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Round shot
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A round shot (also called solid shot or simply ball) is a solid spherical projectile without explosive charge, launched from a gun. Its diameter is slightly less than the bore of the barrel from which it is shot. A round shot fired from a large-caliber gun is also called a cannonball.
The cast iron cannonball was introduced by French artillery engineers after 1450; it had the capacity to reduce traditional English castle wall fortifications to rubble.[1] French armories would cast a tubular cannon body in a single piece, and cannonballs took the shape of a sphere initially made from stone material. Advances in gunpowder manufacturing soon led the replacement of stone cannonballs with cast iron ones.[2]
Round shot was made in early times from dressed stone, referred to as gunstone (Middle English: gunneston), but by the 17th century, from iron. It was used as the most accurate projectile that could be fired by a smoothbore cannon, used to batter the wooden hulls of opposing ships, fortifications, or fixed emplacements, and as a long-range anti-personnel weapon. However, masonry stone forts designed during the early modern period (known as star forts) were almost impervious to the effects of round shot.
In land battles, round shot would often plough through many ranks of troops, causing multiple casualties. Unlike the fake gunpowder explosions representing roundshot in movies, roundshot was more like a bouncing bowling ball that would not stop after the initial impact, but continue and tear through anything in its path. It could bounce when it hit the ground, striking men at each bounce. The casualties from round shot were extremely gory; when fired directly into an advancing column, a cannonball was capable of passing straight through up to forty men[citation needed].
Even when most of its kinetic energy is expended, a round shot still has enough momentum to knock men over and cause gruesome injury. Because such instances often did not leave visible marks, this initially gave rise to the theory that even in the case of a near-miss, the so-called "wind of a ball" could cause internal injury or concussion, often with fatal results.[3] The actual explanation for these cases, however, turned out to be the toughness and elasticity of the human skin.[4]
When attacking wooden ships or land structures that would be damaged by fire, the cannonball could be heated to red hot. This was called a "heated shot". (On the shot called "the single deadliest cannon shot in American history", see Negro Fort.)
Round shot has the disadvantage of not being tightly fitted into the bore (to do so would cause jamming). This causes the shot to "rattle" down the gun barrel and leave the barrel at an angle, unless wadding or a discarding sabot is used. This difference in shot and bore diameter is called "windage".
Round shot has been totally replaced by modern shells. Round shot is used in historical recreations and historical replica weapons.
In the 1860s, some round shots were equipped with winglets to benefit from the rifling of cannons. Such round shot would benefit from gyroscopic stability, thereby improving their trajectory, although already obsolete due to the existence of the ogival shell[5] since the 1850s.
See also
[edit]References
[edit]- ^ Maier, Charles S. (2016). Once Within Borders: Territories of Power, Wealth, and Belonging since 1500. Harvard University Press. ISBN 978-0674059788.
- ^ Martello, Robert (2010). Midnight Ride, Industrial Dawn: Paul Revere and the Growth of American Enterprise. Johns Hopkins University Press. p. 174. ISBN 978-0801897580.
- ^ Watt, James (1975). "The injuries of four centuries of naval warfare". Annals of the Royal College of Surgeons of England. 57 (1): 8. PMC 2388509. PMID 1098546. Retrieved 14 February 2020.
- ^ Chisolm, John Julian (1864). A Manual of Military Surgery, for the Use of Surgeons in the Confederate States Army; with Explanatory Plates of all Useful Operations (3rd ed.). Columbia: Evans and Cogswell. pp. 354–356. Retrieved 19 March 2023.
- ^ Musée de la Marine, Paris.
External links
[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Cannonballs.
- Photo of stone round shot from the Castello Sforzesco in Milan, Italy
- "A Guide to Geometry, Surveying, the Launching of Missiles, and the Planting of Mines" features 18th-century schematic drawings of cannonballs from the Muslim world via the World Digital Library
Round shot
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History
Origins and Early Use
Round shot emerged in Europe during the late 13th century as gunpowder artillery technology spread from Asia via Mongol invasions and Islamic intermediaries, evolving from earlier stone projectiles launched by primitive cannons such as the pot-de-fer and early bombards.[4] These initial firearms were simple wrought-iron tubes, often vase-shaped, that propelled hand-carved stone balls known as gunstones, marking a transition from catapult-flung or hand-thrown stones to gunpowder-propelled equivalents.[5] The first documented use of cannons firing stone round shot in Europe occurred during the Siege of Algeciras in 1343–1344, where Moorish defenders employed them against Christian besiegers.[6] By mid-century, such weapons saw action in open battles, including the English deployment of ribauldequins—small multi-barrel cannons firing arrows or small projectiles—at the Battle of Crécy in 1346.[7] A prominent example of their siege role came during the Ottoman assault on Constantinople in 1453, where massive bombards like the Basilic hurled stone balls weighing up to 1,200 pounds (545 kg) to breach the city's formidable walls.[8] Early stone round shot was produced through rudimentary methods, with stonemasons selecting durable rock and carving it into roughly spherical forms by hand, typically 2–6 inches (5–15 cm) in diameter for smaller pot-de-fer cannons, though larger bombards required proportionally massive projectiles.[9] These were loaded into wrought-iron guns with irregular, smooth bores, often forged from hammered bars and hoops.[10] The limitations of these early systems were significant: the smooth bores and imperfectly shaped stone balls resulted in poor accuracy and unpredictable trajectories, restricting round shot's effectiveness to area bombardment in siege warfare, particularly against fortifications and walls, rather than targeted antipersonnel fire.[5] Iron round shot began to supplant stone in the following centuries as casting techniques improved.[8]Development in the Early Modern Period
By the late 15th century, advancements in European metallurgy, particularly the widespread adoption of blast furnaces, facilitated the transition from stone and wrought iron projectiles to cast iron round shot for artillery. This shift, which began in regions like Sweden and northern England around 1350 but became common across Europe by the 1500s, allowed for more uniform and durable spheres that could withstand the stresses of gunpowder propulsion without deforming. Cast iron's lower cost and availability compared to bronze made it ideal for mass production, marking a key evolution from the irregular stone balls used in early bombards.[11][12] In England, this technology was notably applied in royal arsenals during the reign of Henry VIII, where iron foundries began supplying cast shot for naval and siege guns by the 1540s, enhancing the reliability of Tudor artillery in conflicts like the Rough Wooing. Standardization efforts accelerated in the early 17th century, particularly in France, where engineers developed caliber tables linking shot weights to bore diameters; for instance, a 4-pound demi-cannon ball was specified at approximately 4.5 inches in diameter to ensure compatibility across varying gun designs. These tables, building on earlier French systems from the 1520s under Francis I, reduced inconsistencies in ammunition fit and performance, promoting interoperability in multinational campaigns.[13][14] Key innovations in manufacturing included refined molding techniques using sand or loam mixtures, which produced smoother surfaces on iron spheres and minimized bore erosion in cannons. Loam, a composite of clay, sand, and organic binders like horse dung or straw, was applied in layered molds around wooden patterns, allowing for precise casting of larger projectiles while withstanding high furnace temperatures. During the Thirty Years' War (1618–1648), such round shot proved devastating in linear infantry tactics, where massed formations of pikemen and musketeers were vulnerable to sweeping cannon fire; battles like Lützen (1632) saw artillery barrages cause significant casualties among tightly packed ranks, shifting emphasis toward mobile field guns.[15][16][17] Regionally, the adoption of iron round shot varied; in Ming dynasty China during the 16th century, iron balls were cast for hongyipao cannons—European-influenced designs introduced via Portuguese trade—primarily for coastal defense against Japanese pirates, differing from Europe's growing emphasis on scaling naval broadsides for fleet engagements. This parallel development highlighted iron's global appeal for artillery ammunition, though Chinese foundries often prioritized composite bronze-iron barrels over purely naval applications.[18]Peak Usage and Decline
Round shot reached its zenith during the Age of Sail from approximately 1700 to 1850, serving as the primary projectile for naval and land artillery in major European powers. In the British Royal Navy, the 24-pounder round shot became a standardized armament for the lower decks of 74-gun ships of the line, which formed the backbone of the fleet and offered an optimal balance of speed, maneuverability, and firepower.[19][20] These solid iron spheres, typically 5.5 inches in diameter and marked with the broad arrow for government issue, were cast between 1775 and 1840 to ensure uniformity across the service.[19] A prime example of their devastating effect occurred at the Battle of Trafalgar in 1805, where broadsides of 24-pounder round shot from British ships shattered the wooden hulls and decks of French and Spanish vessels, contributing to the decisive victory.[21][19] Production of round shot scaled massively to support this era's demands, particularly during the Napoleonic Wars (1803–1815), when foundries like the Royal Arsenal at Woolwich manufactured cannonballs on a large industrial level to equip the expanding British fleet and army.[22] Woolwich's operations, which began large-scale ammunition production in the early 18th century, ramped up significantly, with facilities casting thousands of iron spheres annually to meet wartime needs; by the Napoleonic period, the arsenal employed thousands and produced a wide array of calibers.[23] Shot weights varied from as light as 1/2 pound for swivel guns on smaller vessels to 68 pounds for heavy naval guns on bomb vessels, allowing versatility in targeting rigging, hulls, or fortifications.[24] This output represented about 70–80% of field artillery ammunition, underscoring round shot's dominance in smoothbore systems.[25] The decline of round shot began in the 1820s with the introduction of Paixhans guns by French General Henri-Joseph Paixhans, which safely fired explosive shells at high velocity, revolutionizing naval warfare by causing far greater internal damage to wooden ships than solid projectiles.[26] Demonstrated in 1824 trials that sank the target hulk Pacificateur, these guns highlighted the limitations of round shot's kinetic impact alone, prompting navies to adopt shell-firing ordnance.[26] This shift accelerated during the Crimean War (1853–1856), where rifled artillery provided superior range, accuracy, and penetration compared to smoothbores, rendering spherical round shot increasingly obsolete for frontline use.[27] By the American Civil War in the 1860s, smoothbore cannons firing round shot persisted in limited roles—such as battering fortifications or ricocheting against infantry—but were overshadowed by rifled guns and explosive projectiles, with solid balls comprising only a fraction of ammunition stocks.[28][27] Round shot saw its final limited applications in colonial conflicts, including the Anglo-Zulu War of 1879, where British forces deployed small rifled field guns like the 7- and 9-pounder Royal Horse Artillery pieces that occasionally utilized solid projectiles alongside shells for anti-personnel or defensive fire.[29] These 7-pounder guns, weighing 200 pounds and firing 7-pound projectiles with a range of up to 3,100 yards, were part of batteries like N/5, which supported engagements such as Isandlwana and Ulundi, though explosive ammunition predominated.[29] By this point, technological advancements had largely consigned round shot to obsolescence in favor of more versatile and destructive alternatives.[30]Manufacture and Design
Materials and Production Methods
Round shot were primarily constructed from cast iron, a material composed of approximately 95% iron and 3-4% carbon, which provided the necessary durability and affordability for large-scale military production.[31] For smaller projectiles, wrought iron was occasionally employed due to its malleability and strength in reduced sizes, while lead served as an alternative for very light pieces weighing under 1 pound, offering ease of casting and sufficient density for short-range applications.[2] The production process began with melting pig iron in cupola furnaces, where temperatures reached 1200-1400°C to achieve a fully molten state suitable for pouring.[32] The liquid iron was then poured into two-part sand molds, often chilled rapidly to form the characteristic spherical shape, with the molds designed to minimize imperfections during solidification.[33] After cooling, the rough castings underwent finishing by grinding to remove sprues and excess material, ensuring a smooth surface. Quality control measures included visual inspections to detect internal voids caused by trapped gas bubbles during casting, which could compromise structural integrity.[34] The resulting shot typically exhibited a density of around 7.2 g/cm³, with hardness levels influenced by the cooling rate—slower cooling produced tougher graphite structures to resist shattering upon firing.[35]Sizing and Standardization
The sizing of round shot was determined by its diameter in relation to the cannon's bore, with the shot typically 1/16 to 1/8 inch smaller to allow for windage, the clearance necessary for loading and to accommodate powder residue buildup during firing. This windage prevented jamming while minimizing gas escape, ensuring effective propulsion; for instance, a 32-pounder shot measured 6.1 inches in diameter for a bore of approximately 6.41 inches under early 18th-century British standards.[36] Nomenclature for round shot and associated cannons was primarily weight-based in the English system, where the gun's designation reflected the nominal weight of the iron shot it fired, though actual weights varied slightly due to casting tolerances. A 6-pounder, for example, used a shot weighing about 6.1 pounds with a 3.5-inch diameter, while larger calibers scaled accordingly. The Gribeauval system (adopted 1765) continued using the livre unit but provided dimensions equivalent to metric: a 12-livre shot corresponded to 118 mm in diameter and 6.0 kg in weight, roughly comparable to the English 12-pounder (4.4 inches, about 5.4 kg). Following the French Revolution, full metric standardization in artillery emerged in the 1790s.[37] Standardization efforts culminated in the 1716 chart issued by the British Board of Ordnance under Colonel Albert Borgard, which linked shot weights, diameters, and compatible gun types to promote uniformity across royal arsenals. This table established the core sizes for field, naval, and garrison artillery, with minor variations: naval guns often featured slightly larger bores for reliability in humid conditions, while garrison pieces prioritized precision fits. The following table summarizes key Borgard specifications, showing shot diameters and corresponding bore calibers (using a 21/20 windage ratio):| Shot Weight (lb) | Diameter (in) | Bore (21/20 Caliber, in) |
|---|---|---|
| 4 | 3.05 | 3.20 |
| 6 | 3.50 | 3.67 |
| 9 | 4.00 | 4.20 |
| 12 | 4.40 | 4.62 |
| 18 | 5.04 | 5.29 |
| 24 | 5.55 | 5.82 |
| 32 | 6.10 | 6.41 |
| 42 | 6.68 | 7.02 |