Hubbry Logo
RhizoidRhizoidMain
Open search
Rhizoid
Community hub
Rhizoid
logo
7 pages, 0 posts
0 subscribers
Be the first to start a discussion here.
Be the first to start a discussion here.
Rhizoid
Rhizoid
Rhizoid
View on Wikipedia
from Wikipedia

Rhizoids are protuberances that extend from the lower epidermal cells of bryophytes and algae. They are similar in structure and function to the root hairs of vascular land plants. Similar structures are formed by some fungi. Rhizoids may be unicellular or multicellular.[1]

Evolutionary development

[edit]

Plants originated in aquatic environments and gradually migrated to land during their long course of evolution. In water or near it, plants could absorb water from their surroundings, with no need for any special absorbing organ or tissue. Additionally, in the primitive states of plant development, tissue differentiation and division of labor were minimal, thus specialized water-absorbing tissue was not required. The development of specialized tissues to absorb water efficiently and anchor the plant body to the ground enabled the spread of plants onto land.[2]

Description

[edit]

Rhizoids absorb water mainly by capillary action in which water moves up between threads of rhizoids; this is in contrast to roots in which water moves up through a single root. However, some species of bryophytes do have the ability to take up water inside their rhizoids.[2]

Land plants

[edit]

In land plants, rhizoids are trichomes that anchor the plant to the ground. In the liverworts, they are absent or unicellular, but they are multicellular in mosses. In vascular plants, they are often called root hairs and may be unicellular or multicellular.

Algae

[edit]

In certain algae, there is an extensive rhizoidal system that allows the alga to anchor itself to a sandy substrate from which it can absorb nutrients.[3] Microscopic free-floating species, however, do not have rhizoids at all.[4]

Fungi

[edit]

In fungi, rhizoids are small branching hyphae that grow downwards from the stolons and anchor the fungus to the substrate, where they release digestive enzymes and absorb digested organic material.[citation needed]

See also

[edit]

References

[edit]

Further reading

[edit]
[edit]
Revisions and contributorsEdit on WikipediaRead on Wikipedia

Rhizoid

View on Grokipedia
from Grokipedia
A rhizoid is a filamentous or tubular outgrowth that functions as a primitive analog to in non-vascular , such as bryophytes (mosses, liverworts, and hornworts), certain , and some fungi, primarily aiding in anchorage to substrates and the absorption of water and nutrients. Unlike true in vascular , rhizoids lack and do not transport fluids over long distances, instead relying on for nutrient uptake. The of rhizoids in early land represents an early for terrestrial life, enabling these organisms to colonize land environments by securing to surfaces like , rock, or bark. In bryophytes, rhizoids emerge from the base of the and vary in structure across groups: liverworts typically feature smooth or pegged, unicellular rhizoids that are slender and branched; mosses produce multicellular, branched rhizoids for firmer attachment; and hornworts have similar unicellular structures along the underside of their . These structures not only the but also increase surface area for osmosis-based absorption, though they contribute minimally to overall water conduction compared to the plant's body. Rhizoids in bryophytes are absent in the generation, highlighting their role in the dominant phase of these plants' life cycles. In fungi, particularly basal lineages like chytrids, rhizoids form as extensions of the —a multinucleate or coenocytic body—and consist of fine, branching filaments that penetrate substrates for nutrient scavenging. These anucleate structures facilitate osmotrophic feeding by secreting enzymes to break down externally, with growth patterns involving apical extension and lateral branching that mirror hyphal development in more advanced fungi. Functionally, fungal rhizoids enhance resource acquisition in nutrient-poor environments, such as sediments or decaying plant material, and are considered evolutionary precursors to the hyphae seen in filamentous fungi.

Definition and Morphology

Structural Features

Rhizoids are filamentous structures that occur in various non-vascular , , and fungi, functioning as analogs for anchorage and absorption but lacking the characteristic of true . They can be unicellular or multicellular, with morphology ranging from simple unbranched filaments to more complex forms. In terms of basic morphology, rhizoids typically exhibit diameters of 10-20 μm and lengths extending up to several millimeters, depending on environmental conditions and organism type. Growth occurs primarily through apical extension at the tip, where cell elongation or hyphal advancement drives elongation without significant radial expansion. Branching patterns vary, often dichotomous or irregular, allowing rhizoids to spread and explore substrates effectively. Rhizoids differ fundamentally from true in the absence of protective root caps, organized apical meristems, and central vascular cylinders, which limits their structural complexity and transport capabilities. Instead, they rely on simpler cellular for extension and function. Variations in rhizoid form include smooth, unbranched types and more elaborate branched structures, as well as differences in wall texture such as smooth-walled filaments versus tuberculate ones featuring peg-like thickenings on the inner surface. These structural adaptations enhance interaction with substrates without compromising the filamentous nature.

Cellular and Developmental Traits

Rhizoids exhibit varied cellular structures depending on the organism, ranging from unicellular forms to multicellular filaments. In many streptophyte algae, such as Spirogyra, rhizoids are unicellular extensions that facilitate anchorage and absorption without internal divisions. Conversely, in bryophytes like mosses (Physcomitrella patens), rhizoids are multicellular, consisting of elongated filaments composed of thin-walled, parenchyma-like cells that lack significant differentiation. In some fungi, particularly chytrids, rhizoids form as branched, unicellular extensions of the thallus, though multicellular rhizoids with septa occur in certain hyphal-forming species, allowing compartmentalization along the structure. The cell walls of rhizoids reflect the biochemical diversity of their host organisms. In plant and algal rhizoids, walls are primarily composed of cellulose microfibrils embedded in a matrix of pectins, providing flexibility for elongation while maintaining structural integrity; for instance, in Fucus embryos, these components undergo remodeling during early rhizoid formation to support tip-directed expansion. Fungal rhizoids, by contrast, feature walls dominated by chitin, a β-1,4-linked polymer of N-acetylglucosamine, often reinforced with β-glucans, which contribute to rigidity and enable branching morphogenesis as seen in chytrid species. Developmentally, rhizoids grow through polar tip expansion, a powered by against a localized zone of softened at the apex, without the secondary thickening observed in roots. This growth is orchestrated by the actin cytoskeleton, which organizes into cables that guide vesicle trafficking from the Golgi apparatus to the growing tip, delivering wall precursors such as pectins and synthases; in Chara rhizoids, this results in rates of 100–200 µm/h, while rhizoids expand more slowly at 10–15 µm/h. Polarity in rhizoid development is established through coordinated signaling involving calcium gradients and . Cytosolic Ca²⁺ gradients, peaking at the rhizoid apex, stabilize the growth site by regulating dynamics and vesicle fusion, as demonstrated in brown algal zygotes like Silvetia compressa where these gradients form within 4–8 hours post-fertilization. signaling further directs this polarity by promoting rhizoid initiation and elongation, with auxin-responsive genes activating the developmental program in streptophyte algae such as Chara and bryophytes, ensuring directed growth toward substrates.

Distribution in Organisms

In Bryophytes and Vascular Plant Gametophytes

In bryophytes, rhizoids are filamentous structures that arise from the base or ventral surface of the gametophyte, serving primarily for anchorage to substrates such as soil or rock. In liverworts (Marchantiophyta), rhizoids are typically unicellular or composed of a few cells (e.g., 2-3 celled in some species) and exhibit two main forms: smooth rhizoids, which are alive at maturity with diameters of 8–30 μm and facilitate nutrient uptake and fungal symbiosis, and pegged rhizoids, which are dead at maturity with diameters of 6–24 μm, featuring peg-like projections for water conduction via capillarity. In hornworts (Anthocerotophyta), rhizoids are simple, unicellular, and smooth-walled, emerging directly from the thallus to secure the plant to the substratum without additional tuberculate forms or scales. Mosses (Bryophyta) possess multicellular, branched rhizoids with oblique crosswalls, originating from the base of the leafy gametophyte and forming a dense felted layer in some species. In the gametophyte stage of , such as (Polypodiophyta) and (Lycopodiophyta), rhizoids are unicellular and hair-like, emerging from the prothallus or subterranean gametophyte to provide anchorage. prothalli, which are heart-shaped and photosynthetic, bear these rhizoids on their ventral surface near the notch, enabling attachment to moist without vascular support. gametophytes, often tuberous or filamentous and developing underground, similarly utilize unicellular rhizoids for substrate during their free-living phase. Unlike bryophytes, these gametophytes lack multicellular rhizoids, reflecting their reduced size and dependence on the sporophyte generation. Adaptations in these rhizoids enhance terrestrial interaction, particularly in bryophytes where moss rhizoids exhibit oblique insertion via their crosswalls, facilitating soil penetration and capillary conduction of water despite shallow embedding in certain environments like tundra. Liverwort pegged rhizoids, with their elastic walls, resist and , supporting water transport in thalli exposed to varying moisture levels. In contrast, seed plant gametophytes are highly reduced and endosporic, embedded within grains or ovules, and thus lack rhizoids entirely, relying instead on the sporophyte for support and nutrition. Fossil evidence from deposits, such as the (approximately 407 Ma), reveals bryophyte-like gametophytes like Remyophyton and Lyonophyton with basal rhizoids anchoring upright axes, indicating early adaptations for substrate attachment in terrestrial pioneers. Similar structures appear in Sciadophyton fossils from the Lower Devonian, featuring leafless gametophytes with rhizoids and cup-shaped gametangiophores, while Cooksonia-associated gametophytes from Brazilian sites show thalloid bases potentially bearing rhizoids.

In Algae

In , rhizoids primarily serve as attachment structures adapted to aquatic environments, where they secure the organism to substrates like rocks or sediments against water currents, differing from the more absorptive roles in terrestrial . These structures vary across algal phyla, reflecting evolutionary adaptations to marine and freshwater habitats. In (Rhodophyta), rhizoids often emerge from holdfasts as filamentous extensions that anchor the to the substrate. In Rhodophyta, such as species, rhizoids are filamentous and arise from the basal region of the blade-like , which is typically one or two cells thick, facilitating initial attachment shortly after settlement. These rhizoids can develop from germ tubes, forming multicellular, sometimes branched networks that penetrate or adhere to surfaces for stable positioning in intertidal zones. Secretion of agar-like contributes to their adhesive properties, enabling resistance to wave action through formation. Brown algae (Phaeophyceae) feature haptera, which function analogously to rhizoids as branched, finger-like projections from the holdfast that enhance to rocky substrates. In species like , haptera secrete composed of alginates and fucan , which polymerize and with calcium ions to form a flexible, hardening that withstands hydrodynamic forces. This mucilaginous is particularly effective on surfaces with water contact angles of 60-75°, allowing juvenile sporophytes to establish firm grips in turbulent coastal waters. In (Chlorophyta), rhizoids are often simpler and unicellular or composed of elongated single cells, suited to softer sediments in freshwater or shallow marine settings. For instance, in Chara species (Charophyceae), rhizoids exhibit positive , growing downward as tip-growing structures that anchor the plant into substrates via a Spitzenkörper-directed apical growth mechanism. In and related ulvophycean , unicellular rhizoidal cells at the base adhere through fibrillar containing ulvan and vitronectin-like proteins, enabling penetration and stabilization in sedimentary environments subject to flow. These adaptations, including rapid gelation of secreted , allow green algal rhizoids to maintain attachment amid varying velocities without relying on complex branching.

In Fungi

In fungi, rhizoids serve as filamentous extensions that differ from those in plants and algae by their heterotrophic lifestyle and often invasive nature, typically composed of chitin-based walls that provide structural rigidity. Within the , rhizoids are characteristically branched and intracellular, penetrating host cells to facilitate extraction through enzymatic degradation of host material. These structures arise from the zoosporangium or encysted zoospores, forming a monocentric where anucleate filamentous rhizoids anchor the reproductive body to substrates or hosts. In parasitic species, such as those infecting or amphibians, the rhizoids exhibit invasive growth, excreting lytic enzymes to breach cell walls and absorb nutrients directly from the host cytoplasm. In contrast, rhizoids in Mucoromycota (formerly classified in ), exemplified by genera like , are typically unbranched or sparsely branched, emerging as root-like tufts from the base of sporangiophores or at nodes along stolons to anchor the to organic substrates. These structures support saprotrophic growth on decaying matter or , with their morphology aiding in substrate attachment without extensive penetration. Unlike the intracellular forms in chytrids, mucoromycete rhizoids primarily function externally, though some lineages show rudimentary branching for enhanced surface contact. Rhizoid in these fungal groups proceeds via hyphal-like apical extension, driven by polarized that organizes vesicle delivery to the growing tip. In chytrids, this mirrors early hyphal development, with rhizoids acting as developmental precursors to more complex hyphal networks in higher fungi, involving β-glucan synthesis for wall integrity during elongation. dynamics ensure directed growth, enabling rhizoids to navigate substrates or invade hosts efficiently. Fungal rhizoids exhibit adaptations for both parasitic and symbiotic interactions; in chytrid parasites, their branched morphology allows deep penetration into host tissues for acquisition, while in certain Mucoromycota, rhizoid-like hyphae contribute to mycorrhizal-like associations with , facilitating mutualistic exchange in environments.

Functions and Adaptations

Anchorage and Mechanical Support

Rhizoids anchor organisms to substrates primarily through tip growth, where the apical cell extends by polarized expansion at its tip, allowing penetration into , rock crevices, or other surfaces. This process is facilitated by branching patterns that increase surface contact and grip, enabling rhizoids to weave through particulate matter for enhanced stability. In bryophytes, rhizoids are multicellular with oblique septa, while liverwort rhizoids are unicellular; both mechanically secure the against physical forces without relying on vascular tissues. Adhesion is further supported by the secretion of extracellular substances, including xyloglucan from rhizoid cells, which promote aggregation of particles and strengthen attachment to the substrate. While enzymes may contribute to localized degradation of organic barriers in some cases, the primary mechanism in bryophytes involves physical interlocking and biochemical bonding via these gel-like exudates. In bryophytes inhabiting exposed environments, rhizoids prevent dislodgement from wind or on sloped terrains by distributing mechanical stress across multiple attachment points, thereby maintaining proximity to moist substrates that indirectly mitigates desiccation risk through stable positioning. The biomechanical properties of rhizoids derive from reinforced cell walls rich in microfibrils and hemicelluloses, conferring tensile strength that supports anchorage in model species like Physcomitrium patens. These properties also influence orientation, as rhizoids exhibit , directing downward growth to optimize ventral attachment and dorsiventral polarity in thalloid forms. However, rhizoids' limited structural capacity restricts support to small , typically under 10 cm in height for most bryophytes, necessitating reliance on the for overall mechanical integrity and preventing the evolution of taller, upright forms without additional vascular support.

Nutrient and Water Absorption

Rhizoids in non-vascular plants, , and fungi primarily absorb through passive diffusion across their thin cell walls, a facilitated by the absence of thick cuticles in many . This diffusion is enhanced by aquaporins, such as PIP2;1 and PIP2;2 in gametophytes, which form channels in cell membranes to increase osmotic water permeability from low baseline levels (around 2.7 μm/s) to over 150 μm/s, allowing rapid uptake from surrounding media. For nutrients like inorganic ions (e.g., , ), rhizoids employ mechanisms via membrane proteins, enabling uptake against concentration gradients in such as charophyte and bryophytes. The absorptive efficiency of rhizoids is augmented by their branching morphology, which significantly expands the surface area in contact with the substrate; for instance, tip-branching in and liverwort rhizoids increases and acquisition, particularly for immobile ions like . While microvilli-like projections are not prominent, the filamentous structure and dense clustering of rhizoids create extensive interfacial area, promoting greater contact and rates compared to unbranched forms. In fungal rhizoids, which are hyphal extensions, this branching similarly enlarges the absorptive surface for organic and inorganic s in saprophytic species. In moist environments, multicellular rhizoids in bryophytes and utilize to draw water upward between their threads, contrasting with the osmotic pull in and enabling hydration without specialized conducting tissues. This mechanism is particularly effective in ectohydric bryophytes, where external water films on rhizoids facilitate bulk flow to the . Additionally, symbiotic associations with microbes, such as nitrogen-fixing in hornwort thalli or endophytic fungi in mosses, further enhance nutrient uptake in these organisms. Compared to , rhizoids exhibit high absorption efficiency per unit length due to their slender, branched design and direct exposure, but their overall capacity is constrained by the lack of vascular , limiting long-distance distribution within the . This makes rhizoids suited to microhabitats with ample and shallow nutrients, as seen in algal rhizoids penetrating sediments for localized uptake.

Evolutionary and Molecular Aspects

Evolutionary Origins

Rhizoids first emerged in streptophyte , such as members of the Charales and Zygnematales, serving primarily as holdfast structures for substrate attachment in aquatic environments prior to the of vascular land . These early rhizoid-like filaments provided anchorage against currents and represented a foundational that facilitated the transition to terrestrial habitats. Phylogenetic and analyses indicate that this innovation predated the divergence of embryophytes (land plants) from algal ancestors around 470–450 million years ago, underscoring rhizoids' role in pre-vascular plant evolution. The transition from algal holdfasts to more specialized rhizoids occurred during the to periods, approximately 430–400 million years ago, as early land colonized terrestrial substrates. In , rhizoids evolved into filamentous structures on gametophytes, unicellular in liverworts and hornworts but multicellular and branched in mosses, enhancing mechanical support and nutrient uptake in nutrient-poor soils while retaining compared to later systems. This evolutionary shift coincided with the bryophyte-tracheophyte divergence in the Late to Late (472–419 million years ago), where rhizoids persisted as the primary anchoring mechanism in non-vascular lineages. Over time, as vascular developed true roots with by the , rhizoids were largely lost in sporophytes and reduced gametophytes, marking a key diversification in anchorage strategies. Fossil evidence from the Rhynie Chert (approximately 411–407 million years ago) provides critical insights into early rhizoid structures, including rhyniophyte-like forms in Rhynia gwynne-vaughanii, where rhizomes bore wart-like rhizoids for substrate adhesion without extensive creeping growth. These fossils illustrate rhizoids' role in the sporophytes of early vascular plants, bridging algal precursors and more complex root systems. For fungi, chytrid-like forms with rhizoidal extensions appear in the same deposits, representing early terrestrial fungal adaptations around 407 million years ago, though molecular estimates place the broader fungal kingdom's origin over 1 billion years ago in aquatic environments. Symbiotic interactions significantly influenced rhizoid evolution, with co-evolution between early land and Mucoromycotina fungi evident in fossils dating to 407 million years ago, where these associations enhanced nutrient absorption via intracellular structures predating arbuscular mycorrhizae formed by Glomeromycota (around 400 million years ago). Such partnerships, observed in liverworts and hornworts, likely supported rhizoid function in barren soils during early terrestrialization around 407 million years ago, as evidenced by fossils, providing a selective advantage that facilitated diversification.

Genetic Regulation and Recent Insights

The formation and polarity of rhizoids in land plants are primarily regulated by plant-specific ROP (Rho-like GTPases from plants), which cycle between active GTP-bound and inactive GDP-bound states to establish and maintain tip-focused growth. In the liverwort Marchantia polymorpha, the sole ROP gene (MpROP) interacts with guanine nucleotide exchange factors (GEFs) like MpKAR and GTPase-activating proteins (GAPs) such as REN and ROPGAP1 to control rhizoid elongation and branching, ensuring coordinated tissue development during gametophyte morphogenesis. Similarly, in the moss Physcomitrium patens, ROP signaling directs polarized cell division and expansion in protonemata and rhizoids, with disruptions leading to isotropic growth defects. Auxin signaling further modulates rhizoid growth directionality through auxin response factors (ARFs), which bind to auxin-responsive elements in target gene promoters upon hormone perception. In mosses like Physcomitrella patens, class A and B ARFs (e.g., PpARF1 and PpARF2) activate downstream genes for rhizoid initiation and elongation, with auxin gradients directing outgrowth from specific gametophyte cells. This mechanism parallels root hair development in vascular plants, where ARFs integrate positional cues to promote anisotropic expansion. Regulatory networks controlling rhizoid and root hair formation share conserved components, including the GL2 homeodomain transcription factor, which represses hair cell fate in non-rhizoid cells of P. patens gametophytes, and CPC-like MYB genes that promote rhizoid differentiation by inhibiting GL2 expression. In Arabidopsis thaliana, GL2 and CPC orchestrate epidermal patterning, with CPC acting as a mobile inhibitor to specify root hair positions, a process evolutionarily linked to moss rhizoid control. Recent studies have illuminated the evolutionary conservation of these pathways. A 2025 analysis traced ROP protein diversification from streptophyte algal ancestors to land plants, revealing that ancestral RHO in charophyte like Klebsormidium nitens prefigured ROP-mediated polarity in rhizoids, with land plant-specific regulators (GEFs and GAPs) emerging post-colonization to refine anchoring structures. In fungi, particularly chytrids, rhizoid relies on localized synthesis driven by β-glucan deposition and dynamics, as demonstrated in Spizellomyces punctatus where inhibitors of glucan synthase disrupt rhizoid branching and host penetration. A 2020 study showed that chytrid rhizoid tip growth mirrors hyphal extension in higher fungi, with patches guiding vesicle delivery for wall reinforcement during invasive growth. In symbiotic contexts, chytrid-fungal interactions with algal or hosts involve effector proteins that facilitate rhizoid penetration and nutrient exchange. For instance, secreted effectors in chytrids like modulate host remodeling to enable rhizoid ingress, though detailed genetic mechanisms remain under exploration; analogous systems in symbiotic fungi use effectors to suppress defenses during root-like structure colonization. These insights highlight shared molecular toolkits across kingdoms for anchoring and invasion.

References

  1. https://ucmp.berkeley.edu/glossary/gloss8botany.html
  2. https://pressbooks-dev.oer.hawaii.edu/biology/chapter/bryophytes/
  3. https://research.fs.usda.gov/feis/glossary
  4. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC3394659/
  5. https://oertx.highered.texas.gov/courseware/lesson/1738/student/?section=9
  6. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC7341943/
  7. https://dev.biologists.org/content/130/20/4835
  8. https://digitalcommons.mtu.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1126&context=bryo-ecol-subchapters
  9. https://www.biorxiv.org/content/10.1101/2022.07.07.499130v1.full.pdf
  10. https://par.nsf.gov/servlets/purl/10552219
  11. https://www.academia.edu/11373320/Pegged_and_smooth_rhizoids_in_complex_thalloid_liverworts_Marchantiopsida_structure_function_and_evolution
  12. https://academic.oup.com/aob/article-pdf/85/2/233/7983898/850233.pdf
  13. https://www.journals.uchicago.edu/doi/abs/10.1086/334188
  14. https://www.journals.uchicago.edu/doi/pdf/10.1086/326377
  15. https://digitalcommons.mtu.edu/context/bryophyte-ecology1/article/1001/viewcontent/Chapter_2___Life_Cycles_and_Morphology.pdf
  16. https://aob.oxfordjournals.org/content/early/2012/06/23/aob.mcs136.full.pdf
  17. https://dacollege.org/uploads/stdmat/botany-Marchantia-sem2.pdf
  18. https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/10.1098/rspb.2020.0433
  19. https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/BF00385406
  20. https://www.nature.com/articles/s41467-024-52759-8
  21. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC4844288/
  22. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0012160613004752
  23. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10015382/
  24. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/259547614_Pegged_and_smooth_rhizoids_in_complex_thalloid_liverworts_Marchantiopsida_Structure_function_and_evolution
  25. https://microbenotes.com/hornworts/
  26. https://www3.botany.ubc.ca/bryophyte/mossintro.html
  27. http://floranorthamerica.org/w/images/8/84/Vol_27_chapter1.pdf
  28. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0960982221010289
  29. https://bio.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Introductory_and_General_Biology/General_Biology_(Boundless)/25%3A_Seedless_Plants/25.03%3A_Bryophytes/25.3C%3A_Mosses
  30. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC5745341/
  31. https://milnepublishing.geneseo.edu/botany/chapter/porphyra/
  32. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/259763081_Mechanisms_of_bioadhesion_of_macrophytic_algae
  33. https://doi.org/10.1134/S1021443714010154
  34. https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/09670262.2018.1547924
  35. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC9614468/
  36. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00709-006-0208-9
  37. https://digitalcommons.wcupa.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1012&context=bio_facpub
  38. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC5745337/
  39. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC3067206/
  40. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/31663825/
  41. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8480134/
  42. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC100153/
  43. https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/biochemistry-genetics-and-molecular-biology/rhizopus
  44. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC6850671/
  45. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0960982216311459
  46. https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/10.1098/rstb.2017.0042
  47. https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/gbi.12546
  48. https://nph.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/nph.14897
  49. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/228063942_The_evolution_of_root_hairs_and_rhizoids
  50. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC6482432/
  51. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S034181622300187X
  52. https://www.journals.uchicago.edu/doi/abs/10.1086/333650
  53. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC5182422/
  54. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC2259052/
  55. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1470160X23002376
  56. https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/agricultural-and-biological-sciences/rhizoid
  57. https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/microbiology/articles/10.3389/fmicb.2024.1407391/full
  58. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC6018959/
  59. https://www.pnas.org/doi/10.1073/pnas.1719588115
  60. http://www.chertnews.de/Rhynia.html
  61. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC3130224/
  62. https://journals.biologists.com/dev/article/151/20/dev202928/361973/Regulation-of-ROP-GTPase-cycling-between-active
  63. https://nph.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/nph.70603
  64. https://www.pnas.org/doi/10.1073/pnas.2117803119
  65. https://nph.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/nph.16914
  66. https://journals.plos.org/plosgenetics/article?id=10.1371/journal.pgen.1005207
  67. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/6279496_An_Ancient_Mechanism_Controls_the_Development_of_Cells_with_a_Rooting_Function_in_Land_Plants
  68. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/31732703/
  69. https://nph.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/nph.70455
  70. https://www.cell.com/current-biology/fulltext/S0960-9822(23)01520-8
  71. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC9438471/
  72. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/37257494/
Add your contribution
Related Hubs
User Avatar
No comments yet.