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Arboriculture
Arboriculture
Arboriculture
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An arborist practicing tree care: using a chainsaw to fell a eucalyptus tree in a park at Kallista, Victoria.

Arboriculture (/ˈɑːrbərɪˌkʌltʃər, ɑːrˈbɔːr-/, from Latin: arboris + culture)[1] is the cultivation, management, and study of individual trees, shrubs, vines, and other perennial woody plants. The science of arboriculture studies how these plants grow and respond to cultural practices and to their environment. The practice of arboriculture includes cultural techniques such as selection, planting, training, fertilization, pest and pathogen control, pruning, shaping, and removal.

A person who practices or studies arboriculture can be termed an arborist or an arboriculturist. A tree surgeon is more typically someone who is trained in the physical maintenance and manipulation of trees and therefore more a part of the arboriculture process rather than an arborist. Risk management, legal issues, and aesthetic considerations have come to play prominent roles in the practice of arboriculture. Businesses often need to hire arboriculturists to complete "tree hazard surveys" and generally manage the trees on-site to fulfill occupational safety and health obligations.[citation needed]

Arboriculture is primarily focused on individual woody plants and trees maintained for permanent landscape and amenity purposes, usually in gardens, parks or other populated settings, by arborists, for the enjoyment, protection, and benefit of people.[citation needed]

Arboricultural matters are also considered to be within the practice of urban forestry, yet the clear and separate divisions are not distinct or discreet.[citation needed]

Tree benefits

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Main article: Urban forestry § Benefits

Tree benefits are the economic, ecological, social and aesthetic use, function purpose, or services of a tree (or group of trees), in its situational context in the landscape.

Environmental benefits

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  • Erosion control and soil retention
  • Improved water infiltration and percolation
  • Protection from exposure: windbreak, shade, impact from hail/rainfall
  • Air humidification
  • Modulates environmental conditions in a given microclimate: shields wind, humidifies, provides shade
  • Carbon sequestration and oxygen production

Ecological benefits

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  • Attracting pollinators
  • Increased biodiversity
  • Food for decomposers, consumers, and pollinators
  • Soil health: organic matter accumulation from leaf litter and root exudates (symbiotic microbes)
  • Ecological habitat

Socioeconomic benefits

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  • Increases employment: forestry, education, tourism
  • Run-off and flood control (e.g. bioswales, plantings on slopes)
  • Aesthetic beauty: parks, gatherings, social events, tourism, senses (fragrance, visual), focal point
  • Adds character and prestige to the landscape, creating a "natural" feel
  • Climate control (e.g shade): can reduce energy consumption of buildings
  • Privacy and protection: from noise, wind
  • Cultural benefits: eg. memorials for a loved one
  • Medical benefits: eg. Taxus chemotherapy
  • Materials: wood for building, paper pulp
  • Fodder for livestock
  • Property value: trees can increase by 10–20%[citation needed][2]
  • Increases the amount of time customers will spend in a mall, strip mall, shopping district[citation needed]

Tree defects

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A tree defect is any feature, condition, or deformity of a tree that indicates weak structure or instability that could contribute to tree failure.

Common types of tree defects

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Codominant stems

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This is when two or more stems that grow upward from a single point of origin and compete with one another.

  • common with decurrent growth habits
  • occurs in excurrent trees only after the leader is killed and multiple leaders compete for dominance

Included bark

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Bark is incorporated in the joint between two limbs, creating a weak attachment

  • occurs in branch unions with a high attachment angle (i.e. v-shaped unions)
  • common in many columnar/fastigiate growing deciduous trees

Dead, diseased, or broken branches

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  • woundwood cannot grow over stubs or dead branches to seal off decay
  • symptoms/signs of disease: e.g. oozing through the bark, sunken areas in the bark, and bark with abnormal patterns or colours, stunted new growth, discolouration of the foliage

Cracks

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  • longitudinal cracks result from interior decay, bark rips/tears, or torsion from wind load
  • transverse cracks result from buckled wood, often caused by unnatural loading on branches, such as lion's tailing.
  • Seams: bark edges meet at a crack or wound
  • Ribs: bulges, indicating interior cracks

Cavity and hollows

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This is when sunken or open areas wherein a tree has suffered injury followed by decay. Further indications include: fungal fruiting structures, insect or animal nests.

Lean

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A lean of more than 40% from vertical presents a risk of tree failure.

Taper

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A taper is a change in diameter over the length of trunks branches and roots.

Epicormic branches

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These are water sprouts in canopy or suckers from root system, and often grow in response to major damage or excessive pruning.

Roots

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  • girdling roots compress the trunk, leading to poor trunk taper, and restrict vascular flow
  • kinked roots provide poor structural support; the kink is a site of potential root failure
  • circling roots occurs when roots encounter obstructions/limitations such as a small tree well or being grown too long in a nursery pot; these cannot provide adequate structural support and are limited in accessing nutrients and water
  • healthy soil texture and depth, drainage, water availability, makes for healthy roots

Tree installation

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See also: Tree planting

Proper tree installation ensures the long-term viability of the tree and reduces the risk of tree failure.

Quality nursery stock must be used. There must be no visible damage or sign of disease. Ideally the tree should have good crown structure. A healthy root ball should not have circling roots and new fibrous roots should be present at the soil perimeter. Girdling or circling roots should be pruned out. Excess soil above the root flare should be removed immediately, since it presents a risk of disease ingress into the trunk.

Appropriate time of year to plant: generally fall or early spring in temperate regions of the northern hemisphere.

Planting hole: the planting hole should be 3 times the width of the root ball. The hole should be dug deep enough that when the root ball is placed on the substrate, the root flare is 3–5cm above the surrounding soil grade. If soil is left against the trunk, it may lead to bark, cambium and wood decay. Angular sides to the planting hole will encourage roots to grow radially from the trunk, rather than circling the planting hole. In urban settings, soil preparation may include the use of:

  • Silva cells: suspended pavement over modular cells containing soil for root development
  • Structural soils: growing medium composed of 80% crushed rock and 20% loam, which supports surface load without it leading to soil compaction

Tree wells: a zone of mulch can be installed around the tree trunk to: limit root zone competition (from turf or weeds), reduce soil compaction, improve soil structure, conserve moisture, and keep lawn equipment at a distance. No more than 5–10cm of mulch should be used to avoid suffocating the roots. Mulch must be kept approximately 20cm from the trunk to avoid burying the root flare. With city trees additional tree well preparation includes:

Tree grates/grill and frames: limit compaction on root zone and mechanical damage to roots and trunk

Root barriers: forces roots to grow down under surface asphalt/concrete/pavers to limit infrastructure damage from roots

Staking: newly planted, immature trees should be staked for one growing season to allow for the root system to establish. Staking for longer than one season should only be considered in situations where the root system has failed to establish sufficient structural support. Guy wires can be used for larger, newly planted trees. Care must be used to avoid stem girdling from the support system ties.

Irrigation: irrigation infrastructure may be installed to ensure a regular water supply throughout the lifetime of the tree. Wicking beds are an underground reservoir from which water is wicked into soil. Watering bags may be temporarily installed around tree stakes to provide water until the root system becomes established. Permeable paving allows for water infiltration in paved urban settings, such as parks and walkways.

UK

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Within the United Kingdom trees are considered as a material consideration within the town planning system and may be conserved as amenity landscape[3] features.

The role of the Arborist or Local Government Arboricultural Officer is likely to have a great effect on such matters. Identification of trees of high quality which may have extensive longevity is a key element in the preservation of trees.

Urban and rural trees may benefit from statutory protection under the Town and Country Planning[4] system. Such protection can result in the conservation and improvement of the urban forest as well as rural settlements.

Historically the profession divides into the operational and professional areas. These might be further subdivided into the private and public sectors. The profession is broadly considered as having one trade body known as the Arboricultural Association, although the Institute of Chartered Foresters offers a route for professional recognition and chartered arboriculturist status.

The qualifications associated with the industry range from vocational to Doctorate. Arboriculture is a comparatively young industry.

See also

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References

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Revisions and contributorsEdit on WikipediaRead on Wikipedia

Arboriculture

View on Grokipedia
from Grokipedia
Arboriculture is the horticultural practice centered on the study, cultivation, management, and maintenance of individual trees, shrubs, vines, and other perennial woody . It encompasses the professional care of these in diverse settings, including urban landscapes, parks, yards, and greenspaces, to promote their health, safety, and aesthetic value. As both an art and a , arboriculture integrates research-driven techniques with hands-on skills and advanced to address tree-related challenges. Key practices include planting, , , cabling and bracing for , pest and management, , and removal when necessary. These activities are guided by standards such as the (ANSI) A-300 and best management practices from the International Society of Arboriculture (ISA). Arborists, the primary professionals in this field, undergo specialized training in tree , , identification, and equipment handling, often including and operation. The importance of arboriculture lies in its contribution to environmental sustainability and human well-being, as healthy trees provide critical benefits such as air purification, management, , , and enhanced property values. In urban areas, it supports resilient that mitigates climate impacts, reduces energy costs through shading, and fosters community health by lowering stress and rates. Professionally, the field offers growing career opportunities, with for certified arborists driven by and environmental awareness; in New York, the mean hourly wage for tree trimmers and pruners is $28.92 as of May 2023, reflecting its economic viability. Arboriculture's modern history traces back to the late , amid industrialization's strain on urban trees, with early advancements like John Davey's 1901 publication The Tree Doctor emphasizing scientific tree physiology. The field formalized in 1924 with the founding of the National Shade Tree Conference in the United States, which evolved into the International Society of Arboriculture (ISA) by 1976, now boasting over 25,000 members worldwide as of 2024 and promoting global standards through , , and programs. This development has elevated arboriculture from rudimentary practices to a recognized discipline integral to and landscape management.

Fundamentals

Definition and Scope

Arboriculture is the cultivation, management, and scientific study of individual trees, shrubs, vines, and other perennial woody plants, with a particular emphasis on those in urban and amenity settings. This discipline encompasses practices such as planting, pruning, and health assessment to ensure the longevity and vitality of woody plants in human-altered environments. The term originates from the Latin arbor (tree) and cultura (cultivation), reflecting its focus on tending trees, and it was formalized in English usage around 1822 during the 19th-century rise of systematic plant sciences. The scope of arboriculture centers on the care of individual or small groups of woody in landscapes, parks, streets, and private properties, prioritizing aesthetic, safety, and ecological integration over commercial production. It differs from , which manages large-scale tree populations primarily for timber harvesting and services in natural or rural contexts, by addressing site-specific challenges like and conflicts. In contrast to , a broader field involving the cultivation of all types of for , ornament, or medicinal purposes, arboriculture specializes in the unique and maintenance needs of perennial woody species. Key concepts in arboriculture distinguish urban applications—focused on amenity trees amid built environments—from rural ones, where practices may overlap with but emphasize individual over stand-level . It plays an integral role in by selecting and positioning trees to enhance visual appeal and functionality, and in by contributing to mitigation, air quality improvement, and support in cities.

History

The practice of arboriculture has ancient origins, with evidence of sophisticated tree care techniques in the Nile Valley of dating back to at least the 15th century BCE, including trees with intact balls of to protect , as depicted in tomb reliefs from Queen Hatshepsut's era. These methods reflected a deep cultural reverence for trees, often planted as sacred symbols in religious and funerary contexts, such as the sycamore associated with goddesses like . In , arboriculture advanced further with practical applications in urban and architectural settings; the engineer , in his treatise (c. 15 BCE), provided detailed guidance on selecting tree species for timber based on their durability, resistance to rot, and environmental adaptations, emphasizing how factors like moisture content affected wood quality for construction. Roman horticultural practices also included systematic planting, , and in private gardens and public spaces, influencing later European traditions. During the medieval period in , arboricultural knowledge was largely preserved and advanced within monastic communities, where gardens served multiple purposes including food production, medicinal herb cultivation, and spiritual contemplation. maintained orchards of trees and experimented with early techniques, building on Roman methods documented by authors like Varro, to propagate varieties such as apples and pears for self-sufficiency. This era's practices were indirectly shaped by the works of the philosopher (c. 371–287 BCE), whose Enquiry into Plants and On the Causes of Plants classified trees by growth habits, reproduction, and uses, laying foundational botanical principles that were rediscovered and translated during the , influencing renewed interest in systematic tree cultivation. The saw a revival of classical texts, spurring innovations in design and propagation across , as scholars integrated ' observations with emerging experimental approaches to and . The modern profession of arboriculture emerged in the , formalized through scientific writings and in both and the , as increased the demand for managed urban greenery. In Britain, John Claudius (1783–1843), a prolific Scottish and , played a pivotal role with publications like Arboretum et Fruticetum Britannicum (1838), which cataloged thousands of , detailed cultivation techniques, and advocated for public to educate on and . 's emphasis on practical arboriculture, including and guidelines, influenced transatlantic exchanges, inspiring American figures to establish similar collections and professional practices amid rapid industrial growth. This period marked the shift from artisanal to a recognized , with early firms appearing in the U.S. to address urban tree hazards. In the 20th century, arboriculture solidified as a global profession through institutionalization and technological progress. The predecessor organization to the International Society of Arboriculture (ISA), the National Shade Tree Conference, was founded in 1924 by members of the Tree Protective Association, initially as a forum for sharing research on tree health and urban management; it evolved into the ISA in 1976 as a key organization for and . Post-World War II reconstruction efforts spurred widespread urban tree planting programs in the U.S. and to address environmental degradation from wartime destruction and population booms in expanding suburbs; in the U.S., organizations like American Forests led initiatives to restore depleted forests and green spaces. Advancements included the development of ANSI A300 standards in the 1990s by the Tree Care Industry Association, providing consensus-based guidelines for practices like and to ensure professional consistency and safety. Key figures like Thomas Pakenham (b. 1933), an Anglo-Irish historian and arborist, contributed through his documentation of remarkable trees in works such as Meetings with Remarkable Trees (1996) and the creation of a 20-acre at , promoting public appreciation and conservation of diverse species.

Tree Biology and Health

Basic Physiology

Trees exhibit a complex anatomical structure adapted for stability, resource acquisition, and reproduction. The anchors the tree and absorbs water and nutrients from the , typically extending horizontally beyond the canopy drip line to maximize uptake efficiency. Fine , often concentrated in the top 12-18 inches of , facilitate absorption through root hairs, while coarser structural provide support against wind and gravity. Above ground, the trunk, or bole, consists of heartwood (inactive providing ), sapwood (active for water conduction), and an outer bark layer that protects against pathogens and physical damage. Branches emerge from the trunk via branch collars, forming a framework that supports leaves, the primary sites of . Leaves vary by species—broadleaves in angiosperms for higher light capture, needles in for reduced water loss—and contain chloroplasts essential for energy production. The vascular system comprises , which transports water and minerals upward from to leaves via transpiration pull, and , which distributes sugars and organic compounds downward from leaves to and growing tissues. Tree growth is driven by meristematic tissues, particularly the vascular cambium, a thin layer of dividing cells between and that produces new conductive tissues annually. This activity results in annual growth rings, visible in cross-sections, where springwood (larger, lighter cells formed in wetter conditions) alternates with denser summerwood, enabling age determination and environmental history reconstruction via . Primary growth occurs at apical meristems in roots and shoots, elongating the tree, while secondary growth from the cambium increases girth. , the core process fueling growth, occurs in leaf mesophyll cells where captures sunlight to convert and into glucose and oxygen, summarized by the equation: 6CO2+6H2O→light energyC6H12O6+6O26CO_2 + 6H_2O \xrightarrow{\text{light energy}} C_6H_{12}O_6 + 6O_2
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