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Atlantic surf clam
Atlantic surf clam
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Atlantic surf clam
A 15 cm adult shell of Spisula solidissima from Long Beach, Long Island. Right valve at the top, left valve at the bottom.
Scientific classification Edit this classification
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Mollusca
Class: Bivalvia
Order: Venerida
Family: Mactridae
Subfamily: Mactrinae
Genus: Spisula
Species:
S. solidissima
Binomial name
Spisula solidissima
(Dillwyn, 1817)

The Atlantic surf clam (Spisula solidissima), also called the bar clam, hen clam, skimmer or simply sea clam, is a very large, edible, saltwater clam or marine bivalve mollusk in the family Mactridae. It is one of the most commonly found species of bivalves in the western Atlantic Ocean.[1] Able to reach sizes between 7.9 and 8.9 inches (20 and 23 cm) in length, Atlantic surf clams are much larger than Spisula solida, which also resides in the eastern Atlantic coastal waters. Atlantic surf clams reproduce in late summer, when the water temperatures peak.

The shell of this species is a well-known object to beach-goers in the northeastern United States. People on the beach often pick up a large empty shell of this species, either to dig in the sand with, or take home to use as a decorative dish or ashtray.[2]

The species is exported commercially as a food item.

Distribution and habitat

[edit]

This common species occurs off the east coast of North America from New Brunswick to South Carolina.[3]

Atlantic surf clams live buried in coarse or fine sand. They live offshore as well as in the low intertidal and surf zones.

Life habits

[edit]

Surf clams can take as little as three months to reach maturity off the New Jersey coast, or as long as four years off Nova Scotia, and can reach an age of 35 years.[4]

A drawing of an Atlantic surf clam, an animal with a spade-shaped shell. It is black-and-white, with clear dark lines of growth.
A drawing showing clearly the lines of growth

The shells of surf clams show growth rings and can demonstrate changes in the environment of the individual. The shells are formed by calcification, as the clam deposits calcium carbonate into the shell via either diet or metabolism. Pausing of growth due to internal or external factors appear marked by dark lines of growth on the shell. Younger clams have a faster growth rate than older clams.[5] They can reach sizes of up to 8.9 inches (23 cm), though sizes larger than 7.9 inches (20 cm) are rare.[4]

These clams use their siphons to pull in and then filter fine particles of organic matter and plankton from the surrounding seawater. Like almost all clams, they are filter feeders.

Predators of the Atlantic surf clam include snails, fish (including cod), crabs, and sea stars.[5]

Reproduction

[edit]

Atlantic surf clams reproduce primarily in late summer (August–October), when the water temperatures are around their highest.[1] Reproduction occurs via external fertilization. The sex cells are released via the passage of water through the clam, the same path taken for respiration and digestion.[6] There are five described stages of development of the sexual organs of both male and female surf clams: early active phase, late active phase, ripe, partially spawned, and spent, with ripe phase being the main phase during which clams reproduce.[6]

Human use

[edit]
Photograph of a medium-sized fishing boat from a slight distance, as it lowers a clam dredge into the water. The photograph is taken from a perspective that shows the shore behind the boat.
Fishing boat deploying a clam dredge in nearshore waters in Cape May, New Jersey, United States
Photograph of an Atlantic surf clam, an animal with a spade-shaped off-white shell.
An 8 cm juvenile valve of Spisula solidissima
Global capture production of Atlantic surf clam (Spisula solidissima) in thousand tonnes from 1950 to 2022, as reported by the FAO[7]

This species is a commercially exploited species, long prized for its sweet flavor. This species is typically harvested from fishing vessels known as dredgers, which use a specialized fishing dredge equipped with high-power hydraulic jets designed to fluidize the sea floor so as to loosen clams from the sediments before it scoops them up.[8]

About two-thirds of a surf clam's shucked weight is viable for human consumption.[9] The meat of the clam is used as 'strips', chowder, and sushi.

The "tongue" or foot of the clam is commercially valuable because it is cut into long strips which are breaded and fried and served as clam strips, first popularized by the Howard Johnson's franchise.[10]

The meat that is left over is separated from the "belly" and is referred to as "salvage" within the clam industry. This meat includes the adductor muscles, which are the strong muscles that close the two halves of the shell and which tightly hold the clam's shell in the shut position. "Salvage" is typically ground up for use in chowders, sauces, and dips, and is commercially available either in cans or frozen. Locally it is available fresh. The substantial "belly" of the clam is used by some fishermen as bait for striped bass and other species.

References

[edit]
Revisions and contributorsEdit on WikipediaRead on Wikipedia

Atlantic surf clam

View on Grokipedia
from Grokipedia
The Atlantic surf clam (Spisula solidissima), also known as the bar clam, is a large marine bivalve mollusk belonging to the family Mactridae, characterized by its thick, oval-shaped, yellowish-white shell covered by a thin brownish periostracum and reaching lengths of up to 22.6 cm. Native to the western North Atlantic Ocean, it inhabits sandy to gravelly substrates on the continental shelf, with juveniles preferring medium- to fine-grained sands in waters 9 to 24 meters deep, while adults occupy medium- to coarse-grained sands and gravels from intertidal beach zones to depths exceeding 60 meters off the U.S. East Coast. Its range extends from the Gulf of St. Lawrence in Canada southward to Cape Hatteras, North Carolina, where it serves as a benthic infaunal suspension feeder, filtering plankton and organic particles from the water column to support its growth and survival. Biologically, the Atlantic surf clam is long-lived, with individuals capable of reaching ages of up to 35 years and typically within 1 to 2 years, though varying by location up to 4 years, exhibiting annual spawning in summer through that releases gametes into the water for broadcast spawning. Larvae are pelagic for approximately 2 to 3 weeks before settling to the , where they into sediments, contributing to its role as a dominant species in Mid-Atlantic Bight ecosystems and influencing nutrient cycling and food webs. Climate-driven range shifts northward have been observed in recent decades, potentially impacting local populations due to warming waters and , which affect shell formation and survival. Commercially, the Atlantic surf clam is the most valuable clam species harvested in the United States, primarily using hydraulic dredges in federal waters, with landings valued at $34.4 million in 2023 and supporting processing into products like chowder, canned clams, and clam strips. The fishery is managed under the joint Atlantic Surfclam and Ocean Quahog Fishery Management Plan by NOAA Fisheries and the Mid-Atlantic Fishery Management Council, emphasizing sustainable quotas to maintain stock health amid environmental pressures such as offshore wind development and habitat alterations; the species is currently not overfished.

Taxonomy and classification

Taxonomy

The Atlantic surf clam is classified under the binomial name Spisula solidissima (Dillwyn, 1817). Its full taxonomic hierarchy places it within the domain Eukarya, Kingdom Animalia, Mollusca, Bivalvia, Subclass Heterodonta, Infraclass Euheterodonta, Order Venerida, Superfamily Mactroidea, Family Mactridae, Genus Spisula, and species S. solidissima. Historically, the species was described under the synonym Mactra solidissima before being reassigned to the genus Spisula. Within the genus Spisula, related species include S. aequilateralis and the Pacific-distributed S. polynyma (now often classified as Mactromeris polynyma), which shares similar bivalve morphology but occupies different oceanic regions.

Physical characteristics

The Atlantic surf (Spisula solidissima) is a large bivalve, with adults typically reaching lengths of 20–23 cm (7.9–9.0 inches) and a maximum size of approximately 22.6 cm. Its shell is thick and solid, equivalve with equal-sized valves, and exhibits an ovate-trigonal outline that is smooth overall, marked by fine concentric growth rings and occasional dark interruption lines reflecting pauses in growth due to environmental disturbances. The shell surface features small irregular radiating ridges, and the hinge line includes teeth that may appear serrated, particularly in younger specimens. The exterior of the shell is covered by a thin periostracum ranging from yellowish-brown to grayish tones, while the underlying shell material is yellowish-white, and the interior is predominantly white. Internally, S. solidissima features fused and exhalant siphons that facilitate filter-feeding and respiration by drawing in water and expelling waste, a muscular foot used for burrowing into sandy substrates, and paired adductor muscles that enable rapid closure of the shell valves for protection. There is no significant , with males and females exhibiting similar size and form.

Distribution and habitat

Geographic range

The Atlantic surf clam (Spisula solidissima), a bivalve mollusk native to the western North Atlantic, inhabits waters from the southern near , , southward to , , USA. This range spans approximately 2,000 kilometers along the North American coast, primarily in sandy substrates on the inner to mid-. The occupies depths from the to over 60 meters (200 feet), with juveniles typically found in waters of 9 to 24 meters (30 to 80 feet) and adults inhabiting zones from nearshore to depths exceeding 60 meters. Commercial concentrations are most prominent off the coast of , the , and , where dense populations support significant fisheries. Historically, the southern portion of the range extended farther, but populations have declined south of since the 1950s, attributed to warming bottom waters that exceed the ' thermal tolerance. Concurrently, the range has expanded northward into formerly cooler areas, such as off southern , reflecting sensitivity to ocean temperature changes. As of 2025, the range continues to shift northward and offshore, with projections indicating further expansion into deeper waters by mid-century, potentially impacting interactions with other like the ocean quahog. No established non-native populations of S. solidissima exist outside its native range, though experimental aquaculture efforts have introduced it to warmer southern U.S. waters like coastal Georgia, where it does not persist without support. Occasional records in European waters lack of viable, reproducing populations.

Habitat preferences

The Atlantic surf clam (Spisula solidissima) inhabits well-oxygenated, high-energy marine environments along continental shelves, particularly in turbulent waters such as surf zones and areas with strong currents. These conditions support their filter-feeding lifestyle by maintaining suspended food particles and adequate oxygen levels. The avoids low-energy, stagnant areas like mudflats or estuaries with poor water flow. Preferred substrates consist of medium- to coarse-grained or gravelly , which provide stable yet permeable for burrowing. Juveniles typically settle in fine- to medium-grained sands at depths of 9 to 24 meters, where is less compacted and suitable for initial post-larval development. In contrast, adults favor coarser substrates and occupy depths up to over 60 meters, often forming dense beds in well-sorted sands on the continental shelf. The avoids muddy or rocky substrates, as these hinder burrowing and siphon extension for feeding. Water temperature range in habitat aligns with temperate coastal regimes, from 5°C to 25°C, with optimal growth between 16°C and 22°C; the species tolerates extremes from 2°C to about 30°C, with prolonged exposure above 30°C being lethal, though acute exposure up to 37°C has been tested. Salinity requirements are marine, typically 25 to 35 ppt, though field observations show occurrences above 28 ppt; lower salinities down to 12.5 ppt can be survived briefly but are not preferred. Adults burrow up to 30 to 40 cm into the , positioning vertically with extended siphons reaching the surface to access oxygenated and . Habitat use varies by life stage to optimize survival and growth. Larvae remain pelagic in the , dispersing widely before settlement. Post-settlement juveniles occupy nearshore sandy habitats for protection from offshore currents, while adults migrate to deeper, more stable offshore sites on the continental shelf, contributing to engineering by stabilizing sandy bottoms.

Biology and ecology

Life cycle and growth

The life cycle of the Atlantic surf clam (Spisula solidissima) commences with the fertilized , which rapidly develops through cleavage stages into a trochophore within hours. This planktonic trochophore then progresses to the veliger stage, characterized by the formation of a bivalved shell, and remains free-swimming in the pelagic environment for up to three weeks, depending on temperature and food availability. The veliger further develops into the pediveliger stage, which is competent for settlement; upon locating suitable substrate, it metamorphoses into a post-larval juvenile, adopting a benthic by burrowing into sandy sediments. Juveniles grow into adults, with the entire progression from to settlement typically spanning several weeks. Growth in S. solidissima is initially rapid, enabling juveniles to attain about 80 mm in shell length within two years under favorable conditions. Annual shell growth increments vary by geographic location and water temperature, ranging from 0.5 to 2 cm per year, with faster rates in warmer southern populations compared to cooler northern ones. Clams typically reach 50% of their maximum shell length (up to 226 mm) within 2–3 years, though growth decelerates after age 7, reflecting reduced metabolic rates in older individuals. This pattern is determined through analysis of internal shell growth lines, which form annually. Sexual maturity is attained variably, with southern populations reaching it in as little as the first year (sometimes within 3 months post-settlement off ), while northern populations require 2–4 years due to cooler temperatures slowing development. Full reproductive maturity is generally achieved by age 2 across the range. The species exhibits of up to 37 years, though typical lifespans range from 15 to 20 years in fished populations. Mortality is particularly elevated during the juvenile phase, exceeding 90% in the first year primarily from predation by and , as well as environmental stressors like temperature fluctuations and sediment instability. Adult mortality rates are lower, with growth slowing after age 10 contributing to extended lifespans in undisturbed habitats. Larval dispersal during the pelagic phase facilitates connectivity among populations, influencing settlement success.

Reproduction

The Atlantic surf clam (Spisula solidissima) is gonochoristic, possessing separate sexes with no hermaphroditism or sexual dimorphism. Sexual maturity typically occurs within the first two years of life, aligning with early growth stages. Gametogenesis in S. solidissima progresses through five distinct histological stages: early active (initial gamete development with small oocytes or spermatocytes), late active (continued proliferation and growth of gametes), ripe (full maturation with large, ready-to-spawn gametes filling the gonad), partially spawned (partial release of gametes with some residual ripe elements), and spent (post-spawning resorption and degeneration). These stages typically begin in early spring with early active development dominant in March–April, transition to late active and ripe phases by May, and peak in late summer as spawning commences. Spawning involves broadcast release of s into the water column for , occurring from late spring through early fall (primarily June to September in Mid-Atlantic populations), with a peak in July–August. This process is triggered by rising water temperatures exceeding 15°C, which stimulate maturation and release. During the spawning season, individual females can release 16–24 million eggs, contributing to high reproductive output. Fecundity in S. solidissima increases with size, as larger individuals allocate more energy to production and possess greater volume. Fertilized eggs develop into free-swimming trochophore larvae within hours, transitioning to the planktonic veliger stage shortly thereafter; veligers remain pelagic for 2–3 weeks at temperatures around 20°C, facilitating dispersal by currents over distances of tens to hundreds of kilometers before and settlement to the .

Feeding and behavior

The Atlantic surf clam (Spisula solidissima) is a suspension feeder that employs its s to facilitate filter feeding. Water is drawn in through the inhalant siphon and passed over the s, where food particles such as , , and small are captured and transported to the mouth via ciliary action. This process relies on the creation of a feeding current generated by the beating of lateral cilia on the gill filaments, allowing the clam to process ambient seawater efficiently while remaining buried in the sediment. Burrowing is a key for positioning and maintenance, achieved through the extension and contraction of the muscular foot. The clam probes the substrate with the foot, which secretes a to aid penetration, enabling burial at rates of 1 to 2 cm per minute under optimal conditions. If dislodged by currents or waves, adults can reburrow rapidly to reestablish their position, typically within minutes, using alternating foot thrusts to descend into . Burrowing speed peaks at temperatures between 16 and 26°C and declines above 20°C due to physiological stress, with no burrowing possible at 30°C or higher. Once settled as juveniles, Atlantic surf clams exhibit largely sedentary activity patterns, remaining in place for months or years while extending their siphons up to 15 cm above the for feeding and respiration. They respond to environmental cues like water flow by adjusting siphon orientation or depth to optimize particle capture, retracting siphons during high to avoid damage. Sensory adaptations include chemoreceptors in the siphons for detecting food odors and predator chemicals, as well as light sensitivity via scattered photoreceptors in , enabling responses to shadows or daylight changes without true eyes. Daily rhythms involve periodic siphon extension aligned with tidal cycles for maximal water flow exposure. Seasonally, activity increases in warmer months (above 10°C), with enhanced feeding and growth rates, while in winter, clams bury deeper (up to 50 cm) and enter a state of reduced to conserve energy amid low temperatures and limited food availability. This deeper burial helps maintain stable microhabitats and avoids surface freezing, with activity minimized until spring warming.

Predators and threats

The Atlantic surf clam (Spisula solidissima) faces predation from a variety of and vertebrates, with juveniles experiencing the highest mortality rates due to their smaller size and limited burrowing ability. Invertebrate predators include sea stars such as Asterias forbesi, naticid snails (Euspira heros and Neverita duplicata), and horseshoe crabs (Limulus polyphemus), which drill or crush shells to access soft tissues. Vertebrate predators encompass cownose rays (Rhinoptera bonasus), which disturb sediments to unearth clams, and fish species like (Gadus morhua), (Centropristis striata), and (Pomatomus saltatrix), often targeting smaller individuals in shallow waters. Environmental threats exacerbate vulnerability, including , which reduces shell calcification by lowering carbonate ion availability and increasing energetic costs for larval development. Recent studies as of 2024–2025 indicate that combined and summer thermal stress impair physiological responses, such as clearance rates and immune function, potentially reducing survival in warming waters. Hypoxic events, where dissolved oxygen falls below 3 ppm, have caused mass mortalities in populations by limiting metabolic functions and burrowing escape. Storms and associated erosion disrupt habitats by displacing clams from sandy burrows and burying them under layers, hindering feeding and respiration. Climate change amplifies these pressures through thermal stress, leading to southern die-offs; for instance, warm water anomalies in the 1950s off and the major 1976–1977 event killed up to 69% of the mid-Atlantic population by exceeding the species' upper thermal tolerance of 19–21°C. This warming has driven a northward range shift at rates of approximately 3–5 km per year, with populations contracting in southern inshore areas while expanding offshore and poleward. However, as of , Atlantic surf clams have reappeared and begun rebounding off the coast, their southernmost historical range, after a decline since the late attributed to warming; factors such as recent cooling trends or improved conditions may be contributing to this recovery. Such shifts may create mismatches with prey, as temperature-driven phenological changes disrupt seasonal food availability, potentially reducing growth and survival. Diseases, though infrequent, include bacterial infections by species such as V. alginolyticus, which proliferate during temperature spikes above 20°C and impair immune responses like , leading to higher mortality rates (up to 81% at 23°C). Predation rates fluctuate with , intensifying in high-density beds that attract more predators, though the species demonstrates resilience via high , with females releasing 16–24 million eggs per spawning event to offset losses. Burrowing behavior provides a partial defense against surface predators.

Human interactions

Commercial fishery

The commercial fishery for the Atlantic surf clam (Spisula solidissima) began in the 1940s, driven by wartime demand for canned clam products, with early harvesting using hand methods and power dredges along the U.S. East Coast from New York to . Landings expanded rapidly after the introduction of hydraulic jet dredges in 1945, which improved efficiency by dislodging clams from sandy substrates, leading to a shift from and use to large-scale commercial processing. The fishery peaked in the 1960s and 1970s, with annual landings exceeding 50 million pounds (meats) by the late 1960s, primarily from grounds, before federal regulation under the Magnuson-Stevens Fishery Conservation and Management Act began in 1977 through the first Fishery Management Plan. Harvesting occurs exclusively in federal waters using large vessels equipped with hydraulic clam dredges, which employ high-pressure water jets to fluidize sediments and capture clams in a chain-bag apparatus, achieving rates up to 100 bushels per hour under optimal conditions. Bycatch is minimal due to the gear's selectivity for large bivalves, with incidental captures primarily consisting of ocean quahogs () in overlapping habitats. In 2023, commercial landings totaled 12,333 metric tons (approximately 1.6 million bushels), representing 42% of the annual quota, with an ex-vessel value of approximately $28 million USD. In 2024, landings declined to 9,647 metric tons total, with an ex-vessel value of $23 million. The quota remains at 3.4 million bushels for the 2024-2025 fishing year, managed through an individual transferable quota system implemented in to allocate shares among permit holders. Key landing ports include Point Pleasant and Atlantic City in , New Bedford in , and Cape Charles in , with eight active companies dominating operations across these states. The 2024 stock assessment indicates the Atlantic surf clam is not overfished, with spawning stock biomass estimated at 984,000 metric tons in 2023 (95% of the target biomass of 1,036,000 metric tons) and fishing mortality at 0.028 (well below the threshold of 0.153).

Culinary and other uses

The Atlantic surf clam is processed primarily for human consumption, with the shucked meat comprising about two-thirds of the edible portion. The foot, known as the "tongue," is mechanically separated and often breaded or fried to produce clam strips, a popular seafood item. The remaining "salvage" parts, including the gills and mantle, are ground into minced clams for use in chowders, soups, stews, stuffed clams, and broths. These processed products are available fresh, frozen, or canned, offering a sweet, delicate flavor suitable for dishes like clams in white sauce or linguine. Additionally, the foot is exported to Asian markets for raw consumption in sushi and sashimi preparations. Nutritionally, Atlantic surf clams are a low-fat source of high-quality protein, providing approximately 13 grams per 100-gram serving, along with essential minerals. They are particularly rich in iron, supporting oxygen transport in the blood, and , which aids in formation and neurological function. These attributes make surf clams a valuable component of balanced diets, though consumption should consider potential allergens common to . Beyond culinary applications, a small portion of surf clam landings is directed to the bait market, where the "belly" or viscera is used as chum or hook bait, particularly for targeting in . Shells find limited uses in crafts, such as decorative items like soap dishes or painted ornaments, and can be calcined to produce lime for agricultural or purposes. Pharmaceutical applications remain niche, with exploring digestive enzymes from the clam's crystalline style for potential breakdown of algal carbohydrates in industrial processes. Global consumption centers on the U.S. market, where surf clams form a staple in processed , though exports of the foot to for have grown. U.S. landings averaged around 12,000 to 14,000 metric tons annually in recent years, reflecting stable production primarily from the Mid-Atlantic region. Culturally, surf clams held significance in pre-colonial Native American diets, gathered in large quantities from storm-cast beaches, and were adopted by early for sustenance. In contemporary settings, they feature in regional festivals and traditional clam bakes, celebrating coastal heritage.

Management and conservation

The management of the Atlantic surf is governed by the Fishery Management Plan (FMP) for Atlantic Surfclam and Ocean Quahog Fisheries, implemented in 1977 by the Mid-Atlantic Fishery Management Council under the Magnuson-Stevens Fishery Conservation and Act. This framework established regulatory measures to prevent , including minimum size limits, seasonal restrictions, and area closures, with the plan undergoing multiple amendments to adapt to changing conditions. In 1990, Amendment 8 introduced an Individual Transferable Quota (ITQ) , allocating harvest shares to vessel owners based on historical participation, which has promoted stability and reduced race-to-fish dynamics. Annual quotas are set through stock assessments conducted by the Northeast Center, ensuring harvests remain below levels that could lead to . The species is not assessed by the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) and is classified as , reflecting a lack of comprehensive global threat evaluation. However, the U.S. has been certified as sustainable by the Marine Stewardship Council (MSC) since 2016, recognizing effective management practices that maintain stock health and minimize environmental impacts in the Mid-Atlantic region. Human activities pose several threats to Atlantic surf clam populations. Historical in the 1960s and 1970s depleted stocks in key areas like , with landings declining sharply due to unregulated hydraulic , prompting the development of the 1977 FMP. More recently, offshore wind farm construction along the U.S. East Coast disrupts benthic s through cable laying and turbine foundations, potentially displacing clam beds and reducing fishery access, with projected revenue losses of up to 15% in affected areas. operations in other fisheries contribute to and habitat alteration, though surf clam dredges themselves exhibit low bycatch rates due to size-selective gear. , particularly , affects larval stages by impairing feeding and development in bivalves, including surf clams, as particles accumulate in coastal sediments and are ingested during planktonic phases. Mitigation efforts include area closures designated as essential fish habitat (EFH) under the Magnuson-Stevens Act, protecting spawning and nursery grounds from dredging in sensitive Mid-Atlantic zones. Research initiatives, such as those led by , investigate climate adaptation strategies, including genetic resilience to warming waters and potential hatchery enhancements to bolster southern populations. Ongoing monitoring of range shifts northward due to ocean warming informs , with surveys tracking and changes. The quota remains stable at 3.4 million bushels, consistent with levels since 2004, supported by assessments indicating the is not overfished; the minimum size limit is suspended for the year, as has been the practice since 2005. As of , landings continue to decline amid climate-driven range shifts, with at 95% of target levels. However, climate-driven declines in southern stocks, exacerbated by warming and associated stressors, present long-term challenges, potentially requiring quota adjustments and expanded northern grounds.

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  53. https://www.virginiaseafood.org/fact-sheets/atlantic-surf-clam-spisula-solidissima/
  54. https://www.clovegarden.com/ingred/sf_bvsurfz.html
  55. https://storymd.com/journal/mr45bldhzj-atlantic-surfclam/page/n7rnq21yar6e-atlantic-surfclam-seafood-facts
  56. https://nutrivore.com/foods/clam-nutrients/
  57. https://onthewater.com/stripers-on-clams-in-the-summer-surf
  58. https://www.washashorestore.com/products/atlantic-surf-shells
  59. https://deepblue.lib.umich.edu/handle/2027.42/74365
  60. https://www.seafoodsource.com/news/foodservice-retail/new-surf-clam-product-launched
  61. https://www.fisheries.noaa.gov/species/atlantic-surfclam/management
  62. https://www.fao.org/4/ac750e/AC750E20.htm
  63. https://www.fisheries.noaa.gov/management-plan/atlantic-surfclam-and-ocean-quahog-management-plan
  64. https://fisheries.msc.org/en/fisheries/us-atlantic-surfclam-and-ocean-quahog/
  65. https://spo.nmfs.noaa.gov/sites/default/files/pdf-content/MFR/mfr448/mfr4481.pdf
  66. https://www.ecfr.gov/current/title-50/chapter-VI/part-648/subpart-E
  67. https://aslopubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/lol2.10122
  68. https://rcei.rutgers.edu/surf-clams-off-the-coast-of-virginia-reappear-and-rebound/
  69. https://www.researchwithrutgers.com/en/publications/interactive-effects-of-climate-change-induced-range-shifts-and-wi/
  70. https://www.fisheries.noaa.gov/bulletin/final-2025-atlantic-surfclam-and-ocean-quahog-specifications
  71. https://www.fisheries.noaa.gov/action/final-2025-atlantic-surfclam-and-ocean-quahog-specifications
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