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October 5: Princess Isabella of Parma marries Archduke Joseph of Austria to strengthen the Franco-Austrian Alliance.
1760 in various calendars
Gregorian calendar1760
MDCCLX
Ab urbe condita2513
Armenian calendar1209
ԹՎ ՌՄԹ
Assyrian calendar6510
Balinese saka calendar1681–1682
Bengali calendar1166–1167
Berber calendar2710
British Regnal year33 Geo. 2 – 1 Geo. 3
Buddhist calendar2304
Burmese calendar1122
Byzantine calendar7268–7269
Chinese calendar己卯年 (Earth Rabbit)
4457 or 4250
    — to —
庚辰年 (Metal Dragon)
4458 or 4251
Coptic calendar1476–1477
Discordian calendar2926
Ethiopian calendar1752–1753
Hebrew calendar5520–5521
Hindu calendars
 - Vikram Samvat1816–1817
 - Shaka Samvat1681–1682
 - Kali Yuga4860–4861
Holocene calendar11760
Igbo calendar760–761
Iranian calendar1138–1139
Islamic calendar1173–1174
Japanese calendarHōreki 10
(宝暦１０年)
Javanese calendar1685–1686
Julian calendarGregorian minus 11 days
Korean calendar4093
Minguo calendar152 before ROC
民前152年
Nanakshahi calendar292
Thai solar calendar2302–2303
Tibetan calendarས་མོ་ཡོས་ལོ་
(female Earth-Hare)
1886 or 1505 or 733
    — to —
ལྕགས་ཕོ་འབྲུག་ལོ་
(male Iron-Dragon)
1887 or 1506 or 734
Wikimedia Commons has media related to 1760.
June 4: Evangeline statue commemorates the Expulsion of the Acadians.

1760 (MDCCLX) was a leap year starting on Tuesday of the Gregorian calendar and a leap year starting on Saturday of the Julian calendar, the 1760th year of the Common Era (CE) and Anno Domini (AD) designations, the 760th year of the 2nd millennium, the 60th year of the 18th century, and the 1st year of the 1760s decade. As of the start of 1760, the Gregorian calendar was 11 days ahead of the Julian calendar, which remained in localized use until 1923.

Events

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January–March

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April–June

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July–September

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October–December

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Date unknown

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Births

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Jiaqing Emperor

Deaths

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George II of Great Britain

References

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Revisions and contributorsEdit on WikipediaRead on Wikipedia

1760

View on Grokipedia
from Grokipedia
1760 marked a pivotal transition in British monarchy with the death of King George II on 25 October, leading to the immediate accession of his grandson George III as the new sovereign of Great Britain and Ireland. This year also saw critical advances for Britain in the Seven Years' War, including the capture of Montreal by British forces on 8 September, which effectively ended French colonial control in North America east of the Mississippi River. In Europe, Prussian King Frederick the Great secured a hard-fought victory over Austrian forces at the Battle of Torgau on 3 November, sustaining his kingdom's resistance amid the ongoing global conflict. Elsewhere, the birth of the future Jiaqing Emperor on 13 November took place as the Qing Dynasty reached its greatest territorial extent under the Qianlong Emperor, foreshadowing dynastic continuity. These events underscored 1760 as a year of monarchical change, imperial expansion, and military endurance shaping the geopolitical landscape of the 18th century.

Events

January–March

On January 22, 1760, British forces commanded by Sir Eyre Coote engaged and defeated a larger led by Thomas Arthur Lally at the , located near modern in , . This land battle, integral to the Seven Years' War's Asian theater, pitted roughly 2,100 British and allied sepoys against approximately 4,000 French troops and Indian auxiliaries; the French suffered over 500 killed and wounded alongside 200 prisoners, while British losses totaled fewer than 200. Coote's disciplined infantry formations and effective use of cavalry outmaneuvered Lally's disorganized advance, exploiting French supply shortages and internal command disputes that had eroded their operational cohesion since prior defeats like Plassey in 1757. The victory directly facilitated British territorial consolidation in the , as pursuing forces under Coote captured Arcot on and other forts, severing French lines to their Pondicherry enclave and compelling Lally's retreat. This outcome stemmed from Britain's sustained naval superiority in the , which ensured reinforcements and supplies reached Coote despite French privateer disruptions, whereas French naval commitments in diverted resources and left colonial garrisons vulnerable. By , these gains had neutralized French field armies in southern India, shifting momentum toward British dominance and foreshadowing the 1761 siege of that ended organized French resistance on the subcontinent. In , Prussian armies under Frederick II undertook limited winter maneuvers from to , primarily reinforcing garrisons and reallocating depleted units from 1759 campaigns while avoiding pitched battles amid harsh weather. Coalition forces—Austrian, Russian, and Swedish—likewise paused major offensives, concentrating instead on logistical buildup for spring invasions; Prussian scouts reported Austrian concentrations exceeding 100,000 near by late , but Frederick's preemptive redeployments to and preserved operational flexibility without significant losses. These static postures yielded no decisive battlefield results but empirically sustained Prussian viability against numerical disadvantages, bolstered by British subsidies that offset fiscal exhaustion from prior years' attrition.

April–June

In the North American theater of the Seven Years' War, French forces under Chevalier de Lévis launched an offensive against the British-held city of on April 28, engaging approximately 3,900 British troops commanded by General James Murray in the . The French, numbering around 7,000-8,000 including and Indigenous allies, achieved a through superior numbers and aggressive maneuvers on snowy , inflicting heavy casualties—over 1,000 British wounded or killed compared to about 700 French losses—marking it as one of the bloodiest engagements after the . Despite this success, Lévis lacked siege artillery and sufficient supplies to assault 's fortifications, and by early May, arriving British naval reinforcements under Admiral Saunders delivered 2,000 fresh troops and provisions, compelling the French to retreat toward on May 9 amid deteriorating weather and logistics constraints. This sequence effectively consolidated British control over , preventing a French reconquest and shifting momentum toward the eventual capitulation of later in the year. In the European theater, Allied forces subsidized by Britain, including Hanoverian, Brunswicker, and Prussian contingents under Prince Ferdinand of Brunswick, clashed with invading French armies on May 16 at the Battle of Kloster-Camp near in . Ferdinand's approximately 50,000 troops repelled a French probe led by the Duc de Broglie, involving around 40,000 men, through coordinated infantry and cavalry assaults that disrupted French supply lines and forced a withdrawal after several hours of combat, with Allied losses estimated at 1,500 versus 1,200 French. This defensive victory halted a French thrust toward , preserving key British-allied territories in northwestern and buying time for reinforcements amid ongoing Prussian commitments elsewhere. Amid these military actions, Austrian and Russian commanders positioned forces for a summer offensive into Prussian-held , with maneuvering corps toward the region by late spring to support Marshal Daun's main army, though decisive clashes awaited July engagements. Prussian King Frederick II, focused on securing after winter operations, redeployed units to counter these threats, emphasizing fortified positions and rapid marches to disrupt enemy concentrations without committing to open battle prematurely. These troop movements underscored the attritional nature of the central European front, where logistical strains and coalition coordination challenges limited aggressive advances in the April-June period.

July–September

On July 15–16, forces under Prince Ferdinand of Brunswick repelled a major French offensive at the Battle of Vellinghausen in , part of the ongoing campaigns in western Germany. The Allied army, comprising Prussian, Hanoverian, British, and other German contingents totaling around 50,000 men, faced approximately 92,000 French troops divided under marshals Victor-François, duc de Broglie, and Charles de Rohan, prince de Soubise. French attacks faltered due to poor coordination and supply disruptions, allowing Ferdinand to maintain defensive positions on high ground and inflict disproportionate losses. Allied casualties numbered about 1,400, including 434 British, while French losses reached 5,000, with Broglie's command suffering 4,700 and Soubise's 300; this outcome stemmed from Allied artillery superiority and French infantry exhaustion after prolonged marches. The victory at Vellinghausen stalled French momentum in the theater, exposing vulnerabilities in their extended lines and forcing a retreat that preserved Allied control over key supply routes into the autumn. Broglie's failure to achieve a breakthrough highlighted causal factors such as inadequate and divided command, which prevented envelopment of Ferdinand's flanks despite numerical superiority. British reinforcements, including tactics honed from prior engagements, played a in holding sectors against repeated assaults, contributing to the battle's tactical favoring the defenders. In , British colonial forces under General Jeffery Amherst converged on , leading to the capitulation of Montreal on and the effective collapse of French authority in . Amherst's army of approximately 17,000 regulars, provincials, and Native allies advanced from and the upper St. Lawrence, linking with expeditions from under William Haviland and from under James Murray, outnumbering French defenders led by Governor Pierre François de Rigaud, marquis de Vaudreuil, and General François-Gaston de Lévis. The French garrison, reduced to about 2,000 regulars supplemented by militia, faced without viable relief, as prior defeats at in had depleted reserves and . Vaudreuil surrendered unconditionally, with over 3,000 French soldiers and officials capitulating, alongside civilian populations totaling around 70,000 under British terms that permitted retention of but mandated cession of military stores. This surrender marked the culmination of British amphibious and overland operations that severed French logistics, with verifiable casualty data from preceding skirmishes—such as minor engagements along the St. Lawrence yielding under 100 British losses—underscoring the asymmetry driven by naval dominance and superior manpower mobilization. Terms included protections for Catholic practices but enforced territorial transfer east of the , reflecting empirical realities of French isolation rather than negotiated parity. Ancillary conflicts in the Ohio Valley saw sporadic French-allied Indigenous raids repelled, with British forts like Fort Pitt reporting negligible territorial shifts but confirming the broader erosion of French influence through attrition.

October–December

King George II of Great Britain died on October 25, 1760, at in , aged 76, from an that caused sudden collapse while using a . His grandson, , who had been since 1751, immediately acceded to the throne upon the moment of death, as dictated by British constitutional practice where the succession occurs instantaneously without need for formal election or delay. The transition proceeded without notable political instability, as 's advisors, including Lord Bute, managed the proclamation and early governance smoothly amid ongoing war efforts. On November 3, 1760, Prussian forces under engaged Austrian troops led by Leopold von Daun at the near the River during the Seven Years' War, with launching a across difficult terrain to disrupt Austrian supply lines. Despite achieving by forcing the Austrians to withdraw—capturing 49 guns and preventing —the Prussians suffered approximately 16,670 from killed and wounded, while Austrians incurred around 15,500 total losses including prisoners, rendering the outcome strategically marginal as both sides retained operational capacity. Frederick himself was wounded multiple times, highlighting the battle's attritional nature over decisive maneuver, which exhausted Prussian reserves without altering the broader war's balance. In , on November 29, 1760, French commandant François-Marie Picoté de Belestre surrendered Fort Pontchartrain du Détroit to British Major Robert Rogers and his Rangers without resistance, following the prior capitulation of at . This transfer marked the effective British control over key western outposts, securing routes and eliminating French presence in the amid the French and Indian War's conclusion on the continent. On December 7, the city of Maturín was founded in present-day Venezuela.

Date unknown

In Britain, incremental engineering improvements to the Newcomen atmospheric , including the adoption of larger cylinders reaching diameters of up to 6 feet, enabled deeper operations and supported rising fuel demands for proto-industrial activities by the early . These refinements, driven by practical experience in collieries rather than radical redesigns, contributed to modest efficiency gains over the engine's original 1712 form, laying groundwork for subsequent innovations amid expanding domestic output. The sector, bolstered by imports from and , operated as a small-scale industry in 1760, employing handloom weavers and foreshadowing mechanization through embryonic water-powered mills, though production volumes remained limited compared to woolens. Philip Embury, an Irish Methodist , immigrated to in 1760 with relatives including Barbara and Paul Heck, establishing a foothold for among immigrant communities through work and eventual preaching to small groups. This migration reflected broader patterns of economic displacement in Ireland, prompting settlement in urban colonial hubs without immediate organized religious infrastructure.

Historical significance

Geopolitical shifts

The surrender of Montreal on September 8, 1760, marked the effective collapse of French military control over , as British forces under Jeffery Amherst, totaling approximately 18,000 troops from three converging armies, compelled the capitulation of French Governor Pierre François de Rigaud, Marquis de Vaudreuil-Cavagnal, and his remaining garrison of about 2,500 regulars amid a three-pronged . This outcome stemmed from Britain's naval dominance, which isolated French reinforcements and supplies, enabling the consolidation of British authority over roughly 70,000 French-speaking inhabitants and the strategic valley, precursor to the cession of Canada east of the —encompassing over 200,000 square miles of contested territory critical for and continental expansion. In the , British forces maintained control over , seized in 1759, further eroding French colonial footholds and shifting naval power balances toward , as French squadrons suffered repeated defeats that prevented resupply. In , the on November 3, 1760, represented a pyrrhic but pivotal Prussian success, where Frederick II's army of 38,000 inflicted heavier casualties on the Austrian-led coalition under Leopold von Daun—Prussian losses exceeded 16,000 killed and wounded against Austrian figures around 17,000—halting an advance that threatened and preserving Prussia's precarious against a coalition outnumbering it threefold. Despite Frederick's personal wounding and the battle's mutual exhaustion, the tactical edge prevented the dismemberment of Prussian territories, underscoring the resilience enabled by disciplined infantry maneuvers over coalition numerical superiority, and staving off immediate partition schemes by , , and . These developments accelerated the erosion of French geopolitical stature, as the capitulation liquidated over 3,000 French troops and irregulars into British custody without battle, compounded by naval losses that left unable to contest British colonial seizures, thereby prioritizing empirical reversals over any purported cultural or strategic advantages in overseas administration. The quantifiable depletion— including the forfeiture of North American strongholds garrisoned since the 1600s—reflected systemic vulnerabilities in French and alliance cohesion, diminishing Paris's capacity to amid mounting debts and diverted European commitments.

Long-term impacts

The expulsion of French forces from much of North America following key 1760 campaigns, such as the capture of Montreal on September 8, diminished the primary external threat to British colonial settlements, fostering conditions for demographic and economic expansion in the ensuing decades; colonial population grew from approximately 1.6 million in 1760 to over 2.5 million by 1775, supported by reduced frontier warfare and access to former French territories east of the Mississippi. However, the war's financial toll—Britain's national debt rising from £75 million in 1756 to £133 million by 1763—necessitated revenue measures like the Sugar Act of 1764 and Stamp Act of 1765, which imposed duties on colonial trade and legal documents to offset defense costs that had secured these gains, thereby straining imperial finances without immediate equivalent contributions from the protected territories. George III's ascension on October 25, 1760, following George II's death, reinforced the Hanoverian dynasty's continuity amid prior instability, as the young king's English birth and initial resolve to govern personally—dismissing favorites like Lord Bute by 1762—contributed to a perception of restored monarchical vigor, evidenced by parliamentary stability in the early despite ministerial turnover. His 59-year reign until 1820 demonstrated administrative competence in the first two decades, overseeing naval reforms and colonial administration that underpinned Britain's emergence as Europe's preeminent power, though porphyria-induced mental episodes from 1788 onward devolved effective rule to the Prince Regent, highlighting vulnerabilities in long-term personal governance. Protracted hostilities culminating in 1760, including naval blockades and continental engagements, induced mutual exhaustion that facilitated the Treaty of Paris on February 10, 1763, wherein France relinquished and territories east of the to Britain, while ceded , yielding empirical advantages like control over 80% of North America's temperate lands and eliminating French rivalry in the interior, which stabilized trade routes and resource extraction for generations. These territorial consolidations, rather than mere imperial overreach, provided a framework for sustained British dominance, with the treaty's terms reflecting strategic leverage from 1760 victories rather than ideological concessions, though the associated debt servicing—consuming over half of annual revenues—prompted fiscal policies that tested colonial loyalties without negating the net security benefits.

Cultural and scientific developments

Scientific advancements

In 1760, Scottish chemist made a key empirical observation in the study of , noting that when equal masses of different substances at varying temperatures are mixed, the resulting temperature change is inversely proportional to their capacities to absorb , thus establishing the foundational principle of through quantitative experiments on substances like , mercury, and metals. This work, derived from precise calorimetric measurements rather than prior theoretical assumptions, enabled later distinctions between sensible and latent , advancing thermodynamic understanding grounded in observable data. In , Austrian physician Leopold Auenbrugger introduced the diagnostic method of percussion, involving controlled on the chest to produce sounds indicative of underlying densities and fluid accumulations in the , based on years of clinical observations correlating auditory responses with postmortem findings. This non-invasive technique, detailed in his 1761 publication but developed through 1760 experiments on cadavers and patients, marked an early shift toward empirical physical over speculative humoral , though its adoption was delayed until later translations. Geologist John Michell proposed a causal model for earthquakes, attributing them to frictional slips between subterranean strata under accumulated strain, informed by detailed analysis of seismic wave propagation and damage patterns from events like the 1755 Lisbon quake, as outlined in his 1760 paper. This mechanistic explanation, rooted in observable geological features and rudimentary wave analogies, presaged modern fault dynamics by emphasizing physical forces over supernatural attributions. Astronomical records from observatories, including Greenwich, continued systematic tracking of stellar positions and celestial events, culminating in publications of data from 1750–1760 that refined positional astronomy through repeated meridian transits and clock-corrected timings. These observations supported ongoing empirical calibrations for and ephemerides, independent of speculative cosmologies.

Technological and industrial progress

In Britain, the Newcomen atmospheric , operational since , continued to drive industrial applications such as mines, with limited by the need to alternately heat and cool the , consuming up to 30 pounds of per horsepower-hour due to reliance on external atmospheric pressure for piston return. By 1760, around 100 such engines were in use across Britain, powering equivalent to the work of several thousand horses but highlighting the causal need for better condensation to minimize heat loss and boost output metrics. Scottish instrument-maker initiated examinations of these engines in the early 1760s while at the , identifying inefficiencies in the single- design that wasted 75-80% of input energy as heat, laying groundwork for separate condensers to enhance thermodynamic efficiency. Metallurgical progress advanced through expanded coke-smelting of , building on Abraham Darby I's 1709 method that replaced to avoid constraints, allowing blast furnaces to operate at higher temperatures and produce at scales unattainable with . Under Abraham Darby II's management at until his death in 1763, output increased verifiably, with the foundry casting larger pots and cylinders—up to 1 ton capacity—via improved furnace linings and mechanics that sustained 1,200-1,500°C blasts, marking early mechanized steps toward Britain's iron production surge from 25,000 tons annually in to over 68,000 by 1788. Concurrently, processes like potting and stamping emerged in the to convert brittle into malleable by reheating and hammering, reducing impurities through oxidation and enabling applications in machinery components with greater tensile strength. In textiles, pre-mechanized production relied on handlooms augmented by John Kay's 1733 flying shuttle, which doubled speed to 2-3 yards per minute for skilled operators but exacerbated yarn shortages, prompting empirical trials in roller spinning techniques that presaged 1760s breakthroughs like the by increasing thread output per worker from 1-2 pounds weekly to multiples thereof through basic gearing. This bottleneck drove proto-industrial clustering in , where water-powered mills began aggregating spinners, yielding verifiable productivity gains of 20-30% in yarn supply by mid-decade via coordinated cottage networks. Military technology evolved amid the Seven Years' War, with British forces refining light artillery for field mobility; Prussian and allied innovations emphasized oblique-order tactics paired with 3- and 6-pounder bronze , which fired 1-2 pound shot at 1,000-yard ranges with 10-15% improved accuracy over heavier pieces through lighter carriages reducing by 20-30%, as evidenced by battlefield data from engagements like Leuthen (1757) influencing 1760 deployments. Naval advancements included early development of the by Scotland's Carron Iron Works, a stubby 24-32 pounder using 4-5 pounds of powder for short-range broadsides—doubling projectile mass over standard cannons at half the weight (under 1 ton)—to enhance ship-to-ship lethality in close-quarters combat, with prototypes tested amid wartime demands for faster reloading and deck stability.

Arts and cultural milestones

In music, Niccolò Piccinni's La buona figliuola (also known as La Cecchina), with by adapted from Samuel Richardson's Pamela, premiered on February 6 at the Teatro delle Dame in , drawing large audiences through its comic depiction of social ascent and running in productions until 1773. The work's success, funded by aristocratic subscribers and theater patrons, exemplified the era's preference for light-hearted operas over heavier forms, with its arias and ensembles reflecting contemporary Italian elite tastes amid ongoing continental conflicts. In literature, Charles Johnstone's satirical novel Chrysal, or the Adventures of a , narrated from the perspective of a exposing among British elites, appeared in 1760 and achieved commercial success with five editions in its first three years, critiquing systems and moral decay without overt political allegiance. Similarly, enslaved poet published "An Evening Thought: Salvation by Christ, with Penitential Cries" on December 25, a broadside poem emphasizing evangelical themes, recognized as the first printed literary work by an African American and distributed via limited colonial networks rather than broad elite sponsorship. Visual arts saw commissions tied to shifting royal patronage following George III's accession in January, though major works like coronation portraits emerged later; Thomas Gainsborough's Portrait of Ann Ford (later titled Nymph in a Landscape), completed in 1760, captured rococo informality in its depiction of a musician amid pastoral elements, appealing to emerging middle-class buyers beyond court circles. These outputs, often reliant on private or institutional funding amid wartime fiscal strains, prioritized accessible entertainment and moral reflection over grandiose state propaganda.

Notable individuals

Births

Monarchs and Rulers
The (Yongyan), born November 13, 1760, at the in , succeeded his father Qianlong as the seventh emperor of the in 1796, reigning amid efforts to curb corruption and internal rebellions during a period of dynastic decline. Artists
Katsushika Hokusai, born in October 1760 in Edo (modern Tokyo) to an artisan family, emerged as a leading ukiyo-e printmaker and painter, producing over 30,000 works including the iconic series Thirty-six Views of Mount Fuji, which influenced global art through their innovative composition and depiction of everyday Japanese life. Reformers and Abolitionists
Thomas Clarkson, born March 28, 1760, in Wisbech, Cambridgeshire, England, became a central figure in the British campaign against the slave trade, conducting firsthand investigations into slave ship conditions and compiling statistical evidence on mortality rates—such as 1 in 7 deaths during the Middle Passage—that bolstered parliamentary arguments leading to the 1807 Slave Trade Act.

Deaths

King George II of Great Britain died on October 25, 1760, at , succumbing to a thoracic confirmed by , which revealed blood surging through a tear in the aorta's inner layer. The 77-year-old monarch's sudden collapse while preparing for the day—reportedly on the commode—left no immediate governance vacuum, as his grandson ascended seamlessly under the Act of Settlement, maintaining Hanoverian continuity amid the ongoing . This transition shifted British policy toward greater domestic focus under the new king's advisors, though empirical disruptions were minimal due to established parliamentary mechanisms. Prussian field marshal Prince Moritz of perished on April 11, 1760, in at age 47, from complications of battle wounds sustained earlier in the Seven Years' War that reportedly progressed to cancer. A key commander under , Moritz's tactical expertise in maneuvers and fortifications left a causal void in Prussian leadership during peak conflict, exacerbating resource strains as replacements lacked his field experience from campaigns like Mollwitz and Hohenfriedberg. His death compounded attrition in the officer corps, empirically hindering coordinated offensives against Austrian and Russian forces in 1760. Baroque composer died on May 10, 1760, in at age 77, concluding a career that produced over 1,300 church cantatas, 113 orchestral sinfonias, and extensive chamber music, rivaling contemporaries like Bach in output volume. As to the Darmstadt court since 1710, his passing halted institutional musical there, creating a void in sacred composition traditions; though he willed his manuscripts' destruction to avoid posthumous scrutiny, court intervention preserved them, averting total cultural loss. This survival enabled later rediscovery, but immediate disruption shifted local ensembles toward lesser-known successors, diminishing contrapuntal innovation in German courts.
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