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French bean pods on a plant

A bean is the seed of plants in many genera of the legume family (Fabaceae) used as a vegetable for human consumption or animal feed. The seeds are sold fresh or preserved through drying (a pulse). Beans have been cultivated since the seventh millennium BCE in Thailand, and since the second millennium BCE in Europe and in Peru. Most beans, with the exception of peas, are summer crops. As legumes, the plants fix nitrogen and form seeds with a high protein content. They are produced on a scale of millions of tons annually in many countries; India is the largest producer.

Dried beans are traditionally soaked and boiled, and used in traditional dishes throughout the world including salads, soups, and stews such as chili con carne. Some are processed into tofu; others are fermented to form tempeh. Guar beans are used for their gum. The unripe seedpods of some varieties are also eaten whole as green beans or edamame (immature soybean). Some types are sprouted to form beansprouts.

Many fully ripened beans contain toxins like phytohaemagglutinin and require cooking to make them safe to eat. Many species contain indigestible oligosaccharides that produce flatulence. Beans have traditionally been seen as a food of the poor.

Etymology and naming

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The word "bean" and its Germanic cognates (e.g. German Bohne) have existed in common use in West Germanic languages since before the 12th century,[1] referring to broad beans, chickpeas, and other pod-borne seeds. This was long before the New World genus Phaseolus was known in Europe. With the Columbian exchange of domestic plants between Europe and the Americas, use of the word was extended to pod-borne seeds of Phaseolus, such as the common bean and the runner bean, and the related genus Vigna. The term has long been applied generally to seeds of similar form, such as Old World soybeans and lupins, and to the fruits or seeds of unrelated plants such as coffee beans and vanilla beans.[2] This article discusses only legumes.

History

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See also: Columbian exchange

Beans in an early cultivated form were grown in Thailand from the early seventh millennium BCE, predating ceramics.[3] Beans were deposited with the dead in ancient Egypt. Not until the second millennium BCE did cultivated, large-seeded broad beans appear in the Aegean region, Iberia, and transalpine Europe.[4] In the Iliad (8th century BCE), there is a passing mention of beans and chickpeas cast on the threshing floor.[5]

The oldest-known domesticated beans in the Americas were found in Guitarrero Cave, Peru, dated to around the second millennium BCE.[6] Genetic analyses of the common bean Phaseolus show that it originated in Mesoamerica, and subsequently spread southward.[7]

Most of the kinds of beans commonly eaten today are part of the genus Phaseolus, which originated in the Americas. The first European to encounter them was Christopher Columbus, while exploring what may have been the Bahamas, and saw them growing in fields. Five kinds of Phaseolus beans were domesticated by pre-Columbian peoples, selecting pods that did not open and scatter their seeds when ripe: common beans (P. vulgaris) grown from Chile to the northern part of the United States; lima and sieva beans (P. lunatus); and the less widely distributed teparies (P. acutifolius), scarlet runner beans (P. coccineus), and polyanthus beans.[8]

Pre-Columbian peoples as far north as the Atlantic seaboard grew beans in the "Three Sisters" method of companion planting. The beans were interplanted with maize and squash.[9] Beans were cultivated across Chile in Pre-Hispanic times, likely as far south as the Chiloé Archipelago.[10]

Diversity

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Taxonomic range

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Beans are legumes, but from many different genera, native to different regions.[11]

Genus Species and common varieties Probable home region Distribution, climate Notes
Phaseolus The Americas Tropical, subtropical, warm temperate Some contain high levels of toxic phytohemagglutinin.[12][13][14]
Vigna Mostly South Asia Equatorial, pantropical, warm subtropical, hot temperate
Cajanus C. cajan: pigeon pea Indian Subcontinent Pantropical, equatorial
Lens L. culinaris: red, green, and Puy lentils Near East/Levant Temperate, subtropical, cool tropical
Cicer C. arietinum: garbanzo beans Turkey/Levant/Near East Temperate, subtropical, cool tropical
Vicia Near East Subtropical, temperate Causes favism in susceptible people.[15][16]
Glycine G. max: soybean East Asia Hot temperate, Subtropical, cool tropical
Macrotyloma M. uniflorum: horsegram South Asia Tropical, subtropical
Mucuna M. pruriens: velvet bean Tropical Asia and Africa Tropical, warm subtropical Contains L-DOPA,[17] and smaller amounts of other psychoactive compounds. Can cause itching and rashes on contact.[18]
Lupinus The Mediterranean, Balkans, Levant (albus), The Andes (mutabilis) Subtropical, temperate Requires soaking to remove toxins.[19]
Ceratonia C. siliqua: carob bean Mediterranean, Middle East Subtropical, arid subtropical, hot temperate
Canavalia South Asia or Africa (C. gladiata), Brazil and South America (C. ensiformis) Tropical
Cyamopsis C. tetragonoloba: guar bean Africa or South Asia Tropical, semi-arid Source of Guar gum
Lablab L. purpureus: hyacinth/lablab bean South Asia, Indian Subcontinent or Africa Tropical
Psophocarpus P. tetranoglobulus: winged bean New Guinea Tropical, equatorial

Conservation of cultivars

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The biodiversity of bean cultivars is threatened by modern plant breeding, which selects a small number of the most productive varieties. Efforts are being made to conserve the germplasm of older varieties in different countries.[20][21] As of 2023, the Norwegian Svalbard Global Seed Vault holds more than 40,000 accessions of Phaseolus bean species.[22]

Cultivation

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Agronomy

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Many beans are summer crops that need warm temperatures to grow, with peas as an exception. Legumes are capable of nitrogen fixation and hence need less fertiliser than most plants. Maturity is typically 55–60 days from planting to harvest.[23] As the pods mature, they turn yellow and dry up, and the beans inside change from green to their mature colour. Many beans are vines needing external support, such as "bean cages" or poles. Native Americans customarily grew them along with corn and squash, the tall stalks acting as support for the beans.[24]

More recently, the commercial "bush bean" which does not require support and produces all its pods simultaneously has been developed.[25]

Production

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Main article: Legume § Production
Beans in a market

The production data for legumes are published by FAO in three categories:

  1. Pulses dry: all mature and dry seeds of leguminous plants except soybeans and groundnuts.
  2. Oil crops: soybeans and groundnuts.
  3. Fresh vegetable: immature green fresh fruits of leguminous plants.

The following is a summary of FAO data.[26]

Production of legumes (million metric tons)
Crops
[FAO code][27] 		1961 1981 2001 2015 2016 Ratio
2016 /1961 		Remarks
Total pulses (dry) [1726] 40.78 41.63 56.23 77.57 81.80 2.01 Per capita production decreased.
(Population grew 2.4×)
Oil crops (dry)
Soybeans [236] 26.88 88.53 177.02 323.20 334.89 12.46 Increase driven by animal feeds and oil.
Groundnuts, with shell [242] 14.13 20.58 35.82 45.08 43.98 3.11
Fresh vegetables (80–90% water)
Beans, green [414] 2.63 4.09 10.92 23.12 23.60 8.96
Peas, green [417] 3.79 5.66 12.41 19.44 19.88 5.25
Top producers, pulses [1726][a]
(million metric tons)
Country 2016 Share
Total 81.80 100%
1 India 17.56 21.47%
2 Canada 8.20 10.03%
3 Myanmar 6.57 8.03%
4 China 4.23 5.17%
5 Nigeria 3.09 3.78%
6 Russia 2.94 3.60%
7 Ethiopia 2.73 3.34%
8 Brazil 2.62 3.21%
9 Australia 2.52 3.09%
10 United States 2.44 2.98%
11 Niger 2.06 2.51%
12 Tanzania 2.00 2.45%
Others 24.82 30.34%

The world leader in production of dry beans (Phaseolus spp),[b] is India, followed by Myanmar (Burma) and Brazil. In Africa, the most important producer is Tanzania.[28]

Top ten dry beans (Phaseolus spp) producers, 2020
Rank Country Production
(tonnes) 		Footnote
1.  India 5,460,000 FAO figure
2.  Myanmar 3,053,012 Official figure
3.  Brazil 3,035,290 Aggregated data
4.  United States 1,495,180 Semi-official data
5.  China 1,281,586 Official figure
6.  Tanzania 1,267,648 FAO figure
7.  Mexico 1,056,071 Official figure
8.  Kenya 774,366 FAO figure
9.  Argentina 633,823 Semi-official data
10  Uganda 603,980 Official figure
Total  World 27,545,942 Aggregated data

Source: UN Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO)[29]

Uses

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Culinary

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Beans can be cooked in a wide variety of casseroles, curries, salads, soups, and stews. They can be served whole or mashed alongside meat or toast, or included in an omelette or a flatbread wrap.[30] Other options are to include them in a bake with a cheese sauce, a Mexican-style chili con carne, or to use them as a meat substitute in a burger or in falafels.[31] The French cassoulet is a slow-cooked stew with haricot beans, sausage, pork, mutton, and preserved goose.[32] Soybeans can be processed into bean curd (tofu)[33] or fermented into a cake (tempeh);[34] these can be eaten fried or roasted like meat, or included in stir-fries, curries, and soups.[35][36][37] Most dry beans contain 21–25% protein by weight;[38] dry soybeans are 36.5% protein by weight.[39]

Other

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Guar beans are used for their gum.

Guar beans are used for their gum, a galactomannan polysaccharide. It is used to thicken and stabilise foods and other products.[40]

Health concerns

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Toxins

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Main articles: Phytohaemagglutinin and Soybean agglutinin

Some kinds of raw beans contain a harmful, flavourless toxin: the lectin phytohaemagglutinin, which must be destroyed by cooking. Red kidney beans are particularly toxic, but other types also pose risks of food poisoning. Even small quantities (4 or 5 raw beans) may cause severe stomachache, vomiting, and diarrhea. This risk does not apply to canned beans because they have already been cooked.[41] A recommended method is to boil the beans for at least ten minutes; under-cooked beans may be more toxic than raw beans.[42]

Beans need to be cooked thoroughly to destroy toxins; slow cooking is unsafe as it makes the beans soft without necessarily destroying the toxins.[42] A case of poisoning by butter beans used to make falafel was reported; the beans were used instead of traditional broad beans or chickpeas, soaked and ground without boiling, made into patties, and shallow fried.[43]

Bean poisoning is not well known in the medical community, and many cases may be misdiagnosed or never reported; figures appear not to be available. In the case of the United Kingdom National Poisons Information Service, available only to health professionals, the dangers of beans other than red beans were not flagged as of 2008.[43]

Fermentation is used in some parts of Africa to make beans more digestible by removing toxins.[44]

Other hazards

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It is common to make beansprouts by letting some types of bean, often mung beans, germinate in moist and warm conditions; beansprouts may be used as ingredients in cooked dishes, or eaten raw or lightly cooked. There have been many outbreaks of disease from bacterial contamination, often by salmonella, listeria, and Escherichia coli, of beansprouts not thoroughly cooked,[45] some causing significant mortality.[46]

Many types of bean, such as kidney beans, contain significant amounts of antinutrients that inhibit some enzyme processes in the body. Phytic acid, present in beans, interferes with bone growth and interrupts vitamin D metabolism.[47][48]

Many beans, including broad beans, navy beans, kidney beans and soybeans, contain large sugar molecules, oligosaccharides (particularly raffinose and stachyose). A suitable oligosaccharide-cleaving enzyme is necessary to digest these. As the human digestive tract does not contain such enzymes, consumed oligosaccharides are digested by bacteria in the large intestine, producing gases such as methane, released as flatulence.[49][50][51][52]

In human society

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The Beaneater (c. 1584) by Annibale Carracci

Beans have traditionally been considered a food of the poor, as farmers ate grains and vegetables, and obtained their protein from beans, whereas the wealthier classes could afford meat.[53] European society has what Ken Albala calls "a class-based antagonism" to beans.[53]

Different cultures agree in disliking the flatulence that beans cause, and possess their own seasonings to attempt to remedy it: Mexico uses the herb epazote; India the aromatic resin asafoetida; Germany applies the herb savory; in the Middle East, cumin; and Japan the seaweed kombu.[53] A substance for which there is evidence of effectiveness in reducing flatulence is the enzyme alpha-galactosidase;[53] extracted from the mould fungus Aspergillus niger, it breaks down glycolipids and glycoproteins.[54][55] The reputation of beans for flatulence is the theme of a children's song "Beans, Beans, the Musical Fruit".[56]

The Mexican jumping bean is a segment of a seed pod occupied by the larva of the moth Cydia saltitans, and sold as a novelty. The pods start to jump when warmed in the palm of the hand. Scientists have suggested that the random walk that results may help the larva to find shade and so to survive on hot days.[57]

See also

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Notes

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References

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Bibliography

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[edit]
Revisions and contributorsEdit on WikipediaRead on Wikipedia

Bean

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A bean is the or pod of in the family, one of the largest families of flowering comprising over 20,000 , many of which are valued for their edible parts used as , pulses, or protein sources. The common bean (), a herbaceous annual native to the tropical regions of the , represents the most widely cultivated , grown for its versatile edible green pods (snap beans) and mature dry seeds (such as , , or beans). Belonging to the genus, it features bushy or vining growth habits, with reaching 2–12 feet in height depending on the variety, and produces irregular flowers in shades of white, yellow, pink, or red before forming flat to round pods containing 4–10 seeds. These beans thrive in warm-season conditions with soil temperatures of 15.5–29°C (60–85°F) and well-drained, fertile soils of pH 6.0–6.75, fixing atmospheric through to enrich the soil. Domesticated independently in and the around 8,000–9,000 years ago from wild progenitors, spread globally following European contact with the Americas in the 15th–16th centuries, becoming a staple in diverse cuisines and agricultural systems worldwide. Global production of dry common beans exceeds 25 million metric tons annually as of 2023, with major output in regions like , (e.g., , ), and , yielding both fresh and dry forms harvested 50–110 days after planting. Varieties are classified by growth habit—bush beans (compact, self-supporting, 2–3 feet tall), pole beans (vining, requiring trellises up to 6–10 feet), and half-runners (intermediate)—as well as by pod type (snap, shelling, or dry) and seed color, with hundreds of cultivars adapted to local climates and preferences. Beans are nutritionally significant, providing high levels of plant-based protein, , vitamins (A and C), and minerals (, iron, ), serving as an affordable for vegetarians and a key component of in developing regions. However, raw or undercooked seeds contain , a toxin that requires proper cooking to neutralize, while the ' nitrogen-fixing ability makes them valuable in sustainable farming rotations. Beyond , the term "bean" encompasses related like lima beans (Phaseolus lunatus), soybeans (Glycine max), and fava beans (Vicia faba), each contributing to global diets and agriculture in unique ways.

Etymology and Naming

Origins of the Term

The word "bean" in English originates from bēan, a term denoting a or , which evolved from Proto-Germanic baunō. This Germanic root is attested in related forms across , such as bōna and Dutch boon. Linguists trace it further to the bhabhā-, suggestive of something swollen or pod-like, reflecting the plant's characteristic seed pods. In parallel, Latin faba, specifically referring to the broad bean (Vicia faba), represents an independent but possibly connected branch of terminology, with roots in Proto-Italic fabā. This word underwent historical shifts, giving rise to terms in Romance languages like Italian fava (broad bean) and French fève, which retained the focus on pod-bearing legumes while adapting phonetically over centuries. The divergence from the Germanic "bean" highlights regional linguistic evolutions, though both may stem from a shared European substratum word like bab-. The generic vernacular "bean" contrasts with scientific nomenclature, where terms like —introduced by in 1753—distinguish specific genera of , particularly New World species. Derived from Latin phaseolus, a diminutive of Greek phāsēlos (a type of bean or ), this binomial naming underscores the precision required in to differentiate from the broader cultural usage of "bean."

Common Names and Classifications

Beans, particularly those belonging to the species Phaseolus vulgaris, are known by a variety of regional names reflecting their widespread cultivation and cultural significance. In Spanish-speaking countries, they are commonly referred to as "frijol" or "frijol común," while in French-speaking regions, "haricot" is a standard term for both the mature seeds and immature pods. In , the name "feijão" is used, and in Italian, "fagiolo" denotes the common bean. Additional regional synonyms include "fasole" in Romanian and "fasoulia" in , all applying to Phaseolus vulgaris. For specific Asian varieties, the (Vigna radiata) is often called "mung" or "moong" in English and various South Asian languages, highlighting its distinct identity from common beans. Beans are broadly categorized by their botanical genera within the family, with encompassing common beans such as kidney, pinto, and navy varieties, all under . The genus includes cowpeas (Vigna unguiculata), also known as black-eyed peas, and mung beans (Vigna radiata), which are smaller and often used in sprouts or . Soybeans fall under the genus , specifically Glycine max, distinguishing them from beans while sharing similar nutritional profiles as . This basic categorization aids in understanding their agricultural and culinary applications, though "bean" is a term applied loosely across these groups. Confusion frequently arises between common and scientific names due to the diversity of varieties within a single species and overlapping vernacular uses. For instance, the "" is a cultivar of , yet it shares the species name with seemingly distinct types like or beans, leading to misconceptions about their botanical relatedness. Similarly, the term "bean" can ambiguously refer to or unrelated like adzuki beans (Vigna angularis), exacerbating identification challenges in trade and cooking. This nomenclature overlap underscores the importance of to avoid errors in cultivation or consumption.

History

Domestication and Early Cultivation

The common bean, Phaseolus vulgaris, was independently domesticated in two regions: approximately 8,000 years ago and the around 8,000–10,000 years ago. Genetic and archaeological studies indicate that the Mesoamerican domestication occurred primarily in the Lerma-Santiago River Basin of west-central , with wild progenitors transitioning to cultivated forms through human selection. Key evidence comes from the Tehuacán Valley in , where carbonized bean remains dated to around 7,000–8,000 years reveal early domesticated traits. Archaeological findings from sites like Coxcatlán Cave in the Valley highlight morphological changes indicative of , including larger seed size (), reduced pod shattering, and loss of for easier . These adaptations, driven by selective pressures from early farmers, distinguish domesticated beans from their wild ancestors, which exhibited fibrous pods and smaller, dispersal-adapted seeds. Such evidence underscores a gradual process spanning , with initial cultivation likely supplementing diets before becoming a dietary staple. Independently, the (Vigna unguiculata) was domesticated in , with origins traced to West African savannas around 4,000–5,000 years ago based on archaeological and genetic data. The earliest confirmed remains of domesticated cowpea come from sites in central , dated to approximately 3,410 years before present, showing selected traits like non-shattering pods and enlarged seeds. This domestication likely occurred alongside other African crops such as , enhancing in arid environments. Early cultivation practices for in involved intercropping with (Zea mays) and squash (Cucurbita spp.), known as the "Three Sisters" method, dating back over 1,000 years with archaeological evidence from around 1070 AD. In this symbiotic system, maize provides structural support for climbing beans, beans fix atmospheric to enrich the soil for maize and squash, and squash's broad leaves suppress weeds while retaining moisture. This approach, evident in archaeological contexts from the Tehuacán Valley and , optimized land use and resource efficiency in early agricultural communities.

Global Spread and Historical Uses

The common bean (), domesticated in the , was introduced to during the by Spanish and Portuguese explorers following Christopher Columbus's voyages in 1492. One early record is from 1532, when the humanist Pietro Valeriano received bean seeds as a gift from and introduced them for cultivation in . This transfer was part of the broader , which facilitated the movement of like beans eastward, transforming agriculture and diets despite initial limited adoption due to unfamiliarity. In , bean varieties such as soybeans (Glycine max) spread westward along the trade routes from to starting around the first millennium BCE, influencing regional cuisines and farming practices. Archaeological and genomic evidence indicates soybeans originated in and were exchanged alongside other crops like and mulberry, reaching the by approximately 1000 CE through these overland networks. Similarly, mung beans (Vigna radiata) dispersed from to via pathways, adapting to new environments and contributing to diverse legume-based diets in intermediate regions. In ancient civilizations, beans played key dietary and cultural roles. Fava beans (Vicia faba), an domesticated in the around 10,000 years ago, were consumed in as a protein source, with archaeological remains indicating their integration into meals alongside grains and from at least the period. In , including broad beans, lentils, and chickpeas formed a staple for rural and lower-class populations, often prepared as porridges or mixed with cereals; historical texts like those of describe their use in bread-making and rituals, underscoring their nutritional and symbolic importance. The further amplified this legacy by introducing American beans to these Eurasian traditions, enabling hybrid culinary practices in the post-16th century era.

Diversity

Taxonomic Classification

Beans, commonly referring to edible , are classified within the family (also known as Leguminosae), a large and diverse group of flowering plants in the order . This family encompasses approximately 750 genera and 19,000 species worldwide, characterized by their compound leaves, irregular flowers, and fruits in the form of pods (). The subfamily , formerly Papilionoideae, represents the largest subgroup within , comprising about 503 genera and 14,000 species, and includes the majority of economically important bean species. Key genera associated with beans include , which contains around 70 species primarily native to the , encompassing the common bean () and other cultivated species like the lima bean (Phaseolus lunatus); Vicia, with over 140 species of vetches often used as or cover crops; and Pisum, featuring the garden pea (Pisum sativum). These genera fall under the tribe for Phaseolus and Fabeae for Vicia and Pisum, highlighting the taxonomic diversity within . The classification is based on morphological traits such as papilionaceous flowers (butterfly-like) and dehiscent pods, supported by molecular phylogenetic studies that confirm the of . A defining biological feature of , particularly in , is the ability to form symbiotic associations with nitrogen-fixing of the Rhizobia (and related groups like Bradyrhizobium), leading to the development of root nodules where atmospheric nitrogen is converted into usable by the plant. This enhances and is a key enabling to thrive in nitrogen-poor environments, with nearly all species in this subfamily capable of nodulation. The process involves bacterial infection threads penetrating root hairs, culminating in bacteroid formation within nodules, which provides a controlled environment for activity. Botanically, the term "pulses" denotes the dry, mature seeds of species harvested for human or animal consumption, distinguished by their low moisture content and storage stability, as defined by international standards excluding oilseeds and fresh . In contrast, "green beans" refer to the immature pods of certain species, such as , harvested while the seeds inside are still developing and the pod tissue remains tender and edible. This distinction underscores the dual harvest stages in many bean crops, where the same plant can yield either product depending on maturity at harvest.

Varieties and Cultivars

Beans encompass a wide array of cultivated varieties within the genus , particularly (common bean), selected for diverse growth habits, pod and seed characteristics, and end uses. Varieties are broadly classified by plant architecture into bush beans, which grow on compact, non-vining plants reaching 1-2 feet tall, and pole beans, which are vining and require support, often climbing 6-10 feet. Bush types mature faster and are suited for dense planting, while pole varieties yield over longer periods but demand more space. Common beans are further categorized by harvest stage and purpose: snap beans (also called green or string beans) are harvested immature for edible pods, shell beans for fresh seeds within tender pods, and dry beans for mature, fully dried seeds. Snap beans include both bush and pole forms, with popular cultivars like 'Provider' (bush) and 'Kentucky Wonder' (pole) featuring round or flat pods in , yellow, or purple hues. Dry bean varieties of P. vulgaris dominate global production and include pinto beans, characterized by beige seeds with reddish-brown mottling and used in refried preparations; black beans (turtle beans), with glossy black seeds valued for their creamy texture in soups and salads; and navy beans, small oval white seeds prized for baked dishes due to their uniform size and quick cooking time. Breeding programs for common beans emphasize traits like disease resistance and yield to enhance adaptability and productivity. Resistance to bean common mosaic virus (BCMV), a major causing mosaic symptoms and yield losses up to 50%, is standard in North American cultivars through the dominant I gene, which hypersensitively blocks , often combined with strain-specific genes like bc-1 or bc-3 via . Yield improvements have focused on upright architecture and pod placement for mechanical harvest, with modern varieties like 'Sierra' pinto achieving 2,000-3,000 kg/ha under optimal conditions. Regional specialties highlight human selection for local climates and cuisines. In , (Vigna angularis) cultivars like 'Erimo' are favored for their small, red seeds used in sweet bean pastes, thriving in temperate regions with yields of 1,500-2,000 kg/ha. In Europe, runner beans (Phaseolus coccineus), introduced post-Columbian era, feature vining plants with crimson flowers and flattened pods; varieties such as 'Scarlet Emperor' are grown for both ornamental and culinary purposes, particularly in the UK and , where they are harvested as snap or shell beans.

Conservation Efforts

Conservation efforts for beans, particularly species in the genus, focus on preserving in the face of threats such as , habitat loss, and the expansion of farming, which contribute to by reducing variability. has been documented in regions like and , where up to 70% of bean landraces were lost between 1950 and 1980 due to agricultural intensification and land-use changes. These efforts emphasize both ex situ and strategies to safeguard wild relatives and cultivated varieties, ensuring resilience against environmental pressures projected to include temperature rises of 1-2°C and reduced by 2050 in key growing areas. Ex situ conservation plays a central role through seed banks, with the International Center for Tropical Agriculture (CIAT) in maintaining over 37,000 accessions of beans, including landraces and wild forms, as part of a global strategy to secure genetic resources in perpetuity. This collection, which represents about 81% of the global bean holdings backed up in the , supports research into traits like disease resistance and , addressing underrepresentation of wild species that comprise less than 5% of holdings. CIAT's genebank collaborates internationally to regenerate and distribute seeds, preventing further losses from in centers of origin. In situ conservation complements these efforts by protecting bean populations in their natural habitats and farmer-managed fields, particularly in the , the primary center of origin for common bean (), where wild relatives and landraces are maintained through traditional . Initiatives in protected areas, such as Sierra de Manantlán in and Andean rural communities in and , document and monitor interbreeding complexes of wild, weedy, and cultivated beans to foster ongoing evolution and adaptation. For instance, collections from 10 Andean communities in identified 47 landraces, highlighting the role of local farmers in preserving diversity amid climate variability. Addressing genetic erosion requires targeted projects like the initiative, led by the and partners, which prioritizes collecting and conserving wild species to enhance crop adaptation to through pre-breeding and information systems. This project conducts gap analyses for species like P. vulgaris and P. lunatus, focusing on underrepresented regions in the and , where threatens populations. Such efforts also support the recovery of at-risk landraces, like those in Mexico's Aniene Valley, by integrating protection with ex situ backups.

Cultivation

Agronomic Practices

Beans are primarily grown in well-drained soils to prevent waterlogging and root rot, with optimal performance in loamy or sandy loam textures that allow for good aeration and root development. The ideal soil pH ranges from 6.0 to 7.5, as this facilitates nutrient availability, particularly phosphorus and micronutrients essential for growth. Crop rotation with non-leguminous crops, such as cereals or grasses, every 3-4 years is a standard practice to suppress soil-borne diseases like Fusarium wilt and to maintain soil health by breaking pest and pathogen cycles. Planting methods for beans emphasize direct seeding into prepared fields once soil temperatures reach at least 15-18°C (60-65°F) to ensure uniform and avoid stand losses from cold stress. Seeds are sown 2-4 inches apart within rows spaced 18-36 inches apart, depending on the variety—bush types requiring narrower spacing for higher density, while pole varieties need wider rows to accommodate trellising. is critical during establishment and pod-filling stages, with seasonal water needs typically ranging from 300-500 mm, adjusted based on and type to maintain consistent moisture without excess that could promote foliar diseases. Pest management in bean cultivation relies on integrated approaches that combine cultural, biological, and targeted chemical controls to minimize economic and environmental impacts. Common pests include , which transmit viruses and reduce through sap-feeding, and root-knot nematodes, which damage and impair uptake; monitoring via sticky traps for and sampling for nematodes is recommended to apply interventions only when thresholds are exceeded. For , encouraging natural enemies like lady beetles and using insecticidal soaps or provides effective, low-residue control, while nematodes are best managed through resistant cultivars and rotation with non-host crops to limit population buildup. Additionally, beans' symbiotic with bacteria can typically supply 20–70 kg N/ha, depending on conditions and variety, significantly reducing reliance on synthetic fertilizers and enhancing for subsequent crops in rotation.

Global Production and Economics

Global dry bean production reached approximately 28.4 million metric tons as of 2023, reflecting steady growth driven by expanding cultivation in key regions. The leading producers are , with 6.59 million metric tons, followed closely by at 6.15 million metric tons and at 2.86 million metric tons, accounting for a significant portion of the world's output. These countries dominate due to favorable climates and extensive agricultural systems, with production primarily concentrated in and . Economically, dry beans play a crucial role in , particularly in developing countries where they provide an affordable, nutrient-dense protein source for millions. The global market for dry beans was valued at USD 8.9 billion in 2025, projected to grow to USD 11.3 billion by 2030 at a of 4.9%, underscoring their importance in both domestic consumption and international trade. Export dynamics are led by , , the , and , with major markets including , the , and , where shipments of over 1.2 million tons from top exporters support global supply chains. Recent trends highlight rising demand for organic dry beans, fueled by consumer preferences for sustainable and health-focused products— with U.S. organic sales accelerating in 2024—alongside challenges from climate variability that can reduce yields by up to 20% in vulnerable regions, prompting efforts in breeding climate-resilient varieties as of 2025. Such environmental factors exacerbate agronomic challenges in production, influencing overall .

Uses

Culinary Applications

Beans are typically prepared for culinary use through soaking and boiling to soften their texture and improve digestibility. Dry beans are often soaked overnight in , which rehydrates them and significantly reduces subsequent cooking time compared to unsoaked beans, while also helping to remove some indigestible sugars that cause gas. After soaking, the beans are drained and simmered in at a gentle until tender, a process that can take 60 to 120 minutes depending on the variety, with additions like oil to prevent foaming. represents another key method, particularly in Southeast Asian traditions, where cooked soybeans are inoculated with a mold such as to produce , a firm, nutty cake that enhances flavor and nutritional availability through the breakdown of complex compounds. In global cuisines, beans feature prominently in iconic dishes that highlight their versatility. Mexican cuisine employs pinto or black beans in refried beans (frijoles refritos), where boiled beans are mashed and fried with onions, garlic, and lard or oil to create a creamy side dish often served with tortillas or as a filling in burritos and enchiladas, a practice rooted in indigenous Mesoamerican cooking traditions. French regional fare includes cassoulet, a slow-cooked stew from Languedoc originating in medieval times, combining white beans like cannellini with preserved meats such as duck confit, sausage, and pork in a rich, gelatinous broth topped with a breadcrumb crust for added texture. Indian cooking centers on dal, a spiced stew made from split lentils or whole beans such as red lentils (masoor dal), simmered with turmeric, cumin, onions, and chilies, then tempered with ghee and served over rice as a daily staple in Bengali and broader South Asian meals. As a plant-based protein source, beans play a vital role in balanced meals, offering essential that complement those found in grains; for instance, pairing beans with or corn creates a profile equivalent to animal sources, supporting vegetarian diets worldwide. This combination is evident in dishes like and beans or Indian with , where the synergy enhances nutritional value without relying on .

Industrial and Medicinal Uses

Beans, particularly soybeans, serve as key feedstocks in various industrial applications due to their high oil and protein content. As of 2023, accounted for nearly 40% of the feedstock consumed for biomass-based diesel production in the United States, with annual inputs exceeding 12 billion pounds. This renewable fuel alternative is derived from of with , producing methyl esters that can be blended with petroleum diesel. Additionally, soybeans contribute to bioplastics development, where soy proteins and oils are processed into biodegradable polymers for , automotive parts, and products, offering an substitute for petroleum-based plastics. Common beans () provide starch that is extracted for use in adhesives, particularly in labeling compositions, where leguminous starches with 25-60% content enhance and bonding strength in water-based formulations. After oil extraction, the remaining soybean meal is a high-protein widely used as , constituting 20-30% of protein in many and diets to support growth and production in . In the U.S., approximately 97% of is directed toward , with consuming the largest share at around 66% of domestic usage. This meal's balanced profile makes it a staple in formulated feeds, improving feed efficiency across global operations. In medicinal contexts, lectins isolated from beans, such as those in tepary beans () and runner beans (), exhibit antiproliferative effects on cancer cells in vitro, inducing and inhibiting tumor growth, which has spurred research into their therapeutic potential. These carbohydrate-binding proteins from seeds target cell surface glycoproteins, offering promise as adjuncts in cancer treatments without the toxicity of some chemotherapeutic agents. Traditionally, fava beans () have been used to alleviate symptoms due to their natural content, a precursor to that crosses the blood-brain barrier to replenish depleted levels in affected patients. Historical and clinical observations indicate that consuming fava beans or their extracts can improve motor function in mild to moderate cases, predating synthetic therapies developed in the 20th century.

Nutrition and Health

Nutritional Composition

Beans, particularly dry mature seeds of common varieties such as , , and , are nutrient-dense with a macronutrient profile dominated by carbohydrates and protein. On a dry weight basis, they typically contain 20–25% protein, providing a complete profile when combined with grains, though beans alone offer high levels of essential like . Carbohydrates make up 50–60% of the dry weight, primarily in the form of complex and , which contribute to their low . Fat content is minimal at 1–2%, consisting mostly of unsaturated fatty acids.
NutrientAmount per 100g Dry Weight (Representative Values)Example Varieties
Protein21–24g: 21.4g; : 21.6g; : 23.6g
Carbohydrates60–63g: 62.6g; : 62.4g; : 60.0g
Fat0.8–1.4g: 1.2g; : 1.4g; : 0.8g
Dietary Fiber15–25g: 15.5g; : 15.5g; : 24.9g
Micronutrients in beans are particularly noteworthy for their contributions to dietary needs, with high levels of , iron, and . Folate content can reach up to 400 μg per 100g in certain varieties, supporting cellular function and formation, while iron ranges from 5–8 mg per 100g, aiding oxygen transport, though its non-heme form is better absorbed with . , at 15–20g per 100g on average, includes both soluble and insoluble types that promote digestive health. Other notable micronutrients include (up to 1,400 mg/100g), magnesium (120–160 mg/100g), and (300–400 mg/100g), enhancing overall intake. Beans are also rich in bioactive compounds, including polyphenols such as and phenolic acids, which exhibit strong properties by scavenging free radicals and reducing . Concentrations of total polyphenols can vary from 200–1500 mg equivalents per 100g dry weight, depending on the variety and seed coat color, with darker beans like black varieties showing higher levels. , another class of bioactives present at 0.1–0.5% of dry weight, contribute to activity through modulation and metal , while also influencing metabolism. These compounds underscore beans' role beyond basic in promoting physiological resilience.

Health Benefits

Beans are a rich source of soluble , which plays a key role in cardiovascular by binding to acids in the intestine and promoting their excretion, thereby reducing circulating () cholesterol levels. A of 10 randomized controlled trials involving non-soy , including various beans, found that their consumption led to a pooled mean net reduction in cholesterol of 8.0 mg/dL (95% CI: -11.4 to -4.6 mg/dL). According to guidelines from the National Cholesterol Education Program, daily intake of 5–10 grams of soluble from sources like beans can lower cholesterol by approximately 5%. One-half cup of cooked dry beans typically provides 1–3.5 grams of viscous soluble , contributing 10–35% toward this daily target and supporting overall reductions in total as well. The low (GI) of beans, typically ranging from 20 to 40, contributes to better glycemic control, particularly in individuals managing . This low GI reflects the slow and absorption of carbohydrates in beans, leading to gradual rises in blood glucose and insulin levels compared to high-GI foods. In a randomized trial with adults with , a low-GI diet emphasizing one cup of cooked daily improved A1c levels and reduced the need for glucose-lowering medications more effectively than a high-cereal diet. like beans also enhance insulin sensitivity through their and protein content, aiding long-term . Beans contain prebiotic fibers, such as and oligosaccharides, that serve as substrates for beneficial gut bacteria, promoting diversity and short-chain fatty acid production. These prebiotics foster the growth of fiber-degrading microbes like and , which enhance gut and reduce inflammation. Beans are also associated with reduced systemic inflammation owing to their high content of fiber, antioxidants, and polyphenols, with meta-analyses of randomized controlled trials demonstrating inverse associations between legume consumption and inflammatory biomarkers such as C-reactive protein, interleukin-6, and tumor necrosis factor-alpha. A of six studies indicated that higher intake of from , including beans, was associated with a 16% decreased of , likely due to improved microbial metabolism and reduced carcinogenic compounds in the colon. Regular bean consumption thus supports gut health and may lower colon cancer through these microbiota-mediated mechanisms. Furthermore, meta-analyses of clinical trials have found that soy bean isoflavones have no significant effect on testosterone levels in men, with evidence for other types of beans being limited or neutral. This indicates that properly prepared beans do not adversely affect male reproductive hormone levels. Additionally, the combination of high protein and fiber in beans promotes satiety and may aid in weight management. Observational studies and dietary guidelines as of 2025 highlight beans as a valuable component in plant-based diets for preventing obesity and related metabolic disorders.

Potential Risks and Toxins

Beans, particularly certain varieties like kidney beans, contain phytohaemagglutinin, a lectin that is highly toxic when consumed in raw or undercooked form. Ingestion of as few as five raw kidney beans can lead to severe gastrointestinal distress in humans, including nausea, vomiting, abdominal pain, and diarrhea, with symptoms appearing within 1 to 3 hours. In animal studies, such as those conducted on rats, diets incorporating raw kidney beans or purified phytohaemagglutinin have resulted in malabsorption of nutrients, intestinal dysfunction, and significant body weight loss, sometimes exceeding 5% of initial body weight due to reduced feed intake and metabolic interference; these effects can include increased intestinal permeability in animal models. However, there is limited direct scientific evidence in humans linking properly cooked beans to increased intestinal permeability (commonly referred to as "leaky gut") or related adverse effects, as proper cooking inactivates the lectins and eliminates this risk. Proper preparation is essential to neutralize these , as beans for at least 10 minutes or pressure cooking can reduce activity by 94-99%, rendering them safe for consumption. Some wild bean species, such as jack beans (Canavalia ensiformis) and sword beans (Canavalia gladiata), contain L-, a non-protein that acts as an anti-nutritional factor by mimicking and disrupting protein synthesis, potentially leading to reduced growth and feed efficiency in animals. Cooking methods like or soaking followed by decanting can decrease L- levels by 50-60%, mitigating its effects, though complete elimination may require additional processing. Beyond toxins, beans are rich in oligosaccharides like and , indigestible carbohydrates that ferment in the , producing gas and causing in many individuals. This digestive discomfort is generally mild and can be alleviated by gradual dietary introduction, soaking, or using supplements like alpha-galactosidase. Additionally, fava beans () pose a specific risk to individuals with (G6PD) deficiency, where consumption can trigger favism, an acute characterized by destruction, , and potentially life-threatening complications due to from compounds like and convicine. Those with G6PD deficiency should avoid fava beans entirely.

Cultural and Social Role

Symbolism and Folklore

In mythology, beans held symbolic significance in the , the secretive rites honoring and that celebrated agricultural renewal and the cycle of life and death. The hero Cyamites, associated with bean cultivation, emerged in legends tied to these mysteries, where beans represented the earth's fertility and the regenerative power of vegetation emerging from the soil, mirroring 's return from the . Initiates often abstained from beans during rituals, viewing them as embodiments of souls or life force, underscoring their role in symbolizing rebirth and abundance. Across East Asian traditions, particularly in , beans serve as auspicious symbols during celebrations, embodying prosperity, good fortune, and communal harmony. Adzuki beans, with their vibrant red hue evoking joy and warding off misfortune, are incorporated into festive dishes like sweet rice cakes or tangyuan, believed to attract positive energy and ensure a bountiful year ahead. This practice reflects broader cultural associations of beans with growth and sustenance, positioning them as charms for in familial and economic endeavors. In Native American folklore, beans feature centrally in creation myths, such as the Haudenosaunee () Three Sisters legend, where they emerge alongside corn and squash as divine gifts from Sky Woman or her daughter, symbolizing interdependence, sustenance, and the harmony of nature. These stories portray beans as the supportive sister who climbs the corn stalk to thrive, illustrating themes of cooperation and the earth's nurturing provision in the origin of . Similarly, in European tales like "," an English folktale dating back to at least the , magic beans represent latent potential and transformative growth, sprouting into a colossal stalk that bridges the mundane world to realms of opportunity and peril, embodying ambition and the rewards of risk. Beans also play roles in rituals across diverse cultures, invoking spiritual connections and ancestral remembrance. In Mexican observances, beans form part of ofrendas—elaborate altars adorned with foods like tamales or , offered to guide and nourish returning souls, symbolizing continuity between the living and the dead through shared sustenance. In certain African traditions, such as among the Efik of , the toxic Calabar bean was employed in ordeal divinations, where its ingestion tested innocence or summoned ancestral judgment, highlighting beans' perceived link to supernatural truth and communal justice.

Economic and Societal Impact

Beans play a crucial role in global , particularly in low-income regions where they serve as an affordable and accessible protein source. In the 1990s, common beans were the primary dietary protein for over 70 million people in , contributing up to two-thirds of daily protein intake in countries like , where they also supplied about one-third of caloric needs; recent data (as of 2021) indicate beans provide approximately 64% of protein and 32% of calories in Rwandan diets, with reliance remaining high amid . In , beans ranked as the fourth most important protein source in tropical areas during the 1990s, with per capita consumption reaching 22.5 kg annually in —figures that have likely increased with ongoing dietary staples. These contributions are especially vital in low-income households, where beans help bridge nutritional gaps without relying on more expensive animal proteins. The cultivation of beans also drives societal impacts through practices that reduce and influence dynamics in farming communities. As nitrogen-fixing , beans enhance and require fewer synthetic inputs, enabling smallholder farmers to adopt eco-friendly methods that lower production costs and boost yields; in the , improved varieties in generated an estimated $15 million in additional annual household income. In the , women managed the majority of bean production on over 3.5 million hectares in , handling tasks like planting, weeding, and harvesting; recent efforts (as of 2023) continue to address gaps in access to , , and markets through and linkages, empowering women and fostering equitable social structures. This economic uplift contributes to alleviation in rural areas, where bean farming supports livelihoods for millions and promotes resilience against environmental stresses. Despite these benefits, economic challenges from price volatility significantly affect smallholder bean farmers in the 2020s. Global disruptions, including the , led to sharp fluctuations in bean markets, with cross-border trade declining in Eastern and and reduced farmgate prices due to low demand and issues. More recently, events and input cost surges in 2022–2024 exacerbated volatility, with bean prices in Latin American markets like experiencing notable fluctuations. These swings heighten financial risks for resource-poor farmers, underscoring the need for stabilized markets and mechanisms to protect their livelihoods.

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