competition from Windows NT Server by offering integrated, cost-effective solutions that reduced total ownership costs by up to 30% compared to NT, emphasizing NDS's superiority in directory services and performance in file-sharing benchmarks.

NetWare 5.x and 6.x

NetWare 5.0, released in 1998, marked a significant evolution in Novell's by introducing eDirectory as the successor to Novell Directory Services (NDS), with built-in support for the (LDAP) to enable cross-platform directory access and integration with web-based applications. This version fully adopted pure TCP/IP networking, eliminating the need for IPX/SPX protocols through NCP protocol independence, allowing administrators to configure IP-only environments via the MONITOR utility and NCP console commands. Additionally, Novell Storage Services (NSS) was introduced as a high-performance supporting large volumes and enhanced storage management via the NetWare Peripheral Architecture (NWPA), including hot-plug capabilities for PCI and I2O devices. ConsoleOne, a Java-based , provided centralized management for eDirectory tasks, file system operations, and server administration, requiring at least 128 MB RAM on the server for optimal performance. The NetWare 5.1 update, released in 2000, built on these foundations by adding iFolder, a tool that created personalized "My Network" folders for users to access and share files across devices via , integrating seamlessly with for web publishing. It also expanded NSS capabilities to support file systems up to 32 TB, facilitating large-scale data storage and efficient file transfers through the enhanced NetWare . Other enhancements included the NetWare Enterprise Web Server 3.6 for scalable HTTP hosting and the NetWare Web Search Server for indexing content, emphasizing web-based networking while maintaining backward compatibility with NetWare 3.x and 4.x clients through bindery emulation and migration agents. NetWare 6.0, launched in 2001, shifted further toward internet-centric operations with the introduction of the Virtual Office portal (via NetWare WebAccess), enabling browser-based access to files, printers, and management tools from any device without requiring dedicated client software. iPrint was added to streamline web printing by combining Novell Distributed Print Services (NDPS) and Internet Printing Protocol (IPP), allowing automatic driver installation and cross-network print job management. eDirectory scalability was improved to support larger deployments, including up to 32 processors via the multi-processor kernel and Novell Cluster Services 1.6 for high availability, while NSS 3.0 enhanced storage efficiency. As the final major 32-bit release, it focused on web integration and protocol flexibility, retaining compatibility for legacy 3.x and 4.x clients. NetWare 6.5, released in 2003, introduced support for 64-bit processors in 32-bit mode, enabling better utilization of modern hardware like blade servers alongside features such as for storage area networks. The Universal Password policy was implemented through eDirectory and Modular Authentication Services (NMAS), providing a single, secure password for all resources while synchronizing with external directories like via DirXML. This version bundled web services tools including Apache 2.0, 4.0, 4.2, and the exteNd J2EE to support , XML, and other standards for e-business applications. Service Pack 8, released in 2008, served as the final update, with general support ending on March 7, 2010, after which extended support continued until December 31, 2016. Throughout the 5.x and 6.x series, emphasis was placed on web-enabled features for remote access and integration, ensuring seamless operation with earlier 3.x and 4.x client environments via emulation and protocol bridges.

Transition to Open Enterprise Server

In 2005, Novell announced Open Enterprise Server (OES) as the successor to NetWare, marking a strategic shift toward a Linux-based platform while preserving compatibility with existing NetWare services. Released on March 25, 2005, OES 1.0 was built on SUSE Linux Enterprise Server (SLES) 9 SP1 and incorporated the NetWare 6.5 SP3 kernel as an optional loadable module, allowing administrators to run traditional NetWare applications alongside Linux-native services. This hybrid approach ensured backward compatibility for key NetWare components, including Novell eDirectory for directory services and Novell Storage Services (NSS) for file management, enabling a gradual transition without immediate disruption to legacy environments. The evolution of OES continued with subsequent releases that progressively reduced reliance on the NetWare kernel and enhanced Linux integration. OES 2, launched on October 12, 2007, was based on NetWare 6.5 SP7 and SLES 10 SP1, introducing improved support for virtualization and clustering while maintaining eDirectory and NSS as core elements. Later versions, such as OES 2015 (released August 31, 2015) and OES 2018, focused on performance optimizations, enhanced high-availability features through Novell Cluster Services, and alignment with newer SLES distributions like SLES 12. By OES 2023, the platform fully emphasized Linux-native operations on SLES 15, with ongoing updates to file, print, and identity services. In 2024, OES 24.4 provided foundational updates for SLES 15 SP4 compatibility, setting the stage for minor releases. Recent developments in 2025 have centered on , , and defect resolutions to support long-term deployments. OES 25.2, generally available on May 28, 2025, introduced enhancements for stability and , including improved integration with modern SLES features and fixes for operational reliability. This was followed by OES 25.3 in July 2025, which delivered additional improvements and defect fixes, such as refined client and service configurations, building on OES 24.4. These updates reflect OpenText's (formerly ) commitment to evolving OES as a robust, Linux-centric enterprise server. NetWare's lifecycle concluded with the end of full self-support in December 2017, after extended support through 2016, prompting organizations to migrate to OES for continued vendor backing. Migration paths were facilitated by official tools like the OES Migration Tool, which supports transferring eDirectory data, file systems, and services from or earlier OES versions to Linux-based OES platforms, often in a consolidation process to reduce server count. Despite these efforts, as of 2025, numerous legacy installations continue to operate NetWare 6.5 SP8 due to entrenched compatibility requirements in specialized environments.

Variants and Derivatives

NetWare for Specialized Platforms

NetWare for OS/2 emerged in the late 1980s primarily as a client requester to enable OS/2 workstations to connect to NetWare servers, with the initial version shipping in late 1988 for OS/2 1.0. This requester, version 1.2 by 1989, supported basic file and print services over IPX/SPX protocols, targeting IBM-centric environments where OS/2 was prevalent as a robust alternative to DOS for business PCs. The server-side integration advanced significantly in August 1993 with the release of NetWare for OS/2 as a $200 add-on to NetWare 4.01, allowing the NetWare kernel to run atop OS/2 2.1 servers. This setup utilized OS/2's High Performance File System (HPFS) for boot partitions and file sharing, enabling seamless access to NetWare volumes from OS/2 clients while supporting up to 100 concurrent users in typical configurations. Designed for non-x86 hardware compatibility in IBM-dominated networks, it facilitated cross-platform resource sharing without requiring dedicated NetWare hardware. Further development of NetWare for continued through versions aligned with NetWare 4.x, including 4.1 in 1995, which introduced memory sharing between the OS/2 host and NetWare modules for improved efficiency. However, adoption remained limited compared to standard x86-based NetWare due to OS/2's and higher complexity in multi-OS setups. By the mid-1990s, the introduction of NetWare Directory Services (NDS) in NetWare 4.x emphasized platform standardization on x86 architectures, leading to the gradual phase-out of OS/2-specific variants as shifted focus to unified enterprise solutions. In the , briefly offered Portable NetWare, later rebranded as NetWare for UNIX, as an application-level port to run on UNIX systems like those from . Announced around , this variant aimed to extend NetWare's file and print services to non-PC server platforms, supporting IPX/SPX over UNIX kernels for heterogeneous environments. Its deployment was short-lived, overshadowed by the dominance of x86 NetWare and challenges in the proprietary kernel. NetWare for Macintosh, introduced in the late , provided protocol integration for file and print services starting with NetWare 3.x, but saw significant enhancements in NetWare 4.x and beyond. This module emulated AppleShare servers over , allowing Macintosh clients to access NetWare volumes transparently using protocols like AFP for seamless interoperability in mixed environments. Targeted at creative and educational sectors with heavy Mac usage, it supported up to several dozen users per server and was commonly bundled in NetWare 3.12 distributions. Like other specialized ports, its use declined post-4.x as TCP/IP supplanted and prioritized cross-platform standards via NDS.

Lightweight and Personal Editions

NetWare Lite, introduced by in late 1991, was a networking solution designed for small-scale environments, allowing up to 25 personal computers to share resources without requiring a dedicated server. It ran on DOS-based clients and utilized the NetWare Core Protocol (NCP) over IPX for communication, enabling basic file and printer sharing among workstations. The software featured a lightweight installation, with core components like SERVER.EXE occupying approximately 33 KB in minimal configurations, making it suitable for resource-constrained systems. Additional capabilities included upper memory loading for server and client executables, drive mapping retention via NET SAVE, server listing without login using NET SLIST, and support for drives, all of which enhanced usability in setups. Priced affordably at $99 for the initial user and $49 per additional license, NetWare Lite targeted home offices and small workgroups, positioning itself as an accessible entry point to Novell's networking ecosystem while competing directly with products like Artisoft's LANtastic. It supported ODI network card drivers and protocols such as IPXODI, SPX, and , ensuring compatibility with existing NetWare infrastructure without the overhead of full server editions. Personal NetWare, released in 1993 as a successor to NetWare Lite, further simplified networking for consumer and small office use by bundling peer-to-peer file sharing capabilities with Novell's DR-DOS (also known as Novell DOS 7). This integration allowed up to 12 users to connect for basic resource sharing, operating entirely on DOS platforms without needing dedicated hardware. Key features included a text-based interface for management, serialization for each installation to prevent duplication on the network, and seamless compatibility with full NetWare servers for hybrid environments. Like its predecessor, it emphasized minimal resource demands, with no dedicated server required and installations under 1 MB, facilitating easy setup in non-enterprise settings. Both editions played a niche role in the early market by democratizing local area networking for personal and small-scale applications, but they were discontinued by the mid- as the rise of TCP/IP protocols and integrated solutions like Windows for Workgroups diminished demand for IPX-based systems. Elements of Personal NetWare were later incorporated into Novell's LAN Workplace for DOS, which shifted focus toward TCP/IP connectivity and broader client utilities.

Small Business Adaptations

NetWare for Small Business 4.2, released on November 16, 1998, represented a simplified adaptation of the NetWare 4.x platform specifically designed for small to medium-sized businesses (SMBs) with fewer than 50 users and limited IT expertise. This edition focused on ease of deployment and cost efficiency, featuring an Internet Connection Wizard that automated Internet access setup and BorderManager FastCache for improved connection speeds. It included bundled applications such as Tobit FaxWare for integrated fax server functionality, Network Associates' NetShield for server antivirus protection and VirusScan for clients, and Novell's Enhanced Sbackup for GUI-based data backups. Licensing was structured per user, starting at $1,295 for the server plus five users, with additional users at $70 each, emphasizing reduced costs compared to full enterprise editions while supporting core file and print services without advanced clustering or scalability options. Building on this foundation, introduced the Suite 5 in June 1999, a bundled solution centered on NetWare 5.x technology tailored for SMBs with 5 to 50 users. This adaptation incorporated simplified administration tools like the Novell Easy Admin Tool (NEAT) for quick network setup and management, alongside integrated GroupWise 5.5 for email, calendaring, and collaboration. Additional features included McAfee VirusScan for client antivirus and NetShield for server protection, ZENworks Starter Pack for desktop and application management, and BorderManager for secure , all configured for plug-and-play operation focused on file and print sharing. The suite offered scalable licensing in 1-, 5-, or 25-user increments, starting with a five-user base, and supported upgrades from prior NetWare versions, prioritizing affordability and minimal complexity over enterprise-level features. An updated version, Suite 5.1, followed in 2000, enhancing Year 2000 compliance and upgrade paths from NetWare 3.x, 4.x, or 5.x while maintaining the emphasis on streamlined SMB networking. These adaptations gained significant traction among 1990s SMBs seeking reliable, low-maintenance network solutions, contributing to NetWare's overall dominance in the server market during that era. By the mid-2000s, as NetWare transitioned to (OES), small business options evolved into bundles like Novell Small Business Suite 6.6, which integrated OES NetWare 6.5 with Support Pack 3 for continued file and print services on a hybrid Linux-NetWare platform.

Technical Architecture

Core Components

The NetWare kernel serves as the foundational component of the operating system, designed specifically for network server environments. It operates in a non-preemptive, multithreaded manner, where NetWare Loadable Modules (NLMs) extend functionality without requiring a system reboot. This modular architecture allows administrators to load and unload components dynamically, optimizing resource usage for file serving and other network tasks. From NetWare 2.x onward, the kernel runs in on 286 and later processors, utilizing a flat memory model to access while maintaining stability for server operations. NetWare's storage subsystem evolved to handle growing data demands. The traditional NetWare File System (NWFS), introduced in earlier versions, supported volumes limited to up to 1 TB in 32-bit implementations starting from NetWare 3.x, with file sizes capped at 4 GB. Starting with NetWare 5.x, Novell Storage Services (NSS) replaced NWFS as the primary , enabling dynamic volume growth up to 8 TB or more within storage pools, along with built-in journaling for faster recovery from crashes and user space quotas to enforce storage limits per directory or user. NSS volumes mount more quickly than traditional ones and support up to trillions of files per volume, enhancing for enterprise environments. Server management in NetWare relies on console-based tools for core operations. The SCREEN , accessible directly from the server console, allows administrators to switch between multiple screens for monitoring system messages, loading NLMs, and executing commands in a text-only interface. In later versions, such as NetWare 5.x and beyond, graphical management tools like ConsoleOne provided a Java-based interface for handling eDirectory objects, server resources, and configurations, while offered web-based administration for tasks including licensing, DNS/DHCP, and iPrint services. These tools supplemented the command-line console without altering the kernel's lack of a native . NetWare's modularity extends to its core services, which are implemented as dynamically loadable NLMs rather than statically compiled into the kernel. For instance, the file server engine (FSE) handles core file access and sharing operations, while the print server engine (PSE), loaded as PSERVER.NLM, manages print queues and directs jobs to attached printers. This design enables efficient resource allocation, as unused services remain dormant until invoked, and supports the operating system's default operation without a graphical user interface, prioritizing server reliability over client-like features. Brief integration with networking protocols occurs through dedicated NLMs, but detailed protocol handling is managed separately.

File and Directory Services

NetWare's directory services evolved significantly across versions, transitioning from a simple, server-bound system to a robust, scalable framework. In versions 2.x and 3.x, the bindery functioned as the primary directory mechanism, operating as a flat, non-relational database that stored essential network objects such as users, groups, print queues, and servers on a per-server basis. This structure maintained security equivalences and login restrictions tied exclusively to individual servers, which facilitated basic but imposed inherent limitations on in larger, multi-server deployments due to the absence of inter-server synchronization or centralized oversight. The introduction of NetWare Directory Services (NDS) in version 4.x marked a , replacing the bindery with a hierarchical, globally distributed directory modeled on the standard. NDS organized network resources into a logical comprising container objects (such as organizations and organizational units) and leaf objects (like users and printers), all defined and constrained by a flexible that dictated allowable attributes and classes. This design enabled seamless multi-server management through partitioning of the directory tree and replication of partitions across servers, promoting and load balancing while supporting network-wide via a single point. To ensure backward compatibility with bindery-dependent applications from earlier NetWare versions, NDS incorporated bindery services, which emulated the flat by mapping leaf objects within designated organizational contexts to a server-specific bindery view. Building on NDS, eDirectory—deployed starting with NetWare 5.x—enhanced these capabilities with full compliance to the LDAPv3 protocol, facilitating standardized access and with diverse systems. eDirectory introduced , allowing read-write updates on multiple servers with automatic to maintain data consistency, and scaled to accommodate millions of objects across vast enterprises without performance degradation. eDirectory further integrated with DNS by embedding DNS zones and records directly into the directory tree, enabling dynamic updates and centralized administration of both identity and naming services through a unified, replicated database. Complementing these directory advancements, NetWare's file services emphasized and security, particularly via the Storage Services (NSS) file system introduced in NetWare 5.x as the default for new volumes. NSS implemented a salvage feature that retained deleted files in a hidden area, allowing recovery for a user-defined retention period (typically up to 30 days) or until storage reclamation was necessary, thereby protecting against accidental . Security in NSS relied on a trustee-based model, where explicit —assignments of users or groups to directories and files—governed access through inherited or explicit access control lists (ACLs) defining read, write, create, erase, modify, and scan rights. Trustee inheritance propagated permissions down directory hierarchies unless explicitly blocked, simplifying administration in complex folder structures. Additionally, NSS provided built-in file and directory compression, which transparently reduced storage footprint for infrequently accessed data while preserving rights and during the compression process.

Networking Protocols

NetWare's networking protocols formed the foundation of its client-server , with the early versions relying primarily on the IPX/SPX stack for efficient communication. IPX () operated as a connectionless protocol at the network layer, facilitating packet routing based on 32-bit network addresses and 48-bit node addresses derived from MAC addresses, often using encapsulation methods like Ethernet_II or IEEE 802.3. SPX (Sequenced Packet Exchange), built atop IPX at the , provided reliable, connection-oriented delivery with sequencing, acknowledgments, and flow control, ensuring ordered and error-free transmission of data between clients and servers. Supporting these were auxiliary protocols for network discovery and routing. The Service Advertising Protocol (SAP) enabled servers to broadcast their available services, such as file and print servers, every 60 seconds using type identifiers (e.g., 4 for file servers), allowing clients to locate resources without prior configuration. The Routing Information Protocol (RIP), a distance-vector protocol, automated route updates every 60 seconds, using metrics based on "ticks" (approximately 1/18th of a second) combined with hop counts to determine optimal paths in IPX internetworks. At the core of NetWare's service interactions was the NetWare Core Protocol (NCP), a request-reply mechanism encapsulating client requests within IPX or later TCP/IP packets for accessing file, print, and other services. NCP employed an efficient binary format with a fixed header (typically 7-8 bytes) followed by variable data, using function codes (e.g., Case 23 for file operations) and sequence numbers for matching replies to requests, minimizing overhead in server-client exchanges. The protocol evolved alongside NetWare releases, with enhancements in NetWare 3.x introducing 32-bit support and further refinements up to NetWare 6.x, including improved security features like packet signing. To adapt to broader internetworking needs, NetWare integrated TCP/IP support starting with version 3.x as an optional via loadable modules (NLMs), allowing coexistence with IPX for hybrid environments. This integration relied on the Open Datalink Interface (ODI) framework and Multiple Link Interface Drivers (MLIDs), which enabled multiple protocol stacks to share the same network interface card by multiplexing traffic at the . By NetWare 5.x, pure IP mode became the default, with NCP running directly over TCP or UDP without IPX, streamlining operations for TCP/IP-dominant networks while maintaining through gateways. Later versions extended interoperability with additional protocols. Starting in NetWare 5.1 and enhanced in 6.x, support for SMB (Server Message Block, later CIFS) allowed Windows clients to access NetWare file shares natively, with features like SMB signing added in NetWare 6.5 SP4 for secure . For printing, iPrint in NetWare 6.x leveraged the (IPP) to enable web-based printer discovery, installation, and job submission over TCP/IP, simplifying remote and cross-platform printing without proprietary extensions.

Performance Characteristics

Optimization Strategies

NetWare's optimization strategies were rooted in a design philosophy that emphasized network-bound performance, treating the server primarily as a dedicated file handler rather than a general-purpose . This approach minimized client-side processing by offloading most file operations to the server, ensuring efficient handling of network requests through streamlined core code paths for reads, writes, opens, closes, and directory searches. By prioritizing reliability and while automating internal tuning mechanisms, NetWare reduced the need for manual interventions, allowing the to dynamically adjust resources like service processes and cache block sizing based on workload demands. Central to this model was the file service architecture, where the server managed all file access as a centralized handler, enabling features like opportunistic locking to support multi-user edits without excessive contention. Opportunistic locking allowed clients to cache file data locally for exclusive (Level I) or shared read (Level II) access, granting the server permission to break locks only when necessary, such as during write requests from other clients. This mechanism reduced network traffic significantly—for instance, transforming hundreds of packets into tens when opening a 1024 KB file—while maintaining data coherency across users. NetWare employed aggressive caching techniques to prioritize RAM-based file block storage, achieving cache hit rates of up to 90% or higher under optimal conditions, which minimized disk I/O and enhanced overall throughput. File blocks were cached in RAM, with read-ahead algorithms staging sequential data into cache at block midpoints to anticipate access patterns, and dirty block writes deferred via a low-priority write-behind process to batch updates efficiently. Disk I/O was further optimized using elevator seeks, where requests were tiered into priority bins—critical events first, followed by reads, writes, and read-aheads—to service operations in an ordered manner, preventing and aligning with the non-preemptive kernel's focus on short, overlapping network tasks. To address storage inefficiency, NetWare implemented block suballocation, subdividing standard 4KB or larger blocks (up to 64KB) into 512-byte units for small files, thereby reducing wasted space that could otherwise reach 75% for 1KB files in an unsuballocated 4KB block system. This feature allowed up to 128 small files to share a single block, reclaiming slack space from partially used blocks and deleted files until purged, with tests showing dramatic improvements such as storing 347 1KB files on a 23MB volume with 0% waste versus 98% without suballocation. Suballocation significantly enhanced capacity and write performance by minimizing full-block allocations on volumes with many small files.

Protocol Efficiency

The NetWare Core Protocol (NCP) employs a request-response where individual requests are self-contained, facilitating efficient, connection-oriented communication without maintaining extensive session state across packets. This design relies on sequence numbers and connection identifiers within the header to manage ordering and reliability, keeping the protocol lightweight. The NCP request header measures 6 bytes, comprising a 2-byte NCP type, 1-byte sequence number, 1-byte connection number (low), 1-byte task number, and 1-byte connection number (high). For large file transfers, NCP incorporates burst mode, which bundles multiple data packets into a single transmission without per-packet acknowledgments, significantly reducing round-trip latency and server processing demands compared to traditional sequenced acknowledgments. NetWare's protocol stack further enhances efficiency through header compression techniques, shrinking combined IPX and NCP overhead from 37 bytes to as little as 2 bytes in optimal scenarios, particularly beneficial over wide-area networks. This allowed NetWare servers to manage high concurrency with minimal resource use; for instance, systems could sustain hundreds of active sessions while keeping CPU utilization below 10% during typical file-sharing workloads, underscoring NCP's low-overhead nature. In NetWare 4.x and later versions, optimizations to supporting protocols like Service Advertising Protocol (SAP) and (RIP)—including traffic filtering and the Get Nearest Server mechanism—curtailed unnecessary broadcasts, further conserving bandwidth and improving response times in multi-server environments. The evolution of NCP in NetWare 5.x introduced native support over TCP/IP, supplanting the IPX/SPX stack to align with emerging internet standards while preserving efficiency; header compression and streamlined packet handling reduced effective latency in mixed-protocol networks relative to legacy IPX configurations on slower links. Security features like packet signing, which appends a unique cryptographic hash to each NCP packet using a , were added without mandating a severe performance penalty—configurable levels (0-3) enabled administrators to limit overhead to under 10% on modern hardware like 486 processors, balancing protection against forgery with throughput. A key advantage of NCP lies in its reduced round-trip requirements for common tasks, such as directory enumeration or file access, often needing fewer exchanges than the (SMB) protocol prevalent in Microsoft networks, which contributed to superior responsiveness on the 10 Mbps Ethernet infrastructures for which NetWare was originally optimized. This efficiency stemmed from NCP's tailored focus on server-centric operations, minimizing client-server chatter in bandwidth-constrained eras.

Kernel and Resource Management

NetWare's kernel employs a non-preemptive , where threads execute to completion once scheduled, without involuntary interruption by the operating system. This approach, established in NetWare 2.x and carried forward, relies on , requiring NetWare Loadable Modules (NLMs) to voluntarily yield control of the CPU to enable scheduling of other threads. Time-slicing is implemented via interrupts, such as the system clock, which guarantees scheduling for low-priority threads at least 18 times per second to maintain fairness without full preemption. Network-oriented threads receive higher priority in the scheduling queues, ensuring responsive handling of client requests over lower-priority tasks. The threading model in NetWare supports across multiple threads, avoiding issues like by design, as threads must explicitly yield rather than being forcibly rescheduled. In NetWare 6.x, the kernel can manage up to 1000 service processes, which handle network connections and NCP requests, with the total thread count scalable based on system resources. This model promotes efficiency in dedicated server environments, where threads are optimized for short, network-focused operations rather than long-running general computations. Resource management in NetWare centers on dedicated memory pools allocated to NLMs, which isolate memory usage and prevent fragmentation from affecting the core kernel. Upon NLM unload or in case of faults, the automatically cleans up allocated from the NLM's address space, enhancing stability without manual intervention. In NetWare 6.5, multi-core support includes CPU affinity, allowing threads to be bound to specific processors to optimize cache locality and reduce migration overhead in setups. These kernel and features enable high throughput for network services, with the non-preemptive, model minimizing context-switch overhead to achieve superior in file and print serving on dedicated hardware. However, the reliance on voluntary yielding introduces potential stalls if an NLM fails to cooperate, making the system best suited for trusted, network-dedicated roles rather than interactive or general-purpose workloads.

Market Impact and Legacy

Dominance and Adoption

NetWare established market leadership in the local area network (LAN) operating system sector during the and , capturing over 70% of the market by 1993. This dominance was driven by its early entry into PC networking and robust performance in connecting workstations for file and print . By the late , more than 3.8 million NetWare servers were installed globally, supporting tens of millions of users across diverse environments, including significant adoption in and sectors where stable, scalable networking was critical. Key drivers of NetWare's adoption included its exceptional reliability, often achieving uptimes measured in years without interruption, which far surpassed competitors and earned it a reputation for stability in mission-critical deployments. Third-party applications, such as for word processing, thrived on NetWare platforms, enhancing its appeal for productivity-focused networks before Novell's acquisition of the software. Certification programs like the (CNE) further accelerated adoption by standardizing skills among administrators, with hundreds of thousands trained worldwide to deploy and maintain systems effectively. The NetWare ecosystem expanded rapidly, featuring tools like for cross-platform application development and thousands of NetWare Loadable Modules (NLMs) from third-party developers that extended functionality for tasks ranging from database management to custom utilities. This modular architecture fostered innovation and integration, solidifying NetWare's position as the for enterprise LANs. Globally, NetWare saw strong uptake in and , where it was frequently bundled with PC hardware and network adapters to facilitate easy deployment in growing markets during the 1990s.

Challenges and Decline

NetWare faced significant strategic challenges in the late , including a delayed emphasis on TCP/IP support, which was not natively integrated until NetWare 5.0 in 1998, while competitors like had built-in TCP/IP from its 1993 release, aligning better with the emerging era. Additionally, the complexity of Novell Directory Services (NDS), introduced in NetWare 4.0, contrasted with the simpler of , making integration and administration more cumbersome for users transitioning to mixed environments. A major distraction came from Novell's 1994 acquisition of for $1.4 billion, intended to challenge in office , but it diverted resources from core networking development and ultimately failed, leading to its sale to Corel in 1996. Competition intensified with the rise of starting in 1993, which offered seamless integration within the ecosystem, including easier compatibility with Windows clients and applications, eroding NetWare's dominance in enterprise LANs. By 2000, further overshadowed Novell's eDirectory (formerly NDS), providing a more unified that capitalized on the growing adoption of Windows-based infrastructures and reduced the appeal of NetWare's proprietary extensions. Internal issues compounded these problems, including frequent leadership changes—such as CEO Ray Noorda's departure in 1994 amid health concerns, followed by Robert Frankenberg and Eric Schmidt—which disrupted strategic focus during critical market shifts. Novell also faced antitrust scrutiny from Microsoft, culminating in a 2004 settlement where Microsoft paid $536 million to resolve claims that it had anticompetitively withheld information to disadvantage NetWare in the 1990s. The broader market transition from LAN-centric models to internet-driven networking further marginalized NetWare's IPX/SPX protocol roots. NetWare's market share, which exceeded 70% in the early , plummeted below 20% by 2000 as and its successors gained traction, with having overtaken it as the leading by 1997. This decline led to a series of acquisitions: parts of Novell's Unix-related assets were entangled in legal disputes with (later ) starting in 2001, while the company itself was acquired by Attachmate in 2010 for $2.2 billion and subsequently by in 2014 through a merger valued at approximately $1.2 billion, and was then acquired by in 2023.

Enduring Influence

NetWare's NetWare Directory Services (NDS), introduced in 1993 with NetWare 4.0, represented a pioneering advancement in distributed directory services by providing a hierarchical, global database that replaced the flat bindery structure of earlier versions, enabling scalable management of users, resources, and security across enterprise networks. This innovation laid foundational concepts for modern directory management, influencing the development of standards like LDAP, which NDS later supported natively, and contributing to the evolution of enterprise authentication systems. Similarly, the NetWare Core Protocol (NCP), a set of server routines for handling file, print, directory, and synchronization requests, emphasized efficient, low-overhead network access that paralleled key features in protocols like NFS and SMB, such as structured request-response mechanisms for shared resources. As of 2025, legacy NetWare installations persist in select organizations for mission-critical applications, particularly where custom integrations or specialized workloads rely on its robust file and print services, with support providers actively maintaining these systems. Migration challenges, including data transfer complexities, trustee rights preservation, and compatibility with eDirectory or , often deter full transitions, resulting in prolonged use of NetWare alongside modern infrastructure. These hurdles are compounded by the need for specialized tools to consolidate servers and replicate NDS structures, preserving installations that have operated reliably for decades. Open Enterprise Server (OES), Novell's successor platform introduced in 2005 and maintained by Micro Focus (now OpenText following the 2023 acquisition), embeds much of NetWare's architectural DNA, including NCP for file access, the Novell Storage Services (NSS) file system, and eDirectory as the direct evolution of NDS, ensuring continuity for legacy applications on Linux-based servers. These elements extend NetWare's principles of centralized, secure into contemporary environments, with conceptual parallels in file services that prioritize hierarchical organization, access controls, and seamless across distributed systems. NetWare's cultural legacy endures through its reputation for exceptional reliability, exemplified by historical uptime records such as a NetWare 3.12 server running continuously for over 16 years in a financial firm until 2012, and community contests celebrating multi-year operational stability without reboots. Original training materials and certification guides, like those for Certified NetWare Engineer (CNE) preparation, remain referenced by IT professionals managing legacy setups or studying network history. For preservation efforts, open-source projects such as MARS_NWE emulate NetWare's file, bindery, and print services on , allowing compatibility testing and archival access to historical DOS-based clients without proprietary licensing.

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