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Solidago
Solidago virgaurea var. leiocarpa
Scientific classification Edit this classification
Kingdom: Plantae
Clade: Tracheophytes
Clade: Angiosperms
Clade: Eudicots
Clade: Asterids
Order: Asterales
Family: Asteraceae
Subfamily: Asteroideae
Tribe: Astereae
Subtribe: Solidagininae
Genus: Solidago
L. 1753 not Mill. 1754
Synonyms[1]
  • Actipsis Rafinesque
  • Aster Linnaeus subg. Solidago (Linnaeus) Kuntze
  • Leioligo Rafinesque

Solidago, commonly called goldenrod, is a genus of about 100[1] to 120[2] species of flowering plants in the family Asteraceae. Most are herbaceous perennial species found in open areas such as meadows, prairies, and savannas. They are mostly native to North America, including Mexico; a few species are native to South America and Eurasia.[1] Some American species have also been introduced into Europe and other parts of the world.

Description

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European goldenrod is pollinated by Bombus cryptarum

Solidago species are perennials growing from woody caudices or rhizomes. Their stems range from decumbent (crawling) to ascending or erect, with a range of heights going from 5 cm (2.0 in) to over a meter. Most species are unbranched, but some do display branching in the upper part of the plant. Both leaves and stems vary from glabrous (hairless) to various forms of pubescence (strigose, strigillose, hispid, stipitate-glandular or villous). In some species, the basal leaves are shed before flowering. The leaf margins are most commonly entire, but often display heavier serration. Some leaves may display trinerved venation rather than the pinnate venation usual across Asteraceae.[1]

The flower heads are usually of the radiate type (typical daisy flower heads with distinct ray and disc florets) but sometimes discoid (with only disc florets of mixed, sterile, male and types). Only ray florets are female, others are male, hermaphroditic or entire sterile. Head involucres are campanulate to cylindric or attenuate. Floret corollas are usually yellow, but white in the ray florets of a few species (such as Solidago bicolor); they are typically hairless. Heads usually include between 2 and 35 disc florets, but in some species this may go up to 60. Filaments are inserted closer to the base of the corolla than its middle. Numerous heads are usually grouped in complex compound inflorescences where heads are arranged in multiple racemes, panicles, corymbs, or secund arrays (with florets all on the same side).[1]

Solidago cypselae are narrowly obconic to cylindrical in shape, and they are sometimes somewhat compressed. They have eight to 10 ribs usually and are hairless or moderately hispid. The pappus is very big with barbellate bristles.[1]

Goldenrod and visiting Cerceris wasp

The many goldenrod species can be difficult to distinguish, due to their similar bright, golden-yellow flower heads that bloom in late summer. Propagation is by wind-disseminated seeds or by spreading underground rhizomes which can form colonies of vegetative clones of a single plant. They are mostly short-day plants and bloom in late summer and early fall. Some species produce abundant nectar when moisture is plentiful, or when the weather is warm and sunny.

The section Ptarmicoidei is sometimes treated as a separate genus Oligoneuron,[3] and is dropped by flat-topped to rounded corymbiform flowerheads.

Taxonomy

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Solidago is in the family Asteraceae (formerly known as Compositae), a diverse and widespread clade containing approximately 23,000 species and 12 tribes, which inhabit all continents except Antarctica. Within Asteraceae, Solidago is in the tribe Astereae and the subtribe Solidagininaeae.[4]

The genus Solidago is monophyletic as indicated by morphological characters[5] and molecular evidence.[6][7] All Solidago species are herbaceous perennials, growing from approximately 2 cm to 2.5 m tall. Yellow to white, pistillate ray flowers and yellow, perfect disc florets are characteristic of Solidago inflorescences, which have a wide range of shapes.[4] Molecular studies[8][6] using nuclear rDNA have hypothesized boundaries on the genus Solidago, but there have been difficulties in parsing out evolutionary relationships at the sub-genus scale and defining which should be included and separated from Solidago.

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Related Asteraceae genera, such as Chrysoma, Euthamia, and Oreochrysum, have been included within Solidago at one point or another,[9] but morphological evidence[10][9][11] has suggested otherwise. In a study comparing morphological characters of Solidago and related subgroups, the authors consider the subjectivity of classifying a genus and how to define it within broader tendencies concerning the taxonomy of North American Asteraceae. Little to no differences were observed between Solidago and the subgroups in terms of karyotype. However, external morphological characters such as habit, or the general appearance of the plant and how a suite of traits contribute to its phenotype; pappus size; and the point of freeing of stamen filaments from the corolla tube, are useful classification schemes for Solidago, since they are applied to differentiating between Asteraceae taxa. One school of Asteraceae taxonomy thought unites all taxa sharing similar floral head structure and subsequently ignores deviation from this morphology, while another places greater weight on these morphological deviations. The authors argue that the latter opinion should be applied. Since there is no theoretical foundation for relative taxonomic importance of traits, they assert that habit should be a central trait when defining taxa, and subsequently that all the subgroups considered in their study (Brachychaeta, Chrysoma, Euthamia, Oligoneuron, and Petradoria) should be segregated from Solidago.[12]

Results from a leaf anatomy study comparing differences in mesophyll, bundle sheath extensions, and midvein structure, among others in a suite of leaf traits,[9] are incongruent with those in an earlier study.[12] Based on the lack of bundle sheath extensions, it is suggested that Chrysoma, Euthamia, Gundlachia, and Petradoria should be distinct taxa and outside of Solidago.[9] However, Brachychaeta, Brintonia, Oligoneuron, Oreochrysum, and Aster ptarmicoides should be considered as components of Solidago. To summarize, the relation of Brachychaeta and Oligoneuron to Solidago is inconsistent based on these results.[12][9] Both support the separation of Chrysoma, Euthamia, and Petradoria from Solidago. A study reviews the taxonomic position of Oligoneuron relative to Solidago, as based on taxonomic evidence, treats it as separate from Solidago,[10] similarly to Kapoor & Beaudry (1966). The first molecular phylogeny based on chloroplast DNA treats Brachychaeta, Brintonia, Oligoneuron, and Oreochrysum as constituents of Solidago.[6] Using consensus trees from ITS data, another study found support for Oligoneuron as part of Solidago,[13] and the findings of Zhang (1996). More recently, an analysis of combined ITS and ETS data provided additional support for the inclusion of Oligoneuron as part of Solidago.[8]

Until the 1980s, the genus Euthamia was largely considered to be a part of Solidago due to morphological similarities between species in both genera, and a history of synonymy of Solidago lanceolata and Euthamia graminifolia.[11] As mentioned, the lack of bundle sheath extensions in Euthamia compared to Solidago,[9] and deviations in floral morphology[12] present evidence for separation of these taxa. A taxonomy of Euthamia as a genus was presented, providing a detailed description of distinguishing external morphological characters, such as fibrous-roots, sessile leaves, and mostly corymbiform inflorescences.[11]

Evolutionary relationships within Solidago

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Chromosome counts and advances in molecular systematics have enabled greater understanding of evolutionary relationships within Solidago. At the time a taxonomy of Solidago was published,[10] related taxa causing contention, such as Chrysoma, Euthamia, Oligoneuron, and Petradoria, were excluded from this genus. The number of Solidago species has remained relatively stable, around 120, with approximately 80 in North America.[7][10] Due to monophyletic support for the New World taxa[13][5] and taxonomic difficulties with Old World taxa, the taxonomy provided in the 1990s[10] only includes North American taxa and thus treats Solidago as non-monophyletic. Existing molecular-based phylogenies provide monophyletic support for Solidago[8][13][7][6] given its inclusion of Oligoneuron.

Chromosome counts have proven to be a valuable character in Solidago taxonomy and in elucidating the cytogeographic history of the genus. Similar chromosome counts may indicate close evolutionary relationships, while different chromosome numbers may suggest distant relationships through reproductive isolation. Chromosome counts have been studied extensively in North America;[14][15] all Solidago species have a base chromosome number of x=9, but the following ploidy levels have been observed: 2x, 3x, 4x, 6x, 8x, 10x, 12x, and 14x.

Though negligible differences in karyotype among Solidago and related genera were found,[12] Solidago taxa with multiple cytotypes are more common than those with one.[7] Although chromosome count is a useful metric for differentiating among Solidago taxa, it may be problematic due to the frequent variation in ploidy levels. Cytogeographic patterns in the Solidago gigantea complex, with tetraploids occurring in eastern North America and hexaploids in Oregon and Washington, were observed.[16] Cytogeographic patterns are also observed in the Solidago canadensis complex: hexaploids within S. canadensis have been observed east of the Great Plains and are treated as Solidago altissima, and diploids and tetraploids occurring in the Great Plains are treated as Solidago gilvocanescens. The taxonomic status of Solidago ptarmicoides created an extensive debate due to frequency hybridization of S. ptarmicoides with members of the Ptarmicoidei section of Solidago.[1] It was asserted that S. ptarmicoides should be united with Solidago rather than the genus Aster due to external morphological features such as similar pappus length as well as the same chromosome base (x=9). Information about chromosome number is still a crucial part of current understanding and phylogenies of Solidago.[7]

Ecology

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Goldenrod is considered a keystone species, and has been called the single most important plant for North American pollinator biodiversity.[17][18] Goldenrod species are used as a food source by the larvae of many Lepidoptera species. As many as 104 species of butterflies and moths use it as a host plant for their larvae, and 42 species of bees are goldenrod specialists, visiting only goldenrod for food.[19] Some lepidopteran larvae bore into plant tissues and form a bulbous tissue mass called a gall around it, upon which the larva then feeds. Various parasitoid wasps find these galls and lay eggs in the larvae, penetrating the bulb with their ovipositors. Woodpeckers are known to peck open the galls and eat the insects in the center.[20]

Goldenrods have become invasive species in many parts of the world outside their native range, including China, Japan, Europe and Africa.[21][22] Solidago canadensis, which was introduced as a garden plant in Central Europe, has become common in the wild, and in Germany is considered an invasive species that displaces native vegetation from its natural habitat.

Use and cultivation

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Young goldenrod leaves are edible.[23] Traditionally, Native Americans use the seeds of some species for food.[24] Herbal teas are sometimes made with goldenrod.[25]

Goldenrod often is inaccurately said to cause hay fever in humans.[26] The pollen causing this allergic reaction is produced mainly by ragweed (Ambrosia sp.), blooming at the same time as the goldenrod and pollinated by wind. Goldenrod pollen is too heavy and sticky to be blown far from the flowers, and is pollinated mainly by insects.[26] Frequent handling of goldenrod and other flowers, however, can cause allergic reactions, sometimes irritating enough to force florists to change occupation.[27] Goldenrods are attractive sources of nectar for bees, flies, wasps, and butterflies. Honey from goldenrods often is dark and strong because of admixtures of other nectars. However, when honey flow is strong, a light (often water-clear), spicy-tasting monofloral honey is produced. While the bees are ripening the honey produced from goldenrods, it has a rank odour and taste; the finished honey is much milder.

Goldenrods are, in some places, considered a sign of good luck or good fortune.[28] They are considered weeds by many in North America, but they are seen as invasive plants in Europe, where British gardeners adopted goldenrod as a garden subject.[citation needed] Goldenrod began to gain some acceptance in U.S. gardening (other than wildflower gardening) during the 1980s.[citation needed]

Goldenrods are used to make yellow dyes and lake pigments.

Cultivated species

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Cultivated goldenrods include S. bicolor, S. caesia, S. canadensis, S. cutleri, S. riddellii, S. rigida, S. shortii, and S. virgaurea.[29]

A number of cultivars have been selected, including several of hybrid origin. A putative hybrid with aster, known as ×Solidaster is less unruly, with pale yellow flowers, equally suitable for dried arrangements. Molecular and other evidence points to ×Solidaster (at least the cultivar 'Lemore') being a hybrid of Solidago ptarmicoides and Solidago canadensis, the former now in Solidago, but likely the "aster" in question.[8]

The cultivars 'Goldenmosa'[30] and S. × luteus 'Lemore'[31] have gained the Royal Horticultural Society's Award of Garden Merit.[32]

Industrial use

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Inventor Thomas Edison experimented with goldenrod to produce rubber, which it contains naturally.[33] Edison created a fertilization and cultivation process to maximize the rubber content in each plant.[34] His experiments produced a 12 ft-tall (3.7 m) plant that yielded as much as 12% rubber, and the new variant was named Solidago edisoni,[35][36] also called Solidago edisoniana.[37] The tires on the Model T given to him by his friend Henry Ford were made from goldenrod. Like George Washington Carver, Henry Ford was deeply interested in the regenerative properties of soil and the potential of alternative crops such as peanuts and soybeans to produce plastics, paint, fuel and other products.[38]

Ford had long believed that the world would eventually need a substitute for gasoline, and supported the production of ethanol (or grain alcohol) as an alternative fuel.[39] In 1942, he would showcase a car with a lightweight plastic body made from soybeans. Ford and Carver began corresponding via letter in 1934, and their mutual admiration deepened after George Washington Carver made a visit to Michigan in 1937. As Douglas Brinkley writes in Wheels for the World,[40] his history of Ford, the automaker donated generously to the Tuskegee Institute, helping finance Carver's experiments, and Carver in turn spent a period of time helping to oversee crops at the Ford plantation in Ways, Georgia.

By the time World War II began, Ford had made repeated journeys to Tuskegee to convince George Washington Carver to come to Dearborn and help him develop a synthetic rubber to help compensate for wartime rubber shortages. Carver arrived on July 19, 1942, and set up a laboratory in an old water works building in Dearborn. He and Ford experimented with different crops, including sweet potatoes and dandelions, eventually devising a way to make the rubber substitute from goldenrod, a plant weed commercially viable.[41] Carver died in January 1943, Ford in April 1947, but the relationship between their two institutions continued to flourish: As recently as the late 1990s, Ford awarded grants of $4 million over two years to the George Washington Carver School at Tuskegee.[42]

Extensive process development was conducted during World War II to commercialize goldenrod as a source of rubber.[43] The rubber is only contained in the leaves, not the stems or blooms.[44] Typical rubber content of the leaves is 7%. The resulting rubber is of low molecular weight, resulting in an excessively tacky compound with poor tensile properties.[45]

Traditional medicine

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Solidago virgaurea is used in a traditional kidney tonic by practitioners of herbal medicine to counter inflammation and irritation caused by bacterial infections or kidney stones.[46][47] Goldenrod is also used in some formulas for cleansing of the kidney or bladder during a healing fast, in conjunction with potassium broth and specific juices.[47] Some Native American cultures traditionally chew the leaves to relieve sore throats, and the roots to relieve toothaches.[28]

Medicinal exploration

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In various assessments by the European Medicines Agency with respect to Solidago virgaurea, non-clinical data shows diuretic, anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, analgesic and spasmolytic, antibacterial, antifungal, anticancer and immunomodulatory activity. However, as no single ingredient is responsible for these effects, the whole herbal preparation of Solidago inflorescences must be considered as the active ingredient.[48]

Cultural significance

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The goldenrod is the state flower of the U.S. states of Kentucky (adopted 1926) and Nebraska (adopted 1895). Solidago altissima, tall goldenrod, was named the state wildflower of South Carolina in 2003.[49] The sweet goldenrod (Solidago odora) is the state herb of Delaware.[50] Goldenrod was the state flower of Alabama, but it was later rejected in favor of the camellia.[51]

Diversity

[edit]
Solidago canadensis in Kerala
Solidago lepida
Solidago multiradiata
Solidago ptarmicoides
Solidago nemoralis
Solidago velutina ssp. sparsiflora
Solidago spectabilis
Gall formed in Solidago sp. by the fly Eurosta solidaginis
Solidago sp. with digger wasp Sphex ichneumoneus
Fruits of Solidago simplex

Accepted species

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Source[52][better source needed]

Natural hybrids

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  • Solidago × asperula Desf. (S. rugosa × S. sempervirens)[52]
  • Solidago × beaudryi Boivin (S. rugosa × S. uliginosa)[52]
  • Solidago × calcicola (Fernald) Fernald – limestone goldenrod[52]
  • Solidago × erskinei Boivin (S. canadensis × S. sempervirens)[52]
  • Solidago × niederederi[53][54][55][56] Khek[54][55][56] (S. canadensis × S. virgaurea)[53][55][56]
  • Solidago × ovata Friesner (S. sphacelata × S. ulmifolia)[52]
  • Solidago × ulmicaesia Friesner (S. caesia × S. ulmifolia)[52]

Formerly included

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Numerous species formerly considered members of Solidago are now regarded as better suited to other genera, including Brintonia, Duhaldea, Euthamia, Gundlachia, Inula, Jacobaea, Leptostelma, Olearia, Psiadia, Senecio, Sphagneticola, Symphyotrichum, and Trixis.[52]

References

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[edit]
Revisions and contributorsEdit on WikipediaRead on Wikipedia

Solidago

View on Grokipedia
from Grokipedia
Solidago, commonly known as , is a of approximately 140 of herbaceous flowering in the family , primarily native to with additional species in Central and , , and parts of . These typically grow 5–200 cm tall, featuring erect or decumbent stems that are glabrous to hairy, alternate leaves that are often serrate and range from basal rosettes to cauline forms, and inflorescences composed of numerous small radiate or discoid heads with yellow ray and disc florets arranged in racemiform, paniculiform, or corymbo-paniculiform arrays. Blooming from late summer through fall, goldenrods are rhizomatous and colonizing, thriving in diverse habitats such as prairies, woodlands, marshes, roadsides, and disturbed areas. The genus name Solidago derives from Latin words meaning "to make whole," reflecting its historical use in for treating wounds, , and urinary issues due to its and properties. Ecologically, Solidago are vital for , providing abundant and to late-season pollinators including bees, , wasps, and moths, while their seeds serve as food for birds. Many , such as S. canadensis and S. gigantea, are valued in native for their ornamental yellow displays and , though some have naturalized outside their native range and can become invasive in regions like and .

Description

Morphology

Solidago species are herbaceous perennials characterized by a growth form that typically features stems ranging from 5 to 200 cm in height, decumbent to erect, often unbranched below the , though some may exhibit distal branching. These stems arise from rhizomes or woody caudices and can vary in pubescence, ranging from glabrous to strigose, strigillose, hispid, or short-villous, which serves as a key diagnostic trait among . The leaves of Solidago are alternate and simple, with blades generally lanceolate to elliptic (or ovate-oblanceolate), featuring entire or serrate margins; basal leaves are larger and petiolate, while cauline leaves are progressively smaller, sessile, and sometimes three-nerved. Leaf surfaces may be glabrous or hairy, occasionally resinous or stipitate-glandular, contributing to species-level identification through variations in venation and pubescence patterns. The is a terminal , , or corymbose array comprising numerous small yellow flower heads (capitula), each typically 2–10 wide with campanulate to cylindric involucres measuring 3-12 in length. Each head usually contains (0–)2–15(–24) pistillate ray florets (rarely absent or white) and 2–35(–60) bisexual disc florets, all yellow, arranged in radiate or occasionally discoid configurations that facilitate . Fruits are achenes (cypselae), narrowly obconic to cylindric, 0.5–7.3 mm long, with 8-10 ribs, and are glabrous or strigillose; they are topped by a pappus of bristles (1.5-5 mm long) in two series, plus outer setiform scales, adapted for wind dispersal.

Growth Habit and Reproduction

Solidago are predominantly short- to long-lived perennials that overwinter as persistent rootstocks or rhizomes, enabling survival through adverse conditions. Many exhibit a rhizomatous or stoloniferous , producing underground or surface stems that facilitate vegetative spread and the formation of dense clonal colonies, as seen in like and . This clonal propagation allows for rapid colonization of suitable habitats, with ramets emerging from the parent plant to create interconnected genets that can persist for years. Flowering in Solidago typically initiates in late summer and extends into autumn, spanning to across North American populations, providing a critical late-season resource. This is regulated by environmental cues, including shortening day lengths (photoperiod) and cumulative temperature exposures, which synchronize bloom timing with activity and seed maturation before frost. For instance, in , warmer temperatures can advance flowering onset, while cooler conditions delay it to optimize reproductive success. Sexual reproduction relies on entomophily, with pollination primarily mediated by insects such as bees (e.g., honeybees and bumblebees), butterflies, and flies (e.g., syrphids and muscoids), which transfer heavy, sticky pollen between florets. Most species, including Solidago altissima and Solidago canadensis, are self-incompatible, enforcing outcrossing through gametophytic or sporophytic mechanisms that reject self-pollen to maintain genetic diversity and prevent inbreeding depression. This system ensures effective gene flow within populations, though it heightens dependence on pollinator visitation. Asexual reproduction predominates through rhizomatous and stoloniferous extensions, allowing clonal expansion without sexual investment, as exemplified by the vigorous rhizome production in Solidago canadensis that generates new shoots from fragmented root pieces. While apomixis (asexual seed formation) occurs in some Asteraceae genera, it is rare in Solidago, where vegetative means drive most non-sexual propagation. Sexual output is prolific, with individual plants producing thousands of cypselae annually (up to 20,000 in S. canadensis), featuring a pappus for wind dispersal; seed viability under optimal storage and conditions typically ranges from 50% to 70%, supporting effective recruitment. Seed in many Solidago species requires cold stratification to break physiological , often involving 4–12 weeks at 1–5°C in moist media to mimic winter conditions and enhance uniformity. Post-stratification, optimal occurs in well-drained soils with consistent and exposure to , particularly for surface-sown seeds, achieving rates up to 90% in controlled settings for hybrids like Solidago × niederederi. These requirements align with natural cycles, promoting spring emergence in disturbed or open habitats.

Taxonomy

Etymology and Classification History

The genus name Solidago derives from the Latin verb solidare, meaning "to make whole" or "to consolidate," a reference to the perceived medicinal properties of these plants in traditional herbalism, where they were used to treat wounds and promote healing. The genus was formally established by in his seminal 1753 publication , in which he recognized approximately 20 species, drawing primarily from European specimens and early descriptions of North American plants introduced via colonial trade. This initial classification emphasized morphological traits such as structure and arrangement, though Linnaeus's framework lumped together taxa now known to represent distinct lineages. In the , taxonomic understanding of Solidago expanded dramatically with explorations of North American flora, led by botanists like , who documented the genus's extensive diversity across the continent in works such as his Manual of the Botany of the (1848 onward). Gray described numerous new and varieties, emphasizing the North American center of origin and the difficulties in delimitation due to frequent hybridization, which often produced intermediate forms challenging clear boundaries. His contributions, including the recognition of sectional groupings based on stem pubescence and ray floret number, laid the groundwork for later revisions by integrating collections from expeditions like those of John Torrey. The 20th century brought more refined classifications through the efforts of key taxonomists such as John K. Small and Arthur Cronquist, who addressed the 's complexity via detailed monographs and floras. Small, in his Manual of the Southeastern Flora (1933), proposed sections like Oligoneuron for species with flat-topped inflorescences, while Cronquist, in treatments like the Vascular Flora of the (1955) and Intermountain Flora (1994), reorganized subgenera based on phylogenetic inferences from morphology and geography. Revisions during this period separated sections such as Solidago (for typical wand-like inflorescences), Brintonia (originally a segregate genus by E.L. Greene in for rayless-headed species, later subsumed), and Rupestre (for rock-dwelling taxa with rigid stems), reflecting increased resolution of morphological variation. Cytological investigations, beginning in the mid-20th century, revealed levels from diploid (2n=18) to hexaploid (2n=54), which influenced by explaining hybridization barriers and supporting the recognition of polyploid complexes as distinct entities rather than variants. Modern syntheses, such as the Flora of (2006), estimated about 100 species, while a 2023 phylogenomic study recognizes 138 species worldwide, predominantly in , and providing a stable infrageneric framework that accounts for both classical morphology and emerging biosystematic evidence.

Phylogenetic Relationships

Solidago is placed within the subfamily Asteroideae of the family, specifically in the tribe and subtribe Solidagininae. Recent phylogenomic analyses confirm its , with the genus sister to the monotypic Chrysoma pauciflosculosa, a woody from the . Formerly recognized genera such as Oligoneuron and Brintonia are now included within Solidago as sections Ptarmicoidei () and Brintonia (one species), respectively, based on shared morphological and molecular traits. Euthamia represents a closely related but distinct lineage, segregated from Solidago due to differences in structure and DNA sequence data. The genus originated primarily in , where the majority of its approximately 138 species occur, with diversification patterns linked to post-glacial migrations following the Pleistocene ice ages. Molecular phylogenies using nuclear ribosomal ITS and ETS sequences from representative taxa support the of Solidago and reveal internal structure, including derived clades such as section Haplopappus (characterized by narrow, elongate leaves and specific pappus features) and section Ptarmica (with ptarmicoid inflorescences). These sections emerge as later-branching groups in cladograms, reflecting adaptive radiations in diverse habitats like prairies and woodlands. A more comprehensive phylogenomic study employing 893 nuclear genes across 87 diploid species further resolves these relationships, integrating morphological data for 51 polyploid taxa to refine sectional boundaries. Hybridization and have been key drivers of within Solidago, with the base number x=9 giving rise to diploids (2n=18) and higher levels up to 14x across sections. These events, often involving inter-sectional crosses, contribute to morphological variation and ecological , complicating phylogenetic reconstruction but enabling rapid adaptation. For instance, the invasive , a hexaploid (2n=54), readily hybridizes with native Eurasian taxa like S. virgaurea, forming nothospecies such as S. ×niederederi that exhibit intermediate traits and expanded ranges. Such hybrid zones highlight ongoing evolutionary dynamics in introduced populations.

Diversity

Accepted Species

The genus Solidago comprises approximately 140 accepted species worldwide, with the vast majority—around 77—native to , reflecting its center of diversity in temperate regions of the continent. A smaller number occur outside , including about 8 species in , 4 in , and 6–10 in and . This distribution underscores the genus's primarily origin, with limited representation contributing to its overall diversity through adaptations to varied habitats like prairies, woodlands, and wetlands. Occurrences in are rare and consist solely of . Among North American species, several stand out for their ecological prominence and wide ranges. Solidago altissima, known as tall goldenrod, is a widespread forming dense clones in open fields and roadsides across much of the eastern and and , often reaching heights of 1–2 meters with plume-like inflorescences. Solidago canadensis, or , similarly dominates disturbed sites in its native range from to Georgia, but has become notably invasive in and due to its prolific seed production and vegetative spread. Solidago gigantea, , thrives in moist meadows and streambanks throughout eastern , distinguished by its smooth stem and tall, wand-like flower clusters up to 2.5 meters high. In contrast, Solidago nemoralis, gray goldenrod, is a more compact species adapted to dry, sandy soils in the Midwest and eastern woodlands, featuring grayish foliage and clustered heads that enhance its role in early-successional habitats. European native species are fewer and generally less morphologically diverse. , the European goldenrod, is the most widespread, occurring from to the Mediterranean in grasslands and forest edges, with a variable growth form from 20 cm to 1 meter tall and loose panicles of yellow flowers. Solidago cambrica, Welsh goldenrod, is restricted to western Britain and , favoring rocky slopes and heaths with its upright stems and compact inflorescences, representing a distinct regional variant. Regional endemics highlight the genus's localized diversity, particularly in . Solidago houghtonii, Houghton's goldenrod, is a endemic confined to shoreline dunes and along northern Lakes and Huron in , , and New York, characterized by its low-growing habit and sticky stems adapted to substrates. Similarly, Solidago spithamaea, Blue Ridge goldenrod, is restricted to high-elevation granitic outcrops in the of and , featuring leaves and sparse, wand-like arrays that reflect its adaptation to exposed, nutrient-poor environments. As of 2025, taxonomic updates continue to refine species counts, with 29 species documented in New York State, all native, according to Werier et al.'s catalog of the state's vascular flora. Ongoing revisions in South American taxa, such as clarifications around Solidago chilensis and related forms, suggest potential adjustments to the regional tally but maintain the estimate of four accepted species there. Recent phylogenetic studies have confirmed approximately 138 species and prompted further segregations, particularly in Asian taxa.

Hybrids and Formerly Included Taxa

Hybridization is widespread in the Solidago, with numerous hybrids documented, particularly among North American species where overlapping ranges facilitate . For instance, Solidago × asperula arises from the cross between S. rugosa and S. sempervirens and is reported from coastal habitats in the and adjacent , exhibiting intermediate characteristics. Another example is Solidago × beaudryi, resulting from S. rugosa × S. uliginosa, which occurs in margins and shows variable leaf pubescence inherited from its parents. Over 50 interspecific hybrids have been identified across the , many involving closely related taxa within subsections like Canadenses and Triplinerviae. These hybrids often form in eastern North American hybrid zones, such as those between S. canadensis and S. gigantea, where environmental gradients promote contact and contribute to ongoing through . Fertility among hybrids varies; diploid-diploid crosses may produce viable, fertile offspring, but ploidy mismatches frequently result in sterile triploids or odd-, limiting further reproduction unless restores . Polyploidy plays a key role in the origins and persistence of many Solidago hybrids, enabling genomic stabilization and from parental . Several taxa once classified within Solidago have been segregated into distinct following morphological and molecular reassessments, reflecting in traits like capitulum arrangement and leaf venation. The grass-leaved goldenrods, comprising 13 such as Euthamia graminifolia (formerly Solidago graminifolia), were historically included in Solidago but are now placed in the separate genus Euthamia due to differences in phyllary texture, gland distribution, and phylogenetic position; these are native to eastern and favor moist, open habitats. Similarly, flat-topped goldenrods like Oligoneuron album (previously Solidago ptarmicoides) and Oligoneuron rigidum (formerly S. rigida) have been transferred to Oligoneuron, a distinguished by compact, corymbiform inflorescences and data indicating distinct evolutionary lineages. These reclassifications highlight historical challenges in delimiting Solidago boundaries, often exacerbated by similar growth habits and flower morphology among astereae relatives. Artificial hybrids have been developed in cultivation for ornamental purposes, combining traits like compact stature and prolonged bloom from North American and Eurasian Solidago ; for example, hybrids involving S. canadensis and S. virgaurea have produced forms like S. × niederederi, which exhibit enhanced vigor and are now naturalized in parts of . Recent post-2000 molecular studies, including hybrid-sequence capture phylogenomics, have prompted reclassifications of certain Asian taxa previously under Solidago, transferring some to related genera based on nuclear and chloroplast DNA evidence revealing deeper divergences within the tribe.

Distribution and Ecology

Geographic Distribution

Solidago species are primarily native to , spanning from the Arctic tundra of and to subtropical regions of , with the highest species diversity concentrated in the , particularly in the and where over 100 species and hybrids occur. A few species are also native to , including coastal and montane habitats from to southern . In , Solidago is represented by a small number of native species, such as , which is endemic to temperate and montane regions including the and , often occurring in grasslands and rocky slopes. However, many North American species have been introduced to , , , , and parts of through ornamental trade and accidental transport since the , establishing persistent populations in these regions. Notably, and have become invasive in and , spreading since the late 1700s and forming dense monocultures in disturbed habitats like roadsides, abandoned fields, and riverbanks. The genus exhibits a broad elevational tolerance, from sea level in coastal dunes to over 3,200 meters in montane meadows, and a latitudinal range extending from approximately 70°N in northern Canada to 30°S in southern South America. Solidago species predominantly thrive in temperate to boreal climates, showing adaptability to poor, well-drained soils while preferring open, sunny habitats such as prairies, forest edges, and wetlands; they are less common in dense forests or arid deserts.

Ecological Roles and Interactions

Solidago species play a crucial role as late-season nectar sources for a variety of pollinators, including bees, butterflies, and moths, providing essential resources during a period when many other plants have ceased flowering. These plants support over 100 insect species, particularly as larval hosts for 115 Lepidoptera in the Mid-Atlantic region, contributing significantly to insect biodiversity and food web dynamics. For instance, goldenrods serve as a vital nectar source for migrating monarch butterflies (Danaus plexippus), aiding their energy needs during fall southward journeys. This reliance on insect pollinators is integral to Solidago's reproductive success, as the heavy, sticky pollen is transferred primarily by these visitors rather than wind. In ecosystem stabilization, Solidago's deep, fibrous root systems help prevent soil erosion in old fields and meadows, anchoring soil on slopes and disturbed sites. Species like seaside goldenrod (Solidago sempervirens) have been used successfully in dune stabilization projects due to their robust rhizomatous growth. Additionally, Solidago forms associations with arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi that enhance nitrogen acquisition from organic sources, supporting plant growth in nutrient-limited soils. Herbivory interactions with Solidago are diverse, featuring specialized insects such as the gall fly Eurosta solidaginis, which induces spherical stem galls on tall goldenrod (S. altissima) as larvae feed on plant tissues, prompting abnormal cell growth in response. and other herbivores also target these plants, but Solidago employs chemical defenses, including rubber latex stored in laticifers beneath the , which deters feeding by clogging mouthparts or releasing toxic compounds. These interactions influence plant fitness and contribute to the plant's role in supporting predator-prey dynamics within food webs. As dominant species in successional habitats like old fields, Solidago structures plant and communities; for example, Canada goldenrod (S. canadensis) reduces subdominant plant diversity and alters arthropod abundance and composition across trophic levels. Recent studies confirm that S. canadensis dominance in old-field ecosystems modifies arthropod diversity, with cascading effects on herbivores, predators, and decomposers. Overall, these serve as key larval hosts for moths and beetles, integrating into broader food webs that sustain avian and mammalian consumers.

Conservation

Threatened and Endangered Species

Several species within the genus Solidago face significant extinction risks, with assessments indicating that a notable proportion—approximately 10% globally—are of conservation concern due to their rarity and vulnerability. For instance, Solidago houghtonii (Houghton's goldenrod) is listed as federally threatened in the United States and endangered in New York State, where populations have shown a long-term decline over the past century primarily from habitat alteration. Similarly, Solidago spithamaea (Blue Ridge goldenrod) is federally threatened, with only three extant populations confined to high-elevation rock outcrops in North Carolina and Tennessee, historically reduced by logging and currently limited by small population sizes. Solidago shortii (Short's goldenrod) is federally endangered and globally critically imperiled (G1 rank), occurring in just a few sites in Kentucky and Indiana, where it was rediscovered in the late 20th century. Other species of concern include Solidago latissimifolia (endangered in New York as of 2025) and Canadian endemics like Solidago gracillima var. patellaria (threatened in Canada). The primary threats to these species include habitat destruction from urbanization, agriculture, and recreational activities, as well as competition from invasive plants that outcompete natives in altered environments. Climate change exacerbates these issues by altering wetland and shoreline habitats essential for species like S. houghtonii, potentially shifting moisture regimes and increasing susceptibility to erosion or flooding. In wetland-dependent taxa, invasive competitors such as Phragmites australis further degrade suitable sites by dominating shorelines and reducing native diversity. Conservation efforts focus on habitat protection and restoration, including designation of protected areas within national forests and parks, such as the for S. spithamaea. Seed banking through programs like the Center for Plant Conservation supports ex situ preservation for S. shortii and others, while recovery plans under the U.S. Endangered Species Act outline actions like habitat management and population monitoring to achieve delisting criteria; for example, the 1987 recovery plan for S. spithamaea emphasizes preventing further habitat loss and augmenting populations. Recent 2025 assessments highlight ongoing declines in Great Lakes endemics like S. houghtonii due to pollution and development pressures, though restoration initiatives in the Appalachians, including vegetation control to curb woody succession, face challenges for stabilizing S. spithamaea populations, with low recovery potential noted in 2024 reviews due to a 40% population decline since 2019.

Invasive Species Management

Several species within the genus Solidago have established as invasive outside their native North American ranges, with S. canadensis and S. gigantea being among the most problematic. S. canadensis, commonly known as Canadian goldenrod, was introduced to as an in 1645 and has since become widespread across the continent and into , particularly , where it forms dense stands in disturbed habitats. Similarly, S. gigantea, or giant goldenrod, arrived in during the , also via ornamental trade, and has invaded edges, meadows, and riparian zones, often escaping cultivation to outcompete local flora. These introductions, primarily through deliberate planting rather than , occurred amid broader 18th- and 19th-century exchanges of North American for gardens and . The ecological impacts of invasive Solidago species are significant, as they aggressively outcompete native through rapid growth and prolific production, leading to reduced in invaded areas. They also alter chemistry by modifying nutrient availability, such as increasing and while suppressing microbial activity that benefits natives, which further hinders community recovery. In agricultural settings, these invasions decrease quality and yield, imposing economic costs estimated in millions annually in regions like due to lost productivity in pastures and hayfields. Management strategies for invasive Solidago emphasize integrated approaches tailored to site conditions. Mechanical controls, including repeated mowing (twice annually in spring and late summer) and tillage, effectively reduce biomass and prevent seed set, with studies showing up to 90% suppression when combined with cultivation like planting. Chemical methods, such as targeted applications during winter dormancy, enhance selectivity and efficacy by minimizing non-target effects on natives. Biological controls are emerging, with potential agents including stem-galling like the fly Eurosta solidaginis and fungal pathogens such as Sclerotium rolfsii, which, when paired with mechanical removal, can achieve over 90% ramet mortality in trials. Prevention remains critical, relying on strict quarantine measures for imports and early detection protocols using and to target nascent populations before establishment. Successful management examples include multi-year efforts in European reserves, where combined mowing and cultivation restored native meadows, reducing S. gigantea cover by over 80% within three years. In the , S. canadensis and S. gigantea are recognized as invasive alien on the EPPO Alert List since , with ongoing risk assessments for potential inclusion on the Union list of invasive alien species of Union concern, which would mandate stricter control and trade restrictions. Recent studies highlight how warming is facilitating Solidago expansion into northern latitudes by broadening suitable habitats.

Human Uses

Ornamental Cultivation

Solidago species are widely appreciated in ornamental gardening for their vibrant yellow fall blooms that provide late-season color and attract pollinators such as bees, butterflies, and other beneficial insects. These perennials are particularly valued in pollinator gardens and naturalistic landscapes, where their plume-like flower clusters add texture and movement from late summer into autumn. Most Solidago cultivars are hardy in USDA zones 3 to 9, demonstrating resilience to cold winters and hot summers, though specific tolerances vary by species. They thrive in full sun with well-drained soil, tolerating a range of conditions including poor, dry, or clay soils once established, but perform best with average moisture during active growth. Propagation of Solidago for ornamental purposes is straightforward and can be achieved through several methods suited to home gardeners. Seeds require cold stratification for 30 to 90 days to improve rates, which can be sporadic and occur over several months; directly in fall mimics natural conditions. Division of established clumps in early spring is a reliable vegetative method, allowing for easy expansion of plantings while maintaining traits. Stem cuttings taken in early summer also propagate well, rooting quickly in moist, well-drained medium under partial shade. For example, the compact hybrid 'Golden Wings', derived from , is often propagated by division to preserve its upright, non-spreading habit and profuse golden-yellow flowers. Several Solidago species and their cultivars are favored for cultivation due to their ornamental qualities and adaptability. features arching, branching inflorescences resembling bursts of , reaching 3 to 4 feet tall with dark green foliage, and is resistant to common diseases like powdery mildew. Similarly, forms a low, mounding habit to 12 to 18 inches high, with dense sprays of bright yellow flowers ideal for front borders or ground cover, attracting and bees. Numerous hybrids and selections are commercially available, offering variations in height, bloom time, and form to suit diverse garden designs. In landscape applications, Solidago excels in borders, meadows, and naturalized areas, where its fibrous root systems aid in on slopes or disturbed sites. These are low-maintenance once established, requiring minimal watering or fertilization, and their clump-forming or rhizomatous growth supports sustainable, wildlife-friendly designs such as rain gardens or restorations. As of 2025, trends in ornamental cultivation emphasize native plant movements, promoting native species in restoration gardens for their and ability to support local ecosystems.) Selections bred for enhanced drought resistance are increasingly popular in water-wise landscapes, aligning with broader efforts to integrate resilient natives amid changing climates.

Medicinal and Industrial Applications

Solidago species, particularly S. virgaurea and S. canadensis, have been employed in for their and effects, often prepared as teas to address urinary tract issues such as infections and . In European folk practices, infusions of S. virgaurea aerial parts have been used to promote urine flow and alleviate symptoms of and kidney stones, leveraging the plant's mild properties. Native American communities, including the Ojibwa and , utilized for wound healing and fever reduction; for instance, poultices from leaves treated stings and cuts, while decoctions of or leaves served as febrifuges to lower fevers and soothe sore throats. The bioactive profile of Solidago includes such as and derivatives, , and phenolic acids like , which contribute to its pharmacological effects. These compounds exhibit activity against urinary pathogens and strong capacity, scavenging free radicals and reducing , as demonstrated in studies from the early 2020s analyzing leaf and flower extracts. For example, phenolic-rich extracts from S. canadensis showed significant inhibition of bacterial growth and elevated DPPH radical scavenging, highlighting their potential in combating and microbial infections. Recent 2024-2025 research on root phenolics across multiple Solidago species confirmed high levels of hydroxycinnamic acids, correlating with enhanced activity . In modern , Solidago extracts are formulated into supplements supporting and urinary health, often combined with other diuretics for conditions like and urolithiasis. The German Commission E, in its 1990s monographs updated through the 2010s, approved Solidago for irrigation therapy in inflammatory diseases of the urinary tract, renal , and supportive treatment of urological irritations, based on its spasmolytic and anti-inflammatory actions observed in clinical observations. Industrially, S. gigantea has been explored for rubber extraction, with historical efforts dating to the 1920s when developed methods to yield latex from its leaves as a domestic alternative to imported rubber; during , U.S. programs scaled these processes amid supply shortages, though yields proved insufficient for commercial viability compared to guayule. More recently, Solidago , particularly from invasive S. canadensis and S. gigantea, shows promise for production, with studies indicating high content suitable for bioethanol fermentation. The higher heating value of dried (18-20 MJ/kg) supports its use in pellets, offering a sustainable management strategy for invasive populations. Solidago is for short-term oral use in recommended doses, with low in animal models, but individuals allergic to family plants may experience skin rashes, , or respiratory symptoms upon exposure to or extracts. No severe adverse effects were noted in clinical approvals, though caution is advised for those with allergies due to . Emerging 2022-2025 research on phenolic extracts from S. canadensis and S. virgaurea suggests anti-cancer potential, with in vitro assays showing against colorectal and cell lines, attributed to quercetin-induced , warranting further preclinical investigation.

Cultural Significance

Symbolism and Folklore

In , (Solidago spp.) was associated with protection against malevolent forces, earning names like the German "Unsegenkraut" or " herb," which reflected its reputed use as a defensive remedy against and the . The plant's Latin name, Solidago, meaning "to make whole" or "healthy," alluded to its symbolic role in restoring balance and mending afflictions, both physical and spiritual, as noted in traditional Germanic herbals. In some rural traditions, it was incorporated into charms for safeguarding homes and livestock during harvest seasons, with stalks placed near windows or candles to invite benevolent spirits and ward off misfortune. Among Native American communities, the () knew Solidago species by names meaning “sun ” or “squirrel tail” and employed them, such as Canada goldenrod (S. canadensis), in traditional practices for treating ailments like sore throats, fevers, ulcers, boils, and cramps, viewing the plant as a of resilience in rituals passed down through oral traditions. These uses were documented in early 20th-century ethnobotanical studies, highlighting goldenrod's role in cultural knowledge systems that intertwined with spiritual symbolism. In modern floriography, symbolizes strength, encouragement, and growth, often gifted to convey support during challenging times or to inspire perseverance, drawing from its hardy nature and vibrant late-season blooms. It serves as the state flower of , where (tall goldenrod) was officially adopted in to represent the region's natural beauty and resilience, though over 30 native species contribute to its cultural iconography. Literary references appear in celebrating autumnal abundance, such as in rural harvest-themed works that evoke goldenrod's golden hues as emblems of prosperity and seasonal renewal, tying into longstanding traditions of incorporating the plant in fall festivals. Cross-culturally, introduced Solidago species in have come to symbolize prosperity and enlightenment, aligned with principles where their golden flowers represent wealth and positive energy in South-facing placements.

Misconceptions and Public Perception

One of the most persistent misconceptions about Solidago species, commonly known as , is their role in causing hay fever or seasonal allergies. is often blamed due to its conspicuous yellow blooms coinciding with allergy season and its visible , but the plant's is heavy, sticky, and primarily dispersed by like bees, making it unlikely to trigger airborne allergic reactions in humans. In contrast, the true culprit is typically wind-pollinated ( species), which produces lightweight that travels long distances and accounts for the majority of fall allergies. This myth has led to widespread efforts to eradicate from landscapes, despite its minimal contribution to pollen allergens—estimated at only 0.2% of total weed compared to ragweed's 58.8%. Public perception of has shifted significantly in the , evolving from a label as an undesirable "" to recognition as a valuable native essential for ecological . This change is driven by growing awareness of and pollinator declines, with native plant societies promoting goldenrod through initiatives like the Xerces Society's pollinator-friendly plant lists, which highlight Solidago species for providing late-season and to bees, , and other . In the 2020s, campaigns such as those by the Native Plant Society of the United States have emphasized goldenrod's role in conservation, countering its historical stigma and encouraging its inclusion in restoration projects. Recent articles indicate increased appreciation for goldenrod in urban gardening and green space initiatives for enhancing local . Media portrayals have reflected this perceptual evolution, transitioning from depictions of goldenrod as a roadside pest in early 20th-century —often symbolizing untamed or agricultural nuisance—to positive roles in contemporary environmental documentaries. For instance, a 2021 educational video The Secret Life of a Goldenrod Field showcases its importance as a supporting thousands of before winter, fostering a of ecological heroism. Medical organizations and extension services have contributed to public education by clarifying the , with resources from institutions like Penn State Extension emphasizing goldenrod's benefits over its perceived drawbacks. Economically, is viewed dualistically: as a pest in agricultural regions where invasive forms like S. canadensis compete with crops and reduce quality, leading to management costs in invaded grasslands, but as a beneficial resource in others, supporting and production without posing risks to when grazed moderately. This contrast underscores ongoing debates in , where its ecological value increasingly tempers economic concerns.

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  97. https://coastalbg.uga.edu/2023/09/the-golden-truth-why-you-shouldnt-blame-goldenrod-for-allergies-and-embrace-its-benefits/
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