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A mare is an adult female horse or other equine.[1] In most cases, a mare is a female horse over the age of three, and a filly is a female horse three and younger. In Thoroughbred horse racing, a mare is defined as a female horse more than four years old. The word can also be used for other female equine animals, particularly mules and zebras, but a female donkey is usually called a "jenny". A broodmare is a mare used for breeding.
Reproductive cycle
[edit]
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Mares carry their young (called foals) for approximately 11 months from conception to birth, the average range being 320–370 days.[2] Usually just one young is born; twins are rare. When a domesticated mare foals, she nurses the foal for at least four to six months before it is weaned, though mares in the wild may allow a foal to nurse for up to a year.
The estrous cycle, also known as "season" or "heat" of a mare occurs roughly every 19–22 days and occurs from early spring into autumn. As the days shorten, most mares enter an anestrus period during the winter and thus do not cycle in this period. The reproductive cycle in a mare is controlled by the photoperiod (length of the day), the cycle first triggered when the days begin to lengthen. As the days shorten, the mare returns to the anestrus period when she is not sexually receptive. Anestrus prevents the mare from conceiving in the winter months, as that would result in her foaling during the harshest part of the year, a time when it would be most difficult for the foal to survive.[3]
However, for most competitive purposes, foals are given an official "birthday" of January 1 (August 1 in the Southern Hemisphere), and many breeders want foals to be born as early in the year as possible. Therefore, many breeding farms begin to put mares "under lights" in late winter in order to bring them out of anestrus early and allow conception to occur in February or March. One exception to this general rule is the field of endurance riding, which requires horses to be 60 true calendar months old (5 years) before competing at longer distances.
Fillies are sexually mature by age two and are sometimes bred at that age, but generally should not be bred until they have stopped growing, usually by age four or five.[4]
A healthy, well-managed mare can produce a foal every year into her twenties, though not all breeders will breed a mare every year. In addition, many mares are kept for riding and so are not bred annually, as a mare in late pregnancy or nursing a foal is not able to perform at as athletic a standard as one who is neither pregnant nor lactating. In addition, some mares become anxious when separated from their foals, even temporarily, and thus are difficult to manage under saddle until their foals are weaned.
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The formation of the bond between a mare and her foal "occurs during the first few hours post-partum, but that of the foal to the mare takes place over a period of days".[5]
Behavior
[edit]Mares are considered easier to handle than stallions. Some equestrians consider mares to be more difficult to handle than geldings. The results of a study by the Sydney School of Veterinary Science suggested that women riders have gendered assumptions about the suitability of mares, geldings and stallions for different disciplines and for different riders and chose different and more negative descriptors for the behavior of mares. This is despite an absence of scientific data confirming the assumptions. This may be significant for the handling and welfare of mares.[6]
In wild herds, a "boss mare" or "lead mare" leads the band to grazing, to water, and away from danger. She eats and drinks first, decides when the herd will move and to where. The herd stallion usually brings up the rear and acts as a defender of the herd against predators and other stallions.[citation needed]
Uses
[edit]
Mares are used in every equestrian sport and usually compete equally with stallions and geldings in most events, though some competitions may offer classes open only to one sex of horse or another, particularly in breeding or "in-hand" conformation classes. In horse racing, mares and fillies have their own races and only a small percentage compete against male horses. However, a few fillies and mares have won classic horse races against colts, including the Prix de l'Arc de Triomphe, the Kentucky Derby, the Preakness Stakes, the Belmont Stakes, the Melbourne Cup and the Breeders' Cup Classic.
Mares are used as dairy animals in some cultures, especially by the nomads and formerly nomadic peoples of Central Asia. Fermented mare's milk, known as kumis, is the national drink of Kyrgyzstan. Some mares, usually of draft horse breeding, are kept in North America for the production of their urine. Pregnant mares' urine is the source of the active ingredient in the hormonal drug Premarin (derived from Pregnant mares' urine).
Until the invention of castration, and even later where there was less cultural acceptance of castration, mares were less difficult to manage than stallions and thus preferred for most ordinary work. Historically, the Bedouin nomads of the Arabian Peninsula preferred mares on their raids, because stallions would nicker to the opposing camps' horses, whereas mares would be quiet. However, other cultures preferred male horses over mares either due to a desire for more aggressive behavior in a fighting animal, or to not be inconvenienced with a loss of work ability due to a mare's pregnancy, parturition and lactation.
Etymology
[edit]The word mare, meaning "female horse", took several forms before A.D. 900.[7] In Old English the form was mīere, mere or mȳre, the feminine forms for mearh (horse). The Old German form of the word was Mähre.[8] Similarly, in Irish and Gaelic, the word was marc, in Welsh, march, in Cornish "margh", and in Breton marc'h.[8] The word is "said to be of Gaulish origin."[8] It is said by some writers to derive from Proto-Germanic *marhijō ("female horse"), from Proto-Germanic marhaz ("horse"), from Proto-Indo-European *markos ("horse").[9][10] The word has no known cognates beyond Germanic and Celtic.[8] However, one hypothesis links these Indo-European words to Mongolian морь [11] (mori, horse). [12] [13] In addition, the Wiktionary entry for морь [11] includes a comparison to possibly related words for horse in Korean, Manchu, Chinese (馬/马 mǎ), Japanese (うま uma), and old formal Arabic is Mahrمهر One possible derived term is a mare's nest, an expression for "excitement over something which does not exist".[8] The term nightmare, is not directly connected etymologically with the word for female horse, but rather to homophones that meant "incubus" or "goblin".[8]
See also
[edit]References
[edit]- ^ "Oxford Dictionaries | The World's Most Trustegd Dictionary Provider". Oxford Dictionaries. Archived from the original on 2007-09-29. Retrieved 2017-11-12.
- ^ Ensminger, M. E. Horses and Horsemanship: Animal Agriculture Series. Sixth Edition. Interstate Publishers, 1990. ISBN 0-8134-2883-1 p. 156
- ^ Ensminger, M. E. Horses and Horsemanship: Animal Agriculture Series. Sixth Edition. Interstate Publishers, 1990. ISBN 0-8134-2883-1 p. 150
- ^ Ensminger, M. E. Horses and Horsemanship: Animal Agriculture Series. Sixth Edition. Interstate Publishers, 1990. ISBN 0-8134-2883-1 p. 149-150
- ^ Houpt, Katherine Albro (2002). "Formation and dissolution of the mare–foal bond". Applied Animal Behaviour Science. 78 (2–4): 319–328. doi:10.1016/S0168-1591(02)00111-9.
- ^ Fenner, Kate; Caspar, Georgina; Hyde, Michelle; Henshall, Cathrynne; Dhand, Navneet; Probyn-Rapsey, Fiona; Dashper, Katherine; McLean, Andrew; McGreevy, Paul (2019-05-14). "It's all about the sex, or is it? Humans, horses and temperament". PLOS ONE. 14 (5) e0216699. Bibcode:2019PLoSO..1416699F. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0216699. ISSN 1932-6203. PMC 6516668. PMID 31086385.
- ^ "mare". www.dictionary.com. Archived from the original on 2009-09-05. Retrieved 2009-09-30. Multiple definitions of Mare and its etymological origins. Web site accessed September 30, 2009
- ^ a b c d e f Etymology OnLine Archived 2007-12-14 at the Wayback Machine, accessed November 25, 2007
- ^ Vries, Jan de (April 28, 1977). "Altnordisches etymologisches Wörterbuch". E.J. Brill – via Google Books.
- ^ Brewer, Warren A. (1984). "The resistance of Latin equa 'mare' to replacement". Zeitschrift für vergleichende Sprachforschung. 97 (2): 236–243. JSTOR 40848753.
- ^ a b Wiktionary entry for Mongolian морь (mori, horse)
- ^ Article "Of horse riding and Old Sinitic reconstructions" on Language Log at the University of Pennsylvania.
- ^ Article "Mare, mǎ, etc." on Language Log at the University of Pennsylvania.
from Grokipedia
Overview
Definition
The term "mare" refers to an adult female horse (Equus caballus), conventionally defined in equestrian contexts as four years of age or older, distinguishing her from a filly, a female horse under four years old.[9] Biologically, sexual maturity is attained earlier, typically between 12 and 18 months of age, with the onset of regular estrous cycles around 18 to 24 months, marking the transition to reproductive adulthood.[10][11] In equestrian and legal contexts, particularly within breed registries such as the American Quarter Horse Association (AQHA), a mare is recognized as a mature female horse suitable for breeding purposes, often requiring intact reproductive capability for registration in breeding programs.[12] Sterilized or spayed females, while acknowledged as "spayed mares" in some regulatory documents, may be excluded from certain breeding classifications or incentives due to their inability to produce offspring.[12] The designation of "mare" applies primarily to horses and zebras among equines; it does not typically extend to donkeys, where a female is called a jenny, except in crossbreeding scenarios, such as the production of a mule, which results from a female horse (mare) and a male donkey (jack).[13][14][15] This distinction underscores the term's primary association with equine species focused on horse-specific husbandry and genetics.Terminology
In equestrian and veterinary contexts, several specialized terms describe mares based on their reproductive status and role. A broodmare is a female horse maintained specifically for breeding purposes.[16] The term dam refers to the mother of a foal, emphasizing her maternal lineage in pedigrees.[17] A barren mare denotes a non-pregnant adult female that has been bred but failed to conceive in the previous season, often requiring veterinary evaluation.[18] In contrast, a maiden mare is an adult female that has never been bred or produced a foal.[18] Age-related terminology marks the transition from a filly—a young female horse—to a mare at approximately four years of age, reflecting physical maturity.[19] However, exceptions exist in racing breeds; for Thoroughbreds, a mare is typically classified as five years old or older, with classifications often prioritizing age groups over sex for race entries.[20] Breed registries introduce variations for lineage and purity. The Arabian Horse Association uses purebred mare to designate a registered female horse with verified full Arabian ancestry, facilitating precise tracking in breeding records.[21]Etymology
Origins
The word "mare," denoting a female horse, traces its origins to the Proto-Indo-European root *márkos, reconstructed as referring to a horse, which developed into the Proto-Germanic *marhijō specifically for the female form.[22][23] This root is reflected in other Indo-European branches, such as Old Norse marr, meaning horse.[24] In the Germanic languages, the term evolved into Old English mēre or mȳre, used to describe female equines.[22] The equine "mare" must be distinguished from the unrelated Latin mare ("sea"), which entered English via Old French and denotes bodies of water or lunar features, creating a homonym in modern English.[22] In Romance languages, this distinction is clearer, as terms for female horses derive from Latin equa (e.g., Spanish yegua) or Vulgar Latin caballa, avoiding overlap with mare ("sea," e.g., French mer).[22]Usage in languages
In Romance languages, the word for a female horse diverges from the English "mare," reflecting adaptations from Latin roots. In French, "jument" denotes a mare and originates from the Latin iūmentum, meaning a beast of burden or pack animal, which evolved to specifically refer to female equines in late Latin and early French.[25] Similarly, in Spanish, "yegua" is the term for mare, derived directly from the Latin equa, the feminine form of equus (horse), illustrating a straightforward inheritance with phonetic shifts.[26] The Latin mare, however, persists in these languages primarily in nautical contexts to mean "sea," as in French mer or Spanish mar, unrelated to equine terminology but highlighting lexical retention in maritime usage.[27] Germanic languages exhibit their own variations on the Proto-Indo-European root for horse, with forms diverging from the English "mare." In German, "Stute" refers to a mare and traces back to Middle High German stuot, meaning a breeding stud or herd of horses, ultimately from Old High German stuot and Proto-Germanic *stōdą, denoting a horse herd that specialized to the female over time.[28] Dutch uses "merrie" for mare, derived from Proto-Germanic *marhijō, a feminine form related to the broader horse root *marhaz, showing a parallel but distinct evolution from shared ancestral terms.[22] Non-Indo-European languages developed independent terms for mare, uninfluenced by the Proto-Indo-European *márkos root that shaped Indo-European equine vocabulary. In Arabic, "فَرَس" (fars) specifically denotes a female horse or mare, distinct from "حِصَان" (ḥisān) for a stallion, reflecting Semitic linguistic patterns where gender is marked through separate roots rather than derivations.[29] Chinese employs "母马" (mǔ mǎ), literally "mother horse," combining "母" (mǔ, mother) with "马" (mǎ, horse), a descriptive compound that emphasizes reproductive role without etymological ties to Indo-European forms.[30] Culturally, the English "mare" appears in folklore through "nightmare," where "mare" derives from Old English mære, an incubus-like spirit that causes suffocation in sleep, unrelated etymologically to the equine "mare" despite superficial similarity and folk associations with a horse-riding demon.[31] This spectral usage, rooted in Proto-Germanic *marōn (meaning to crush or torment), illustrates how homophonous terms can blend in cultural narratives across Germanic traditions.[32]Physical Characteristics
Anatomy
The skeletal system of a mare consists of approximately 205 bones, similar to that of other equines, supporting a body weight typically ranging from 800 to 1,200 pounds. Mares generally stand between 14 and 16 hands high at the withers, providing a balanced frame for locomotion and load-bearing.[33] The muscular system features strong, layered muscles along the back, hindquarters, and limbs, with the longissimus dorsi muscle contributing to spinal stability. Compared to stallions, mares exhibit a more robust pelvis with a larger inlet diameter to accommodate reproduction.[34] The reproductive anatomy of the mare includes the external vulva, which forms the entrance to the reproductive tract and consists of two labia majora and a vestibule that helps protect against contaminants. The vagina is a muscular, elastic tube approximately 6 to 8 inches long, lined with a mucous membrane and connecting the vestibule to the cervix. The uterus is a Y-shaped, bicornuate organ with a short body and two elongated horns, suspended by broad ligaments and comprising three layers: serosa, myometrium, and endometrium. The ovaries are paired, kidney bean-shaped structures, each measuring about 2 to 3 inches in length and 1.5 to 2 inches in width, featuring a convex surface and a concave ovulation fossa. The clitoris, a sensitive erectile structure, is located at the ventral commissure of the vulva within the clitoral fossa.[35][36][37] Externally, the mare's udder is a paired mammary gland located between the hind legs, consisting of two mammae each drained by independent ductal systems and featuring one teat per gland, typically with two orifices per teat. The udder remains small and undeveloped in non-pregnant mares but enlarges post-foaling to support lactation. The mane and tail are similar in structure to those of stallions, composed of long, coarse hairs, but in breeds like Arabians, they are often fuller and longer, enhancing the breed's distinctive silhouette.[38][39] Breed variations in anatomy are pronounced; draft mares, such as Clydesdales, possess a heavier, more massive build with broader hips and thicker musculature to support pulling tasks, often reaching 16 to 18 hands in height. In contrast, light breeds like Thoroughbreds feature a leaner, more streamlined skeletal and muscular structure optimized for speed, with refined limbs and a shallower chest, typically measuring 15 to 17 hands.[40]Physiology
The circulatory system of the mare supports efficient oxygen delivery to muscles during activity, with a resting heart rate typically ranging from 28 to 40 beats per minute (bpm), which can decrease further in highly fit individuals.[41] This rate allows for rapid increases during exertion, facilitating endurance capabilities essential for the species' evolutionary role as a prey animal. The respiratory system complements this by enabling high-volume air exchange; at rest, a mare inhales about 80 liters of air per minute, with a total lung capacity of approximately 50 liters, allowing for ventilatory flows up to 1,800 liters per minute during intense exercise to sustain prolonged activity.[42][43] Oxygen transport in equine blood occurs primarily via hemoglobin, achieving high extraction efficiency from arterial to venous levels, though specific differences compared to stallions remain minimal and primarily tied to overall body size rather than sex.[44] The digestive system of the mare relies on hindgut fermentation in the cecum and large intestine, where microbial populations break down fibrous plant material into volatile fatty acids, providing up to 70% of the horse's energy needs from forage.[45] This process occurs after limited enzymatic digestion in the foregut, enabling efficient nutrient extraction from grasses and hays that form the bulk of the diet. Mares require 1.5% to 2.5% of their body weight in dry-matter forage daily to maintain gut health and prevent issues like colic, with higher intakes supporting optimal microbial balance in the hindgut.[46] In the sensory and nervous systems, the mare's olfactory capabilities are enhanced by the vomeronasal organ, an auxiliary structure that detects pheromones in sweat and urine, aiding in social recognition and environmental assessment without conscious awareness.[47] Vision is adapted for panoramic surveillance, with laterally placed eyes providing a 350-degree field of view, including a binocular overlap of 65 to 80 degrees directly ahead for depth perception during movement.[48] These features integrate with the nervous system to support rapid threat detection and coordinated responses. Metabolically, mares exhibit lower circulating testosterone levels than stallions—typically under 100 pg/mL compared to over 1,000 pg/mL in intact males—which contributes to a generally calmer disposition and reduced aggressive tendencies.[49] Heat regulation occurs primarily through apocrine sweat glands, densely distributed at about 800 per square centimeter, which produce a watery sweat that evaporates to dissipate heat effectively during exercise or hot conditions, preventing hyperthermia.[50]Reproduction
Estrous Cycle
The estrous cycle in mares is a seasonally polyestrous process, characterized by recurrent periods of sexual receptivity and ovulation during the breeding season, typically from spring to fall in the Northern Hemisphere. The average cycle length is approximately 21 days, consisting of the follicular phase (proestrus and estrus, lasting 5-7 days) and the luteal phase (diestrus, lasting about 14 days). During the follicular phase, ovarian follicles develop under the influence of follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) secreted by the anterior pituitary, leading to increased estrogen production that induces behavioral estrus. Ovulation occurs near the end of estrus, triggered by a surge in luteinizing hormone (LH), after which the ruptured follicle forms the corpus luteum (CL).[4][51] In the luteal phase, the CL produces progesterone, which maintains the uterine environment and suppresses further follicular development and estrus behavior for roughly 14 days until the CL regresses. Following luteal regression, progesterone levels decline, allowing FSH to stimulate new follicular growth and initiate the next cycle. Outside the breeding season, mares enter anestrus from approximately November to March, a period of ovarian inactivity with low gonadotropin levels, preventing cyclicity. This seasonal pattern is polyestrous, with cycles occurring approximately every 21 days during the active season.[4][52] Behavioral signs of estrus, or "heat," include frequent urination, vulvar "winking" (rhythmic contractions of the vulva), and mounting other mares or objects, driven by elevated estrogen levels. These signs facilitate mating and are most pronounced during the 5-7 day estrus period. Cycle influences include photoperiod, where exposure to at least 14 hours of light per day stimulates hypothalamic release of gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH), initiating cyclicity in spring. Age also affects regularity; young mares under 3 years and older mares over 15 years often have irregular or prolonged cycles due to immature or declining ovarian function.[53][6]Physiological Responses During Mating
Female horses (mares) exhibit physiological responses during mating that are analogous to orgasm in humans, including rhythmic contractions of the vagina, uterus, and pelvic muscles, as well as clitoral eversion and pulsation (known as "clitoral winking"). These contractions are believed to aid sperm transport and are similar to the muscular spasms in human female orgasm. However, unlike humans, there is no subjective evidence of pleasure or conscious experience in mares, as orgasm in animals is defined primarily by observable physiological criteria rather than self-reported sensation.Pregnancy and Foaling
The gestation period in mares typically lasts approximately 11 months, ranging from 320 to 362 days with an average of 340 days.[54][55] Following fertilization, the embryo migrates within the uterus until fixation and implantation occur around day 16 of gestation.[56][57] Placental development begins shortly thereafter, with the chorioallantois forming as the primary structure for nutrient and gas exchange in this diffuse epitheliochorial placenta.[56] Fetal development progresses through distinct stages observable via transrectal ultrasonography. The fetal heartbeat becomes detectable around day 25, appearing as a flickering motion within the embryonic vesicle.[57][58] By the third month (approximately 60-70 days), ultrasound allows for sex determination by visualizing external genitalia.[57] Fetal movement is first detectable via ultrasound around day 40 and becomes more pronounced by the fifth month, aiding in assessments of viability.[59] The foaling process, or parturition, unfolds in three stages. Premonitory signs of stage I, which lasts 30 minutes to several hours, include restlessness, sweating, and abdominal discomfort from initial uterine contractions; mammary gland development begins 3-6 weeks prior, with udder filling and possible colostrum leakage 2-4 days before birth.[60] Stage II involves active labor following rupture of the chorioallantois (water breaking), with the foal typically delivered in 10-20 minutes in uncomplicated cases, presenting anteriorly with front feet and nose first.[60][61] Stage III entails expulsion of the placenta within 1-3 hours post-delivery to prevent complications like metritis.[60] Dystocia, or difficult birth, occurs in 1-5% of cases and poses risks to both mare and foal due to prolonged stage II labor.[62] Immediately post-foaling, the mare produces colostrum-rich milk essential for the foal's passive immunity transfer, which must be ingested within the first 12-24 hours before gut absorption capacity declines.[60] Bonding occurs rapidly through maternal imprinting, with the mare nuzzling, licking, and allowing nursing to establish recognition and attachment.[63] Twin pregnancies are rare in mares due to limited uterine capacity, and the natural survival rate for both foals is extremely low, with successful deliveries occurring in approximately 1 in 10,000 cases, often resulting in abortion or neonatal loss.[64]Behavior
Social Interactions
Mares form the enduring core of horse herds, typically comprising stable family groups where an experienced older female, often termed the lead mare, guides group decisions such as movement and resource access. This leadership is established and reinforced through dominance displays, including ear pinning to signal warning, biting, or chasing subordinates to assert hierarchy. However, empirical observations in diverse populations suggest that a singular lead mare role may not be consistent across all herds, with leadership emerging fluidly based on context and individual experience rather than a fixed position.[65][66] Communication among mares and other herd members relies heavily on vocalizations and body language to navigate social interactions. Affiliative nickers serve to foster bonds and greetings, while sharp squeals denote aggression during conflicts. Non-verbal cues, such as tail swishing to convey irritation or varying ear positions—forward for attentiveness and pinned back for hostility—enable rapid assessment of intentions and maintain order without escalation. These methods allow mares to coordinate effectively within the group.[65][67][68] In herd dynamics, mares often assume roles in mediating disputes and upholding cohesion, exhibiting heightened aggression seasonally but generally promoting stability through affiliative actions like mutual grooming. Studies highlight that such bonds enhance group resilience, with mares indirectly safeguarding herd integrity by resolving tensions among peers.[69][70] Housing environments profoundly shape mare social bonds; research demonstrates that pasture-based group settings foster stronger affiliations and reduce stress indicators, such as abnormal behaviors, compared to isolated stall confinement, where opportunities for interaction are limited and anxiety increases. For instance, horses in communal pastures show more frequent positive contacts, underscoring the welfare benefits of naturalistic grouping.[71][72]Maternal Behavior
Immediately following foaling, mares initiate bonding with their newborn foal through instinctive behaviors such as nuzzling the foal's nostrils, nickering softly, and licking its body to dry it and stimulate circulation. This licking process typically lasts 1-2 hours, beginning at the head and progressing to the hindquarters, and aids in olfactory recognition via the mare's vomeronasal organ, solidifying the pair's unique bond within the first few minutes to hours after birth.[63] While most mares form strong attachments rapidly, foal rejection can occur if bonding fails, manifesting as avoidance, fear, or aggression toward the offspring; this is more common in primiparous (first-time) mares due to inexperience, with incidence rates around 5% overall but varying by breed, such as higher rates in Arabians (~5%) compared to Thoroughbreds (~1%).[73][74] In multiparous (experienced) mares, rejection is less frequent, as prior maternal success enhances protective and nurturing responses.[75] Nursing begins shortly after birth, with the foal ideally consuming colostrum—the mare's antibody-rich first milk—within the initial 12-24 hours to acquire passive immunity against infections.[76] Lactation supports the foal's growth for several months, but weaning typically occurs at 4-6 months in domestic settings to align with the natural decline in milk production and prepare the foal for solid feed; abrupt separation can induce significant stress in both mare and foal, marked by elevated cortisol levels, vocalization, and pacing, so gradual methods—such as staged distancing over days or weeks—are recommended to minimize these effects.[77][78] Mares exhibit strong protective instincts postpartum, remaining within about 6 feet of the foal for the first few days and displaying aggression—such as charging, kicking, or biting—toward perceived threats from other horses or humans to safeguard their offspring, with this vigilance peaking within 48 hours of foaling.[63][79] To teach social norms and independence, mares discipline foals through gentle nipping, pushing, or nudging, correcting unwanted behaviors like excessive nursing attempts or straying too far, which helps integrate the young horse into herd dynamics.[80] Breed variations influence foal rejection rates; for instance, Arabians show higher incidence (~5%) compared to Thoroughbreds (~1%).[74]Human Uses
Agriculture and Work
In pre-mechanized eras, such as 19th-century Europe, mares served essential roles in agriculture by plowing fields and pulling carts, contributing to the transition from oxen to horses as the primary draft animals due to their greater speed and endurance. This shift enhanced farming efficiency, with horses enabling faster cultivation and transport of goods across rural landscapes.[81] Mares, alongside geldings, were favored over stallions in these tasks for their calmer disposition, which supported consistent performance in demanding fieldwork without the distractions posed by stallion behavior.[82] In modern agriculture, dairy production from mares remains limited but culturally significant, particularly in Central Asia where their milk is fermented into kumis, a traditional beverage valued for its nutritional and probiotic properties. Additionally, mares contribute to sustainable practices through their manure, a nutrient-rich fertilizer that improves soil fertility and structure when composted, and via traction provided by draft mares in low-impact farming systems that reduce reliance on fossil fuels.[83][84][85] Mares hold substantial economic value in global equine agriculture, primarily as breeding stock selected for desirable traits like strength and productivity, enabling the perpetuation of working horse populations essential to rural economies. In regional contexts, such as Amish communities in the United States, mares are integral to draft work, powering plows and harvesters in machinery-free farming that preserves community traditions and environmental stewardship.[86]Sports and Recreation
Mares play a prominent role in equestrian racing, particularly in Thoroughbred events dedicated to fillies and mares, such as the Longines Kentucky Oaks, a Grade I stakes race held annually at Churchill Downs for three-year-old fillies covering 1 1/8 miles.[87] This race, valued at $1.5 million, serves as a key showcase for emerging female talent in North American racing.[88] Thoroughbred racehorses typically reach their peak racing performance around 4 to 5 years of age, with improvement rates from ages 2 to 4.5 often exceeding subsequent declines.[89] In addition to racing, mares excel in various Olympic-level equestrian disciplines. In dressage, mares have secured multiple medals; for instance, at the 2024 Paris Olympics, German rider Jessica von Bredow-Werndl and her mare Dalera BB won individual gold with a score of 90.093%, while Isabell Werth and her mare Wendy claimed silver.[90] In show jumping, the Thoroughbred mare Touch of Class, ridden by American Conrad Homfeld, achieved a historic double-clear round to win individual gold for the United States at the 1984 Los Angeles Olympics, marking the nation's first victory in the event.[91] Mares are commonly used in endurance riding, a discipline involving long-distance rides up to 100 miles. For recreational purposes, mares are frequently selected for trail riding and pleasure activities due to their generally affectionate and companionable temperaments, making them suitable for family-oriented equestrian pursuits.[92] Their sensitivity and loyalty can foster strong rider-horse bonds in non-competitive environments.[93] Notable racing mares include Ruffian, a 1970s American Thoroughbred who won all 10 of her starts before a fatal injury in a 1975 match race against Foolish Pleasure, and Black Caviar, an Australian champion undefeated in 25 races from 2008 to 2013, including 15 Group One victories.[94][95]Health and Welfare
Common Health Issues
Mares are particularly susceptible to reproductive disorders that can impact fertility and overall health. Endometritis, an inflammation of the uterine lining often triggered by bacterial contamination following breeding, affects approximately 15% of Thoroughbred mares after natural cover.[96] This condition, if persistent, leads to delayed uterine clearance and subfertility, with diagnosis typically involving cytology and culture of uterine swabs. Ovarian cysts, fluid-filled structures that can disrupt normal ovarian function, are relatively rare in mares, ranging from incidental findings to causes of anovulation and behavioral changes.[97] Urinary issues are more prevalent in mares due to their shorter urethra compared to stallions and geldings, facilitating ascending bacterial infections. Pneumovagina, also known as wind-sucking, involves air entry into the vagina and is common in older, multiparous mares with relaxed perineal conformation, predisposing them to secondary endometritis.[98] Urinary tract infections, including cystitis, occur more frequently in mares, presenting with symptoms like frequent urination and discomfort, often requiring antibiotic therapy based on culture results.[98] Musculoskeletal conditions in mares can arise from the physical demands of reproduction. Post-foaling, mares face an elevated risk of laminitis due to metabolic shifts during lactation, including insulin dysregulation and hormonal changes that weaken laminar attachments in the hoof. Conformational issues such as swayback (lordosis), characterized by a dipped topline, are frequently observed in broodmares after multiple pregnancies, resulting from ligament laxity and abdominal weight strain, though it rarely affects fertility directly.[99] Prevalence data highlights that colic incidence in mares is similar to that in stallions, estimated at 4-10% over a horse's lifespan.[100] In contrast, ovarian tumors, such as granulosa cell tumors, remain rare, comprising about 2.5% of all equine neoplasms.[101]Care and Management
Mares require a balanced diet tailored to their age, activity level, and reproductive status to maintain optimal body condition and support overall health. The foundation of their nutrition should consist of high-quality forage, such as hay or pasture grass, providing at least 1-2% of the mare's body weight in dry matter daily to meet energy needs.[102] Supplemental concentrates, including grains or commercial feeds rich in protein, vitamins, and minerals like calcium and phosphorus, may be added for working or lactating mares, but overfeeding should be avoided to prevent obesity and associated issues like laminitis.[103] Fresh, clean water must be available at all times, with intake typically ranging from 20 to 60 liters per day depending on environmental temperature and workload.[102] Housing for mares should prioritize safety, comfort, and hygiene to minimize stress and disease risk. Stalls measuring at least 3.6 by 3.6 meters for adults, with larger dimensions (up to 4.3 by 4.3 meters) recommended for non-pregnant mares to allow natural movement, should feature good ventilation to reduce respiratory issues from dust and ammonia buildup.[104] Bedding such as straw or wood shavings must be deep and clean, changed regularly to prevent bacterial infections, while nonslip flooring helps avoid injuries.[104] Pasture access is essential for behavioral health, with rotational grazing recommended to maintain forage quality and control parasites; compatible herd mates should be selected to reduce aggression, particularly during estrous cycles.[105] Regular exercise is crucial for mares to promote cardiovascular fitness, muscle tone, and mental well-being, with at least 1-2 hours of daily turnout in a paddock or pasture advised for non-working individuals.[105] Grooming should be performed daily using a curry comb and brush to remove dirt, stimulate circulation, and inspect for skin conditions, wounds, or signs of discomfort.[106] Hoof care involves professional trimming every 4-8 weeks to ensure balance and prevent lameness, with shoeing considered for mares in performance activities.[107] Veterinary management forms the cornerstone of mare care, encompassing annual examinations to assess overall health, including reproductive tract evaluations if breeding is intended.[106] Core vaccinations against tetanus, Eastern and Western equine encephalomyelitis, West Nile virus, and rabies are recommended annually or semi-annually based on risk factors, while influenza and equine herpesvirus vaccines may be given more frequently for mares in group settings.[108] Parasite control through fecal egg counts and targeted deworming with safe agents like ivermectin or fenbendazole is essential, avoiding certain treatments in early pregnancy if applicable.[109] Dental floatation every 6-12 months addresses sharp edges and malocclusions that can impair chewing efficiency.[106] Monitoring body condition scoring on a 1-9 scale helps guide adjustments in care, aiming for a score of 5-6 to support fertility and performance without excess fat.[110] Environmental factors, such as providing shade and fly control in summer or blanketing in extreme cold, further enhance welfare, with isolation protocols for new or ill mares to prevent disease transmission.[104]References
- https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/An_Etymological_Dictionary_of_the_German_Language/Stute