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Pyotr Demyanovich Uspensky (Russian: Пётр Демьянович Успенский; 5 March 1878 – 2 October 1947), known in English as P. D. Ouspensky,[1] was a Russian philosopher and esotericist known for his expositions of the early work of the Greek-Armenian teacher of esoteric doctrine George Gurdjieff. He met Gurdjieff in Moscow in 1915, and was associated with the ideas and practices originating with Gurdjieff from then on. He taught ideas and methods based in the Gurdjieff system for 25 years in England and the United States, although he separated from Gurdjieff personally in 1924, for reasons that are explained in the last chapter of his book In Search of the Miraculous.

Key Information

Ouspensky studied the Gurdjieff system directly under Gurdjieff's own supervision for a period of ten years, from 1915 to 1924. In Search of the Miraculous recounts what he learned from Gurdjieff during those years. While lecturing in London in 1924, he announced that he would continue independently the way he had begun in 1921. Some, including his close pupil Rodney Collin, say that he finally gave up the system in 1947, just before his death, but his own recorded words on the subject ("A Record of Meetings", published posthumously) do not clearly endorse this judgement.[2]

Early life

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Ouspensky was born in Moscow in 1878. In 1890, he studied at the Second Moscow Gymnasium, a government school attended by boys aged 10 to 18. At the age of 16, he was expelled from school for painting graffiti on the wall in plain sight of a visiting inspector. From then on he was more or less on his own.[3] In 1906, he worked in the editorial office of the Moscow daily paper The Morning. In 1907 he became interested in Theosophy. In late 1913, he journeyed to the East[specify] in search of the miraculous. He visited Theosophists in Adyar in Tamil Nadu, India, but was forced to return to Moscow after the beginning of World War I. In Moscow he met Gurdjieff and married Sophie Grigorievna Maximenko. He had a mistress by the name of Anna Ilinishna Butkovsky.[4]

Career

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During his years in Moscow, Ouspensky wrote for several newspapers and was particularly interested in the then-fashionable idea of the fourth dimension.[5] His first work, published in 1909, was titled The Fourth Dimension.[6] It was influenced by the ideas prevalent in the works of Charles H. Hinton,[7] which treat the fourth dimension as an extension in space.[8][9] Ouspensky treats time as a fourth dimension only indirectly in a novel he wrote titled Strange Life of Ivan Osokin[10] where he also explores the theory of eternal recurrence.

Ouspensky's second work, Tertium Organum, was published in 1912. In it he denies the ultimate reality of space and time,[11] and negates Aristotle's Logical Formula of Identification of "A is A", concluding in his "higher logic" that A is both A and not-A.[12] Unbeknown to Ouspensky, a Russian émigré by the name of Nicholas Bessarabof took a copy of Tertium Organum to America and placed it in the hands of the architect Claude Bragdon, who could read Russian and was interested in the fourth dimension.[13] Tertium Organum was rendered into English by Bragdon, who had incorporated his own design of the hypercube[14][15] into the Rochester Chamber of Commerce building.[16] Bragdon also published the book, and the publication was such a success that it was finally taken up by Alfred A. Knopf. At the time, in the early 1920s, Ouspensky's whereabouts were unknown. Bragdon located him in Constantinople and paid him back some royalties.

Ouspensky traveled in Europe, India, Ceylon, and Egypt in his search for knowledge. After his return to Russia and his introduction to Gurdjieff in 1915, he spent the next few years studying with him, and supporting the founding of a school.

Prior to 1914, Ouspensky had written and published a number of articles. In 1917, he updated these articles to include "recent developments in physics" and republished them as a book in Russian entitled A New Model of the Universe.[17] The work, as reflected in its title, shows the influence of Francis Bacon and Max Müller, and has been interpreted as an attempt to reconcile ideas from natural science and religious studies with esoteric teachings in the tradition of Gurdjieff and Theosophy.[18] It was assumed that the book was lost during the Russian Revolution, but it was subsequently republished in English without Ouspensky's knowledge in 1931. The work has attracted the interest of a number of philosophers and has been a widely accepted authoritative basis for a study of metaphysics.[citation needed] Ouspensky sought to exceed the limits of metaphysics with his "psychological method", which he defined as "a calibration of the tools of human understanding to derive the actual meaning of the thing itself" (paraphrasing p. 75.). According to Ouspensky, "The idea of esotericism ... holds that the very great majority of our ideas are not the product of evolution but the product of the degeneration of ideas which existed at some time or are still existing somewhere in much higher, purer and more complete forms" (p. 47). The book also provided an original discussion on the nature and expression of sexuality; among other things, he draws a distinction between erotica and pornography.[citation needed]

Ouspensky's lectures in London were attended by such literary figures as Aldous Huxley, T. S. Eliot, Gerald Heard and other writers, journalists and doctors. His influence on the literary scene of the 1920s and 1930s as well as on the Russian avant-garde was immense but remains very little known.[19] It was said of Ouspensky that, though nonreligious, he had one prayer: not to become famous during his lifetime.

Later life

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Ouspensky's gravestone
Ouspensky's grave at the Holy Trinity Church in Lyne, Surrey, England, photographed in 2013

After the Russian Revolution, Ouspensky travelled to London by way of Istanbul. A number of people in London became interested in his work. Lady Rothermere, wife of Harold Harmsworth, 1st Viscount Rothermere, a press magnate, was willing to promote Tertium Organum. The influential intellectual and editor A. R. Orage became deeply interested in Ouspensky's ideas and promoted their discussion in various circles. Prominent theosophist and editor G. R. S. Mead became interested in his ideas on the fourth dimension.

By order of the British government, Gurdjieff was not allowed to settle in London. Gurdjieff eventually went to France with a considerable sum of money raised by Ouspensky and his friends, and settled down near Paris at the Prieuré in Fontainebleau-Avon.[20] It was during this time, after Gurdjieff founded his Institute for the Harmonious Development of Man in France, that Ouspensky came to the conclusion that he was no longer able to understand his former teacher and made a decision to discontinue association with him. He set up his own organisation, The Society for the Study of Normal Psychology, which is now known as The Study Society.[21]

Ouspensky wrote about Gurdjieff's teachings in a book originally entitled Fragments of an Unknown Teaching, published posthumously in 1947 under the title In Search of the Miraculous. While this volume has been criticized by some of those who have followed Gurdjieff's teachings as only a partial representation of the totality of his ideas, it provides what is probably the most concise explanation of the material that was included. This is in sharp contrast to the writings of Gurdjieff himself, such as Beelzebub's Tales to His Grandson, where the ideas and precepts of Gurdjieff's teachings are found very deeply veiled in allegory. Initially, Ouspensky had intended this book to be published only if Beelzebub's Tales were not published. But after his death, Ouspensky's widow showed its draft to Gurdjieff, who praised its accuracy and permitted its publication.

Deeply affected by the commencement of the Second World War on Britain, Ouspensky emigrated, with his wife, to the U.S. They settled on a farm in New Jersey.[22] In 1947 Ouspensky, by then a very sick man, moved back to Lyne Place, England, without his wife who strongly opposed the move back to the U.K. Ouspensky died in Lyne Place, Surrey, in 1947. Shortly after his death, The Psychology of Man's Possible Evolution was published, together with In Search of the Miraculous. A facsimile edition of In Search of the Miraculous was published in 2004 by Paul H. Crompton Ltd. London. Transcripts of some of his lectures were published under the title of The Fourth Way in 1957; largely a collection of question and answer sessions, the book details important concepts, both introductory and advanced, for students of these teachings.

Ouspensky's papers are held at Yale University Library's Manuscripts and Archives department.

Teaching

[edit]

After Ouspensky broke away from Gurdjieff, he taught the "Fourth Way", as he understood it, to his independent groups.

Fourth Way

[edit]

Gurdjieff proposed that there are three ways of self-development generally known in esoteric circles. These are the Way of the Fakir, dealing exclusively with the physical body, the Way of the Monk, dealing with the emotions, and the Way of the Yogi, dealing with the mind. What is common to all three ways is that they demand complete seclusion from the world. According to Gurdjieff, there is a Fourth Way which does not demand its followers to abandon the world. The work of self-development takes place right in the midst of ordinary life. Gurdjieff called his system a school of the Fourth Way in which a person learns to work in harmony with his physical body, emotions and mind. Ouspensky picked up this idea and continued his own school along this line.[23]

Ouspensky made the term "Fourth Way" and its use central to his own teaching of the ideas of Gurdjieff. He greatly focused on Fourth Way schools and their existence throughout history.

Students

[edit]

Among his students were Rodney Collin, Maurice Nicoll, Robert S. de Ropp, Kenneth Walker, and Remedios Varo.[24]

Self-remembering

[edit]

Ouspensky personally confessed the difficulties he was experiencing with 'self-remembering'—the practice of a deep state of mindfulness, rooting one in the present moment, whatever one is doing. (The present definition of the term in the teachings of Advaita is “to be in awareness”, or “being aware of being aware”, while in Buddhism the corresponding practice is 'mindfulness'). 'Self-remembering' was a technique to which Ouspensky had been introduced by Gurdjieff himself, the teacher having explained to him that self-remembering is the key to all else in ‘the Work’. While in Russia, Ouspensky experimented with the technique with a certain degree of success, and in his lectures in London and America he emphasized the importance of its practice. The technique requires a division of attention, so that a person not only pays attention to what is going on in the exterior world but also in the interior. A. L. Volinsky, an acquaintance of Ouspensky in Russia, mentioned to him that this was what Wundt meant by apperception. Ouspensky disagreed and commented on how an idea so profound to him would pass unnoticed by people whom he considered intelligent. Gurdjieff explained that in order to bring about a result or manifestation, three things are necessary. With self-remembering and self-observation two things are present. The third one is explained by Ouspensky in his tract on Conscience: it is the non-expression of negative emotions.[25][26]

Published works

[edit]
  • Ouspensky, P. D. (1909). The Fourth Dimension. St. Petersburg.
  • The Symbolism of the Tarot, First Edition, Russian, 1913; New York: Dover Publications Inc., 1976. (Translated by A. L. Pogossky) Online version.
  • A New Model of the Universe: Principles of the Psychological Method in Its Application to Problems of Science, Religion and Art. (Russian, 1914); Translated from the Russian by R. R. Merton, under the supervision of the author. New York: Knopf, 1931; London: Routledge, 1931; 2nd revised edition, London: Routledge, 1934; New York: Knopf, 1934.
  • The Psychology of Man's Possible Evolution. New York: Hedgehog Press, 1950.
  • The Psychology of Man's Possible Evolution (1945). Online.
  • In Search of the Miraculous: Fragments of an Unknown Teaching London, Paul H. Crompton Ltd 2010 facsimile edition of the 1949 edition, hardcover.
  • Letters from Russia, 1919 (Introduction by Fairfax Hall and epilog from In Denikin's Russia by C. E. Bechhofer). London and New York: Arkana, 1978.
  • Conscience: The Search for Truth. Introduction by Merrily E. Taylor. London: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1979.
  • A Further Record: Extracts from Meetings 1928–1945. London and New York: Arkana, 1986.
  • The Psychology of Man's Possible Evolution and The Cosmology of Man's possible Evolution, a limited edition of the definitive text of his Psychological and Cosmological Lectures, 1934–1945. Agora Books, East Sussex, 1989. ISBN 1-872292-00-3.

References

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Further reading

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[edit]
Revisions and contributorsEdit on WikipediaRead on Wikipedia

P. D. Ouspensky

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Pyotr Demianovich Ouspensky (1878–1947) was a Russian esoteric philosopher, , and occultist renowned for his explorations of , multidimensional reality, and , as well as for transmitting the psychological and spiritual teachings of to Western audiences through his writings and lectures. Born on March 5, 1878, in , , to parents belonging to the country's educated elite—his mother was a painter—Ouspensky displayed an early interest in and the , leaving formal schooling at age 16 to pursue self-education influenced by thinkers like and the Theosophical movement. As a and traveler, he journeyed extensively through and the in search of esoteric , documenting his quest in early works such as Tertium Organum (1912), which delved into concepts of higher dimensions, time, and human perception beyond conventional . Another notable pre-Gurdjieff publication was The (1915), a examining themes of eternal recurrence and the of . In 1915, Ouspensky encountered George Ivanovich Gurdjieff in , becoming a devoted student of the mystic's "" system—a practical method for inner development amid everyday life that emphasized self-observation, awakening from mechanical existence, and achieving higher states of consciousness. He meticulously recorded Gurdjieff's ideas, culminating in (published posthumously in 1949), which remains a foundational text for understanding the Gurdjieff Work, portraying humans as "machines" capable of transformation through practices like self-remembering. Their collaboration ended in a around 1918–1924, reportedly due to philosophical differences and Ouspensky's independent approach, after which he developed his own interpretations while crediting Gurdjieff's influence. Fleeing the , Ouspensky left for in 1920 and settled in in 1921, where he established the Historical Psychological to disseminate the teachings through lectures and study groups. He later produced key texts like A New Model of the Universe (1931), synthesizing his views on cosmology, , and , and posthumous compilations such as The Fourth Way (1957) and The Psychology of Man's Possible (1950), which elaborated on evolving essence and levels of being. During , he relocated to the for safety, returning to in 1947, where he died of on October 2, 1947, at Lyne Place near . Ouspensky's legacy endures in esoteric traditions, influencing modern , , and spiritual inquiry by bridging Eastern with Western intellectualism.

Early Life

Childhood and Education

Pyotr Demianovich Ouspensky was born on March 5, 1878, in to a middle-class family within Russia's educated . His father served as a civil servant in the railway department's survey service and held interests in music, painting, and the concept of the fourth dimension, while his mother was a painter with a passion for . The family resided in , Russia's second-largest city at the time, but Ouspensky's father died when he was less than four years old, after which Ouspensky, his mother, and his sister lived with his maternal grandparents. Ouspensky's childhood was characterized by early and self-directed learning. He began reading at age three and by six was engaging with sophisticated adult , such as Lermontov's and Turgenev's , which shaped his imaginative and outlook. He developed self-taught interests in , where he explored advanced concepts independently, and in occultism through exposure to materials. These pursuits reflected a broader fascination with and the of , including early encounters with ideas from Nietzsche on eternal recurrence, though formal influences like Kant and Schopenhauer emerged as he delved deeper into metaphysical questions during his formative years. His rebellious and dreamy disposition often set him apart from conventional expectations. In 1890, at age twelve, Ouspensky enrolled at the Second Gymnasium, a prestigious government institution for boys aged ten to eighteen that emphasized . He struggled academically, finding the structured curriculum dull and uninspiring, and preferred studying physics textbooks on his own during class. At age sixteen in 1894, he was expelled due to poor performance and disruptive behavior, including instances of , marking the end of his formal schooling. To support himself afterward, Ouspensky took on various entry-level positions, including tutoring and clerical work, which allowed him financial independence while he pursued independent studies and eventually entered as an outlet for his intellectual interests.

Initial Interests and Travels

By 1906, Ouspensky had entered the field of , working in the editorial office of the Moscow daily newspaper Utro Rossii (translated as The Morning), where he contributed articles on foreign news. Although this profession provided financial stability, Ouspensky primarily utilized it as a means to support and document his growing interest in and esoteric subjects, allowing him to pursue investigations beyond conventional reporting. In 1907, Ouspensky discovered through the prohibited works of Helena Petrovna Blavatsky, including and , along with writings by , , and A.P. Sinnett, which profoundly impacted him despite their clandestine status in . He attended Theosophical meetings in St. Petersburg but soon rejected the movement's dogmatism, viewing it as incomplete and lacking practical continuation for genuine esoteric development. This exposure deepened his fascination with , , and higher dimensions, influencing his early intellectual pursuits. played a foundational role in his thinking during this period, serving as a bridge between scientific rigor and metaphysical inquiry. Ouspensky's first book, The Fourth Dimension (Russian: Chetvertoe izmerenie), was published in 1909 and explored the concept of higher-dimensional geometry, drawing direct inspiration from the writings of British mathematician , particularly his visualizations of . The work synthesized mathematical ideas with philosophical implications for perception and reality, marking Ouspensky's initial foray into print on these themes. Around this time, in the early , Ouspensky began a romantic relationship with Anna Ilinishna Butkovsky, an artist and early associate in esoteric circles. He later married Sophie Grigorievna Maximenko (also known as Sophia Grigorievna Volochine), a widow with a daughter, around 1917, though their relationship had developed in the preceding years amid his esoteric searches. In late 1913, driven by a quest for ancient wisdom and esoteric knowledge, Ouspensky embarked on extensive travels to , , and Ceylon (modern-day ), where he studied various spiritual traditions, including yogic practices and Theosophical centers in Adyar. These journeys, funded partly through his , exposed him to diverse mystical systems but ultimately left him dissatisfied with their fragmented approaches. He returned to in 1914, shortly after the outbreak of , which interrupted his explorations and redirected his focus toward wartime conditions in and St. Petersburg.

Philosophical Development

Pre-Gurdjieff Works

Prior to his encounter with George Gurdjieff, P. D. Ouspensky developed a distinctive philosophical framework that synthesized elements of mathematics, mysticism, and psychology, emphasizing higher dimensions and the limitations of conventional thought. His seminal work, Tertium Organum: The Third Organ of Thought (1912), proposed a "third canon of thought" that transcended the logical systems of Aristotle's Organon and Francis Bacon's Novum Organum, aiming to unlock enigmas of reality through intuitive and multidimensional perception. In this text, Ouspensky explored time not as an objective linear progression but as a subjective dimension intertwined with space, drawing on the concept of eternal recurrence—influenced by Friedrich Nietzsche—to suggest cyclical patterns in existence that challenge materialist determinism. The book incorporated influences from ancient thinkers like Pythagoras, whose mystical numerology informed Ouspensky's views on cosmic harmony, the visionary insights of Jacob Boehme on divine illumination, and Charles Howard Hinton's ideas on developing "space-sense" through fourth-dimensional exercises. These elements underscored Ouspensky's conviction that human consciousness could access higher realities beyond three-dimensional constraints. Ouspensky's A New Model of the Universe (written 1908–1916; published 1931), compiled from essays, expanded this synthesis into broader explorations of symbolism, supernormal , , and the . Rejecting strict , Ouspensky advocated for a multidimensional where esoteric intersects with modern science, critiquing reductionist views that ignore spiritual dimensions. Key essays examined and the as psychological maps of inner development, yoga and hypnotism as pathways to , and relativity theory as evidence for non-Euclidean spaces that parallel mystical experiences. He positioned these topics within a unified model that integrated Eastern and Western traditions, arguing that true understanding requires transcending sensory illusions to grasp eternal principles. In The Symbolism of the Tarot (written in the and published in Russian in 1913), Ouspensky delved into the as a symbolic system for psychological insight, treating the cards not as tools for but as a revealing inner laws of . Drawing on , , and , he analyzed the cards' imagery and —such as pairing complementary archetypes like The Fool and The World—to illustrate stages of spiritual evolution and the interconnectedness of microcosm and macrocosm. This work highlighted the 's role in awakening imaginal perception, enabling readers to decode subconscious patterns and higher truths. During the 1910s in St. Petersburg, Ouspensky delivered lectures on fourth-dimensional concepts, building on his earlier book The Fourth Dimension (1909) and attracting a dedicated group of early followers interested in esoteric science and . These talks, often held in private homes or society meetings, synthesized his travels' Theosophical encounters with mathematical explorations of , fostering discussions on consciousness expansion. His presentations gained prominence among s, laying the groundwork for a pre-Gurdjieff intellectual circle.

Encounter with Gurdjieff

In 1915, while in and actively seeking of the "miraculous" that he had pursued in his travels to the East, P. D. Ouspensky encountered G. I. Gurdjieff at a café. Ouspensky, drawn by Gurdjieff's distinctive Eastern appearance and reputation as a teacher of esoteric wisdom, engaged him in discussions on , the of schools of , and the "chemistry" of the human body. This meeting marked a profound shift in Ouspensky's philosophical path, as elements of Gurdjieff's system resonated with ideas he had explored in his earlier work, Tertium Organum. Later that year, Ouspensky relocated to St. Petersburg (then Petrograd) and joined Gurdjieff's emerging group, which began holding regular meetings by January 1916 with 30 to 40 participants. The studies were intensive and multifaceted, encompassing cosmology—such as the "" descending from the Absolute to the Moon and the "law of octaves" governing cosmic and human processes—, including the mechanical of man and the multiplicity of "I"s, and practical movements like sacred dances and rhythmic exercises designed to awaken higher centers. Ouspensky served as the primary interpreter of Gurdjieff's often oblique teachings, translating complex ideas for the group and meticulously recording them in notebooks. The of 1917 brought severe disruptions, forcing the group to evacuate southward amid wartime chaos and political upheaval. In August 1917, they reached Essentuki in the , where Gurdjieff established an early form of his "Institute for the Harmonious Development of Man," gathering around 40 members by March 1918 for continued work under harsh conditions, including fasting experiments, dervish dances, and strict regimens to foster self-observation. Ouspensky's role intensified here as the chief chronicler, documenting key cosmological concepts like the rays of creation and the law of octaves, which he preserved verbatim for future dissemination, even as the group faced dispersal and relocation toward the by late 1917. These years solidified Ouspensky's , transforming his independent inquiries into a structured engagement with Gurdjieff's system.

Teaching Career

Association with Gurdjieff

In 1920, amid the chaos of the , P. D. Ouspensky fled to (now ), where he began lecturing on Gurdjieff's ideas to support himself and his emerging group of students. Gurdjieff arrived in Constantinople later that year, and Ouspensky rejoined him, handing over his pupils to the shared effort. The group then relocated to in 1921 before Ouspensky moved to in August of that year, continuing to disseminate Gurdjieff's teachings through public talks financed by patrons like Lady Rothermere. By late 1921, Ouspensky had established early study groups in London, attracting intellectuals interested in Gurdjieff's system, with an emphasis on pursuing objective knowledge while cautioning against hypnotic or trance-like states that could mimic genuine awakening. These groups focused on psychological and cosmological principles, including brief introductions to core ideas such as the Law of Three and the Law of Seven, which outlined processes of creation and development in the universe and human life. During this period, Ouspensky began compiling detailed notes on Gurdjieff's oral teachings, culminating in , written in the early 1920s with Gurdjieff's approval and published posthumously in 1949, providing a comprehensive record of the system's cosmology, , and methods for realizing . Tensions in the collaboration grew from 1921 onward due to Gurdjieff's increasingly provocative and unpredictable behavior, which Ouspensky viewed as disruptive to structured study. These strains intensified in 1922 when Gurdjieff established his Institute for the Harmonious Development of Man at the Prieuré des Basses Loges near , , shifting focus to intensive communal work there while inviting Ouspensky's pupils to visit, though Ouspensky himself declined to relocate.

Independent Groups

In 1924, during a meeting in , P. D. Ouspensky formally broke with Gurdjieff, announcing his separation and instructing his followers not to contact Gurdjieff or mention his name in group contexts. This decision stemmed from Ouspensky's view that maintaining two distinct schools would avoid confusion, allowing him to teach the system independently without Gurdjieff's direct personal influence. Following the break, Ouspensky resumed his teaching activities in , where he had already begun organizing groups upon arriving in 1921 with financial support from patrons like Lady Rothermere. By the late 1920s, Ouspensky's groups had evolved into a structured organization, often referred to informally as the Ouspensky , emphasizing systematic study of the ideas he had developed. In 1931, he formalized this further by founding the Historico-Psychological at Gadsden House, which served as a headquarters for pursuing self-study methods related to his teachings. This later influenced the establishment of The Study , with Ouspensky's pupils introducing related practices, such as sacred movements, at venues like Lyne Place and Colet House in the 1930s. The groups operated with a hierarchical structure, featuring inner circles for advanced students who underwent more intensive preparation, while outer circles accommodated newcomers focused on foundational concepts. In the late 1930s, Ouspensky expanded his efforts by relocating to the , establishing a experiment at Franklin Farms in Mendham, , in 1941. This site functioned as a working school under the supervision of his wife, Mme. Ouspensky, who directed activities despite health challenges, while Ouspensky himself lectured frequently in New York. The Mendham emphasized disciplined daily routines, including talks on core principles, group discussions, and psychological experiments aimed at developing self-observation and attention. Sacred movements were also practiced here as part of the structured regimen. Throughout the 1930s and 1940s, Ouspensky delivered lectures across and the , though imposed travel restrictions that limited his movements and shifted focus to domestic audiences. To decentralize his teaching, he trained deputies such as , who had joined his groups in 1921 and later led independent sessions in , disseminating the ideas through talks and writings. This approach allowed the work to continue amid wartime disruptions, with Nicoll maintaining continuity for European students.

Key Concepts

Fourth Way

The , as expounded by P. D. Ouspensky, represents a distinctive path of self-development that synthesizes the traditional disciplines of the (centered on physical mastery of the body), the (devoted to emotional purification), and the (focused on intellectual and mental control), enabling practitioners to integrate these elements into the demands of without monastic withdrawal or . This approach contrasts with the first three ways, which each emphasize only one aspect of human functioning at the potential cost of imbalance, by requiring simultaneous cultivation of body, emotions, and mind amid ordinary responsibilities. Ouspensky emphasized that this way begins precisely where individuals find themselves, demanding practical inner effort rather than external escape. At its core lie cosmological foundations that underpin the system's understanding of and transformation. The Law of Three governs all phenomena through the interplay of three forces: the affirming or active force, the denying or passive force, and the reconciling or neutralizing force, which together initiate and sustain processes. Complementing this is the Law of Seven, which depicts development as an incomplete musical interrupted by two intervals (notably between mi and fa, and si and do), necessitating deliberate "shocks" from consciousness to bridge these gaps and ensure progression. The Enneagram, a nine-pointed , encapsulates these laws by diagramming dynamic processes, from cosmic evolution to human endeavors, revealing inherent rhythms and potential deviations. Ouspensky portrayed ordinary humans as mechanical entities, asleep to their true potential and driven by fragmented impulses without a permanent, unified "I," rendering them slaves to external influences and habitual reactions. This mechanicality operates through four lower centers—intellectual (for thinking), emotional (for feeling), instinctive (for functions), and moving (for physical coordination)—which function independently and often in conflict, while two higher centers (higher emotional and higher ) lie latent, accessible only through intentional development. To transcend this state and awaken consciousness, the calls for systematic "work on oneself," aimed at harmonizing the centers, conserving energy, and forging a real will. The teachings trace their historical roots to ancient esoteric traditions, including the and Sufi orders, whose fragmented knowledge Ouspensky adapted for modern urban conditions where isolation is impractical. Ouspensky's pivotal contribution was systematizing these elements from G. I. Gurdjieff's oral and demonstrative fragments into a structured, accessible exposition, as detailed in his records of their exchanges.

Self-Remembering and Other Practices

Self-remembering stands as the foundational practice in Ouspensky's teachings for cultivating and escaping the mechanical "sleep" that characterizes ordinary human existence. This technique requires a deliberate effort to divide one's , simultaneously observing external actions or surroundings while maintaining an internal of oneself, such as sensing "I am here" or "I am doing this." Ouspensky described it as essential for awakening, noting that without this division, individuals remain lost in automatic reactions driven by habits and external influences. The practice combats the default state of unconsciousness by fostering presence, often beginning with simple exercises like attempting to remember oneself for short durations during daily activities, such as walking or observing a street scene, where one might internally affirm "I am looking" to double the intensity of impressions. To support self-remembering, Ouspensky emphasized non-identification, the process of observing thoughts, emotions, and roles without merging with them, thereby preventing the dissipation of attention into petty or transient "I"s. This involves stepping back from automatic absorptions, such as becoming lost in a or external event, and instead maintaining an impartial witness-like stance to recognize these as mechanical manifestations of false personality. In particular, observing negative emotions—such as , worry, or —without expressing or justifying them forms a key exercise; Ouspensky taught that these emotions are entirely useless and mechanical, and refraining from their outward manifestation allows one to study their arising, conserving energy that would otherwise be wasted. He recommended using affirmations like "I am" to anchor presence during such observations, transforming potential identification into opportunities for inner freedom and self-mastery. Ouspensky also incorporated physical practices to coordinate the body's centers and balance energy, adapting sacred dances and rhythmic movements originally from Gurdjieff's methods into exercises for his groups. These involved precise, synchronized actions—such as lifting limbs while counting or performing group dances—that demand simultaneous attention from intellectual, emotional, and moving centers, revealing habitual and promoting unified . Breathing exercises complemented these, focusing on conscious regulation to extract finer energies from air; practitioners were instructed to synchronize inhalations and exhalations with counts or movements, often during or "stop" exercises where all activity halts abruptly to heighten self-observation and endure discomfort without reaction. Such practices aim to harmonize the organism, preventing energy leaks and supporting the sustained effort needed for . Intellectual verification through pondering core ideas further reinforces these efforts, particularly the realization that man possesses no permanent "I" but rather a multitude of disconnected, conflicting "I"s influenced by external shocks. Ouspensky urged personal experiments, such as taking "mental photographs" of one's states during different activities or noting shifts between "I"s (e.g., the "I" that decides to work versus the one that procrastinates), to verify this plurality through direct observation. This pondering, combined with self-remembering, creates the "friction" necessary to crystallize a more permanent, conscious self, as Ouspensky illustrated with allegories like a house without a master, where transient "I"s act without unity. Within the broader framework of the , these practices provide the actionable methods for inner development amid ordinary life.

Later Years

Separation from Gurdjieff

In early 1924, Ouspensky announced his formal separation from Gurdjieff to his pupils in , due to perceived significant changes in the approach. Gurdjieff had shifted from the systematic exposition of ideas—characterized by lectures and intellectual discussions as practiced in Essentuki—to a more personal and experimental form of "" involving manual labor, psychological shocks, and esoteric practices without prior explanation. Ouspensky viewed this as an abandonment of the structured method that had defined their earlier collaboration, prompting him to question Gurdjieff's direction and ultimately decide to separate. Ouspensky's rationale for the split centered on preserving the Fourth Way system in its "pure" form, as he had understood and recorded it from Gurdjieff's pre-1921 teachings, free from what he perceived as later deviations toward unquestioning obedience. To maintain focus on the ideas rather than the personality, he instituted a strict ban in his groups against discussing Gurdjieff personally or contacting his followers, aiming to prevent cult-like dynamics and ensure the work remained intellectual and verifiable. This separation was not framed as personal animosity but as a necessary distinction between two evolving "schools" of application. Following the break, Ouspensky relocated his primary activities to , where he had been based since , and rapidly expanded his lecture series to accommodate growing interest among British intellectuals and Russian émigrés. This period brought financial strains, as he supported a network of White Russian refugees fleeing the Bolshevik Revolution, relying on patronage from figures like Lady Rothermere to sustain operations amid economic instability. Over time, Ouspensky's views evolved to emphasize psychological self-development and intellectual evolution as the core of the system, diverging further from Gurdjieff's immersion in esoteric experiments and communal rituals. He prioritized verifiable inner work, such as self-remembering, over the opaque and coercive elements he associated with the Prieuré's later phase.

Death and Personal Struggles

In 1941, amid the escalating tensions of , P. D. Ouspensky emigrated from to the , arriving in New York with his wife and a group of followers. They established a base in the city for lectures, while in 1942 purchasing Franklin Farms, a 300-acre estate in Mendham, , as a communal center for students to engage in practical work and study under the guidance of Ouspensky and his wife, who supervised movements and daily tasks there. This setup provided a refuge and training ground during wartime disruptions, though Ouspensky himself spent much time in New York delivering talks to groups of around sixty pupils. By the mid-1940s, Ouspensky's health began to deteriorate significantly, marked by increasing that involved heavy drinking sessions extending into the early morning hours. This habit contributed to , which he refused to treat medically, alongside growing depression, , and self-doubt about the efficacy of his teachings, leading him to privately express disillusionment with the "" and label his students as "fools." Despite these struggles, he persisted with lectures, delivering a series of six talks at Lyne Place in in September 1947 amid preparations for his potential return to America, which were ultimately canceled due to his declining health. In these final talks, Ouspensky reportedly distanced himself from the as previously taught, suggesting it required further development beyond what he had transmitted. In January 1947, Ouspensky, then gravely ill, returned alone to Lyne Place in Surrey, England, against his wife's opposition, where he continued some teaching activities until his death. He died on October 2, 1947, at the age of 69, from complications of advanced kidney failure precipitated by his alcoholism. Ouspensky was buried in the churchyard of Holy Trinity Church in the parish of Lyne, Surrey, following a requiem service at the Russian Orthodox church in Pimlico, London.

Published Works

Major Publications

P. D. Ouspensky's major publications during his lifetime encompass a range of philosophical, psychological, and esoteric explorations, reflecting his evolving interest in , higher dimensions, and . His works, often blending Eastern and Western with modern scientific ideas, gained significant attention in circles and contributed to the dissemination of thought in the early . These books, primarily written in Russian and later translated into English, established Ouspensky as a key figure in esoteric , influencing readers seeking alternatives to materialist worldviews. Tertium Organum, first published in Russian in 1912 and translated into English in 1920 by Bessaraboff and Claude Bragdon, stands as Ouspensky's seminal work on experimental . The book proposes a "third canon of thought" that transcends Aristotelian logic and , integrating insights from , , and to explore higher dimensions of and the nature of time and . It draws on concepts from Eastern philosophies, Western occultism, and contemporary , arguing for a multidimensional understanding of that allows for mystical experiences. Widely translated into multiple languages and recognized as an international bestseller in esoteric circles, Tertium Organum received acclaim for its bold synthesis, with translator Claude Bragdon describing it as a groundbreaking reorganization of human knowledge. In 1915, Ouspensky published , a originally titled Kinema-drama in Russian, which was translated into English in 1947. The follows the protagonist Ivan Osokin, who relives his life in repeating cycles due to the doctrine of eternal recurrence, highlighting the futility of mechanical existence without conscious awakening. Through this time-loop structure, Ouspensky illustrates themes of fate, , and the psychological barriers to breaking repetitive life patterns, prefiguring later existential concerns. The work underscores the need for self-knowledge to escape deterministic traps, blending fiction with philosophical inquiry into human limitations. A New Model of the Universe, a collection of essays composed between 1909 and 1924 and published in English in 1931, expands on Ouspensky's earlier ideas by connecting ancient esoteric traditions with modern concepts like relativity and the fourth dimension. The book addresses topics such as eternal recurrence, the symbolism of miracles, the hidden layers of , Tarot interpretations, and the psychological method of , proposing a unified model where time and form a six-dimensional continuum. Ouspensky critiques materialist while advocating for an esoteric worldview that reveals the 's deeper structure, influencing subsequent discussions in studies. Additionally, Ouspensky's wartime experiences in culminated in a series of five letters written in from locations like Rostov and , detailing the chaos of the , economic collapse, and social upheaval. Originally sent to and published in the British periodical The New Age under editor A. R. Orage, these letters offer vivid eyewitness accounts of Bolshevik advances, crises, and the breakdown of civil order, blending personal observations with philosophical reflections on historical cycles. They capture the turmoil that prompted Ouspensky's eventual emigration, providing a historical snapshot of revolutionary .

Posthumous Works

Following Ouspensky's death on , 1947, several of his unpublished manuscripts, lecture transcripts, and compilations were edited and released by his students and widow, providing deeper insights into his interpretations of esoteric teachings and personal experiences. These works, often drawn from notes spanning decades, emphasized practical and the system, themes that echoed his earlier publications but offered more direct access to his oral teachings. In Search of the Miraculous: Fragments of an Unknown Teaching, published in 1949 by Harcourt, Brace and Company in New York and & Kegan Paul in , stands as Ouspensky's most influential posthumous work. This 399-page volume recounts his encounters with G. I. Gurdjieff from 1915 to 1924, systematically outlining key concepts such as self-remembering, the enneagram, and the based on Ouspensky's contemporaneous notes. Although Ouspensky withheld publication during his lifetime, viewing the material as incomplete fragments rather than a definitive exposition, it emerged as a for studies, influencing generations of seekers in esotericism. The Fourth Way: A Record of Talks and Answers to Questions Based on the Teaching of G. I. Gurdjieff, released in 1957 by in New York and & Kegan Paul in , compiles edited transcripts of Ouspensky's wartime lectures delivered in between 1941 and 1946. Supervised by his widow, Sophia Ouspensky, the 446-page book presents practical question-and-answer sessions on topics including the three centers of human functioning (, emotional, and moving), self-remembering techniques, and obstacles to psychological . It served as an accessible guide for applying Gurdjieff's ideas in , filling gaps left by Ouspensky's more theoretical lifetime writings. The Psychology of Man's Possible Evolution, first commercially published in 1950 by Hedgehog Press in New York and consisting of five lectures Ouspensky delivered between 1934 and 1940 (following a private printing in a limited edition of 125 copies in 1940 as Psychological Lectures 1934-1940), outlines a framework for psychological development beyond ordinary . The 98-page edition, later reissued with expansions in 1954 and 1974 by Knopf, explores mechanicalness, the role of in evolution, and the potential for developing higher centers, drawing directly from his meeting records. This work provided a concise framework for understanding personal transformation, becoming a staple in literature. Later compilations included Letters from Russia 1919, published in 1978 by Routledge & Kegan Paul in as a 59-page volume with a map. This collection reproduces Ouspensky's correspondence from the tumultuous period of the , detailing his observations of revolutionary chaos, pursuits, and early encounters with esoteric ideas amid societal upheaval. The letters offer a rare personal glimpse into Ouspensky's mindset before his full immersion in Gurdjieff's system, highlighting his independent quest for hidden knowledge. Additional posthumous releases encompassed A Further Record: Extracts from Meetings 1928–1945, initially printed in a limited edition of 20 copies in 1952 by Stourton Press in and later broadened in 1986 by Arkana in and New York (318 pages), which extracts dialogues on advanced topics like cosmic laws and will development. Similarly, Conscience: The Search for Truth, issued in 1979 by & Kegan Paul (159 pages), gathers essays from limited 1950s printings, focusing on ethical dimensions of self-observation and truth-seeking. These volumes, derived from preserved manuscripts at institutions like Yale University's P. D. Ouspensky Collection, ensured the dissemination of Ouspensky's evolving thoughts beyond his supervised lifetime efforts.

Legacy and Influence

Impact on Esotericism

Ouspensky's Tertium Organum (1912) advanced a critique of by positing multidimensional , where time functions as a fourth dimension akin to space, challenging the mechanistic worldview of early 20th-century and philosophy. This work synthesized ideas from , , and relativity to argue that human is limited to three dimensions, obscuring higher truths, and it anticipated paradoxes later central to quantum interpretations, such as non-locality and observer effects, by emphasizing intuitive logic over empirical . These concepts gained traction in movements, where Ouspensky's vision of expanded influenced holistic spiritual practices and alternative cosmologies that blend and metaphysics. Ouspensky bridged Eastern and Western through his exposition of "levels of being," a hierarchical model of drawn from Sufi, Hindu, and esoteric traditions, which prefigured key tenets of by integrating spiritual development with psychological growth beyond the ego. His teachings, as detailed in works like (1949), portrayed ordinary human states as mechanical and sleep-like, advocating self-observation to access higher centers of awareness—a framework that echoed yogic practices while aligning with emerging Western psychotherapies. This synthesis contributed to 's emphasis on peak experiences and non-ordinary states, positioning Ouspensky as an early influencer in the field's exploration of 's psychological dimensions. Ouspensky's ideas resonated in literature, earning endorsements from figures like , who attended his London lectures in the 1930s and drew on Ouspenskian themes of self-knowledge in (1945), framing universal as a counter to . also engaged with Ouspensky's system through these lectures, incorporating echoes of multidimensional time and esoteric symbolism into his poetic explorations of consciousness and fragmentation. Similarly, J. B. Priestley's time plays, such as I Have Been Here Before (1937), directly adapted Ouspensky's theory of eternal recurrence from A New Model of the Universe (1931), depicting cyclical time and as portals to higher awareness. Ouspensky's eternalism, emphasizing recurring cycles of existence as a path to liberation, indirectly shaped by informing consciousness-expanding movements that paralleled psychedelic exploration and early practices, though his influence was mediated through broader esoteric revivals.

Notable Students and Followers

One of Ouspensky's most prominent students was , a Scottish physician, , and early associate of , who first encountered Ouspensky's lectures in in 1921 and soon joined his study groups. Nicoll went on to establish the Society for the Study of Normal Psychology in during the 1930s, where he led groups applying Ouspensky's principles to psychological practices, including self-remembering as a tool for inner observation. His five-volume Psychological Commentaries on the Teaching of Gurdjieff and Ouspensky, published between 1952 and 1956, elaborated on these ideas, particularly integrating concepts with dream analysis and everyday self-development. Rodney Collin, a British author and close collaborator of Ouspensky from 1936 onward, served as a key aide at the Mendham community in during the , assisting in the coordination of study groups. After Ouspensky's death in 1947, Collin relocated to in 1948 with a small group of followers, where he established independent centers and authored The Theory of Celestial Influence in 1954, extending Ouspensky's cosmological ideas through a synthesis of astronomy, , and esoteric laws. Among other notable figures, J. G. Bennett, a British mathematician and intelligence officer, joined Ouspensky's London groups in the 1920s after an initial meeting in 1921, later bridging Ouspensky's systematic teachings with direct work under Gurdjieff in the 1930s and 1940s through his own writings and the formation of study circles. A. R. Orage, an influential editor of The New Age magazine, connected with Ouspensky as early as 1914 and attended his 1921 lectures in , contributing to the early dissemination of ideas in literary and artistic circles before shifting focus to Gurdjieff's direct instruction in 1924. Modern extensions of Ouspensky's work include organizations like the Society for the Study of Normal , which evolved from Nicoll's efforts and continues to promote studies in the UK. In the 2020s, online communities have seen revivals, with platforms such as the Gurdjieff-Ouspensky Foundation offering virtual classrooms and resources for self-study based on Ouspensky's texts. Despite these developments, gaps remain in the recognition of female students, such as Sophie Ouspensky (Madame Ouspensky), who played a pivotal role in directing studies and movements at the Mendham community from the 1930s to the 1940s, yet whose contributions are underexplored compared to male disciples.

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