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Calophyllum
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Calophyllum
Calophyllum inophyllum
Scientific classification Edit this classification
Kingdom: Plantae
Clade: Tracheophytes
Clade: Angiosperms
Clade: Eudicots
Clade: Rosids
Order: Malpighiales
Family: Calophyllaceae
Genus: Calophyllum
L.
Species

see text

Synonyms[1][2][3][4][5][6]
  • Schmidelia Boehm. (Homotypic)
  • Apoterium Blume
  • Balsamaria Lour.
  • Calaba Mill.
  • Ponna Boehm.

Calophyllum is a genus of tropical flowering plants in the family Calophyllaceae. They are mainly distributed in Asia, with some species in Africa, the Americas, Australasia, and the Pacific Islands.[7]

History

[edit]

Members of the genus Calophyllum native to Malaysia and Wallacea are of particular importance to traditional shipbuilding of the larger Austronesian outrigger ships and were carried with them in the Austronesian expansion as they migrated to Oceania and Madagascar. They were comparable in importance to how oaks were in European shipbuilding and timber industries. The most notable species is the mastwood (Calophyllum inophyllum) which grows readily in the sandy and rocky beaches of the island environments that the Austronesians colonized.[8][9]

Description

[edit]

Calophyllum are trees or shrubs. They produce a colorless, white, or yellow latex. The oppositely arranged leaves have leathery blades often borne on petioles.[7] The leaves are distinctive, with narrow parallel veins alternating with resin canals.[10] The inflorescence is a cyme or a thyrse of flowers that grows from the leaf axils or at the ends of branches. In the flower the sepals and petals may look similar and are arranged in whorls. There are many stamens. The fruit is a drupe with thin layers of flesh over a large seed.[7]

Uses

[edit]

Many species are used for their wood. Some are hardwood trees that can reach 30 meters in height. They tend to grow rapidly. The outer sapwood is yellowish, yellow-brown, or orange, sometimes with a pink tinge, and the inner heartwood is light reddish to red-brown. The wood has a streaked, ribboned, or zig-zag grain. The wood has been used to build boats, flooring, and furniture, and made into plywood.[11][12] Calophyllum wood may be sold under the name bitangor, and the species may be used interchangeably; one shipment may contain boards from several different species.[13]

The timber provides very high chatoyance, with an average value above 24 PZC.[14]

Plants of the genus are also known for their chemistry, with a variety of secondary metabolites isolated, such as coumarins, xanthones, flavonoids, and triterpenes. Compounds from the genus have been reported to have cytotoxic, anti-HIV, antisecretory, cytoprotective, antinociceptive, molluscicidal, and antimicrobial properties. Some plants are used in folk medicine to treat conditions such as peptic ulcers, tumors, infections, pain, and inflammation.[15]

C. inophyllum is the source of tamanu oil, a greenish, nutty-scented oil of commercial value. It has been used as massage oil, topical medicine, lamp oil, and waterproofing, and is still used in cosmetics. Tacamahac is the resin of the tree. This species is also cultivated for its wood and planted in coastal landscaping as a windbreak and for erosion control.[13]

Symbolism

[edit]

A stylized Calophyllum is featured on the national coat of arms of Nauru.[citation needed]

Species

[edit]

As of August 2025, Plants of the World Online accepts the following 204 species:[1]

[edit]

See also

[edit]

References

[edit]

Bibliography

[edit]
[edit]
Revisions and contributorsEdit on WikipediaRead on Wikipedia

Calophyllum

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from Grokipedia
Calophyllum is a of approximately 200 of trees and shrubs in the Calophyllaceae, distributed pantropically with the majority concentrated in the Indo-Malaysian region of . These are characterized by their medium to large size, reaching heights of up to 45 meters, with straight cylindrical trunks, opposite leathery leaves featuring numerous parallel lateral veins and canals, and the production of white or yellow . Flowers are typically hermaphroditic, arranged in racemes or thyrses with four sepals and petals, while fruits are drupes containing a single large seed embedded in thin flesh. The inhabits a range of tropical environments, including wet and semi- forests, coastal regions, riverbanks, and , from to altitudes of 1800 meters. While most are trees, some occur as shrubs, and they are adapted to lowland rainforests as well as occasionally drier or flooded areas. Calophyllum are notable for their rich content of secondary metabolites, including coumarins, xanthones, triterpenes, and , which contribute to their ecological roles and potential applications. Economically, certain such as C. inophyllum provide valuable timber, medicinal extracts, and high-yield oils suitable for .

Taxonomy and Etymology

Classification

Calophyllum is a of flowering classified within the kingdom Plantae, division Tracheophyta, class Magnoliopsida, order Malpighiales, family Calophyllaceae. This placement reflects the current understanding based on the (APG) IV system, which recognizes Calophyllaceae as a distinct family of about 14 genera and 475 species, primarily tropical trees and shrubs. Historically, Calophyllum and its relatives were included in the broader family Guttiferae (an older synonym for ), but molecular and morphological analyses led to the segregation of Calophyllaceae in the late . Phylogenetic studies using chloroplast and nuclear markers have confirmed the of Calophyllum within Calophyllaceae and highlighted its close relationships to genera such as in the adjacent family and Mammea in Calophyllaceae, based on shared traits like resinous exudates and structure. For instance, mitochondrial genome analysis positions C. soulattri as a taxon to G. mangostana, underscoring evolutionary ties across these lineages. The encompasses approximately 204 accepted species, as documented in the database (August 2025 update), distributed predominantly in tropical regions. The type species is L., designated from Linnaeus's original description in (1753), which serves as the nomenclatural type for the genus.

and History

The genus name Calophyllum is derived from the words kalos (beautiful) and phyllon (), a reference to the attractive and often glossy foliage characteristic of its species. The genus was first formally described by the Swedish botanist in his seminal work in 1753, where he established the for several , including Calophyllum inophyllum. Linnaeus's description drew from specimens and accounts from tropical regions, marking the initial scientific recognition of this group. Prior to European botanical documentation, of Calophyllum, particularly C. inophyllum, played a vital role in Austronesian cultures, valued for their durable timber in constructing large ships that supported migrations across from approximately 3000 to 1000 BCE. Nomenclaturally, Calophyllum was originally classified within the family Guttiferae (now synonymous with Clusiaceae in broader senses), but post-1970s cladistic revisions based on morphological and molecular data led to its placement in the modern family Calophyllaceae, reflecting a more precise phylogenetic understanding. Key contributions to this taxonomic evolution include Linnaeus's foundational work and later efforts by botanist Peter F. Stevens, who in 1980 published a comprehensive revision of the Old World Calophyllum species and advanced familial reclassifications through phylogenetic studies of Clusiaceae.

Description

Morphology

Calophyllum are trees or, rarely, shrubs that typically reach heights of 10–30 m, with some larger individuals attaining up to 45 m; they feature straight trunks, and buttresses develop in many larger . The leaves are arranged oppositely, petiolate, entire, and coriaceous, usually elliptical to obovate in shape and 5–20 cm long, with numerous slender parallel secondary veins closely spaced and nearly perpendicular to the midrib, alternating with translucent glandular resin canals that appear as pellucid dots ( dots). The bark is rough and dark, often exhibiting characteristic diamond-shaped or boat-shaped (naviculiform) fissures, and it exudes white to yellowish upon injury; resin canals permeate the plant's tissues. Inflorescences occur as terminal or axillary cymes or thyrses, typically comprising 4–10 flowers with small, bracts. Flowers are bisexual, featuring 4 free, decussate sepals, 4–8 imbricate white to yellowish petals, and numerous stamens with slender filaments. Fruits are subglobose drupes measuring 2–5 cm long, green when immature and turning brown at maturity, with a fleshy exocarp, coriaceous to fibrous mesocarp, and containing 1 .

Reproduction

Calophyllum species exhibit varied flowering adapted to tropical environments, with blooming often seasonal in regions with distinct wet and dry periods, such as May to June in parts of for C. inophyllum, while equatorial populations may flower year-round or in multiple episodes linked to rainfall patterns. Flowers are typically hermaphroditic, measuring 1–2 cm in diameter, with 4–8 white or cream-colored petals, and numerous stamens providing rewards that attract pollinators. In some species like C. brasiliense, both hermaphroditic and functionally male flowers occur on the same tree, contributing to variable reproductive strategies within populations. Pollination in Calophyllum is primarily entomophilous, mediated by small insects such as bees and beetles that visit the fragrant flowers for nectar and pollen. These pollinators facilitate cross-pollination in low-density populations, though self-compatibility allows for autogamous reproduction in some cases, enhancing reproductive assurance in fragmented habitats. Fruit development follows , resulting in globose drupes that mature over 6–12 months, with pericarp turning from green to purplish black upon ripening; for instance, in C. brasiliense, ripening peaks 200–240 days after . The fruits, measuring 2–4 cm in diameter, contain a single large (1–3 cm long) with a hard, oily rich in , often comprising 50–70% content, which aids in dispersal by , animals, or water in coastal species like C. inophyllum. Seeds of Calophyllum maintain viability for short periods, typically weeks to a few months under moist conditions, with fresh seeds achieving up to 40% rates that decline significantly after one year of storage. is predominantly hypogeal, where cotyledons remain belowground within the seed coat, supporting initial seedling establishment in shaded, humid understories typical of their habitats. Mechanical , such as cracking the endocarp, can accelerate this process to 6–10 weeks, improving in cultivation.

Distribution and Habitat

Geographic Range

The genus Calophyllum exhibits a distribution, with approximately 204 accepted native to the and worldwide. These are predominantly found in the , with the vast majority occurring primarily in the Indo-Malesian region serving as the center of diversity. This region encompasses , including , , and the , with extensions to , , and various Pacific Islands such as , , and the . In Africa, Calophyllum species are present in disjunct populations, notably in , the , and East African coastal regions from to and . The genus also reaches , including northern and , where diversity is elevated. Endemism hotspots are concentrated in , particularly and , which harbor a significant proportion of the genus's . In the , the distribution is more limited, with approximately 10 species occurring from and southward to , including the , representing a notable disjunction from populations that suggests ancient long-distance dispersal events. Beyond its native range, Calophyllum has been introduced and cultivated in various tropical areas for ornamental, timber, or medicinal purposes, including Hawaii, Florida, the Bahamas, Bermuda, and Trinidad-Tobago. These introductions often occur in coastal or wetland environments similar to native habitats.

Habitat Preferences

Species of the genus Calophyllum predominantly occupy lowland tropical rainforests, coastal mangroves, and secondary forests, with a typical elevation range of 0–1,800 m above sea level. These habitats are characterized by humid, evergreen conditions in tropical regions, where the trees contribute to canopy layers in undisturbed primary forests or colonize edges in more open secondary growth areas. Calophyllum thrives in well-drained sandy or loamy soils, though it tolerates a range of substrates including , acidic low-fertility soils, and alkaline sandy types with low content. Optimal climatic conditions include high annual rainfall of 1,500–4,000 mm and mean temperatures of 20–30°C, supporting growth in consistently warm and moist environments. Adaptations such as salt tolerance enable coastal species like C. inophyllum to persist in saline-influenced littoral zones and mangroves, while deep root systems and thick leaves confer resistance to wind, drought, and periodic waterlogging. Juveniles exhibit , facilitating establishment beneath forest canopies, and many species function as pioneers in disturbed habitats, rapidly colonizing gaps in secondary forests.

Ecology

Pollination and Dispersal

Calophyllum species exhibit entomophilous , primarily facilitated by generalist pollinators such as bees from the family . In Calophyllum brasiliense, key vectors include the honeybee Apis mellifera and like Paratrigona subnuda and , which visit flowers for rewards during the day. Similarly, Calophyllum apetalum is pollinated by diurnal honeybees ( and Apis mellifera) and carpenter bees ( and Xylocopa pubescens), as well as anemophily, attracted to bright white flowers lacking petals but featuring prominent anthers. Across the genus, floral scents—often described as pleasant—and colors like white or cream further draw these generalist visitors, though beetles and flies occasionally contribute in the broader family. Seed dispersal in Calophyllum occurs mainly through zoochory, with birds and mammals consuming the fleshy drupes and depositing seeds away from parent trees. For instance, in C. brasiliense, frugivorous bats such as Artibeus lituratus and Platyrrhinus lineatus remove pulp and transport large seeds (average diameter 15.8 mm) to feeding roosts, enhancing germination by scarification while dispersing up to 5% of seeds beyond the parent crown. Frugivorous birds also play a role, preferring fruits with higher pulp-to-seed ratios, though bats dominate in some Neotropical habitats. Barochory supplements this in forest understories, where undispersed drupes fall by gravity directly beneath trees, comprising over 95% of fruits in some populations. Coastal species like Calophyllum inophyllum additionally rely on ocean currents (thalassochory) for long-distance spread, enabling gene flow across islands, with seeds remaining viable in seawater for over 90 days. Dispersal efficiency in Calophyllum is constrained by the large size, which restricts mobility and favors short-distance events near maternal , increasing vulnerability to predation (up to 4% under roosts). In fragmented habitats, large-seeded species like those in Calophyllum experience diminished reliance on large-bodied frugivores like bats and birds, leading to reduced dispersal distances and concentrated deposition under parents compared to continuous forests, potentially lowering diversity without intact disperser populations. This dependence heightens risks in altered landscapes, where secondary dispersal by smaller animals fails to compensate for lost megafrugivores.

Ecological Interactions

Calophyllum species play significant trophic roles in , often acting as keystone providers of and resources. In coastal and lowland rainforests, trees such as offer shelter, nesting sites, and food sources for vertebrates including bats, which preferentially feed on their fruits, thereby facilitating and supporting local faunal diversity. Additionally, these trees produce nectar-rich flowers that serve as a key resource for production, attracting bees and contributing to networks while enhancing ecosystem productivity. The exuded from their bark and stems functions as a primary defense mechanism, deterring herbivorous through its viscous, toxic properties that can immobilize mouthparts or cause irritation, thus reducing foliage damage and maintaining plant fitness in herbivore-rich environments. Symbiotic relationships further integrate Calophyllum into ecosystem dynamics, particularly through associations with arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF). Species like Calophyllum hosei and Calophyllum sp. in peat swamp forests form mutualistic bonds with AMF such as Glomus clarum and G. aggregatum, which enhance nutrient uptake—especially and —from nutrient-poor soils, promoting early growth and survival. These symbioses are crucial in wetland habitats, where they improve host plant resilience to waterlogged conditions and support overall forest regeneration by facilitating establishment in challenging substrates. Calophyllum contributes to by sustaining diverse communities and sequestering carbon in . In tropical , the complex canopy and bark structures of Calophyllum harbor varied assemblages, including beetles and , which utilize the foliage, , and litter as microhabitats, thereby bolstering trophic complexity and stability. Although specific studies on diversity associated with Calophyllum are limited, general patterns in similar canopies indicate support for hundreds of species per tree, aiding in and . Regarding carbon dynamics, Calophyllum-dominated stands in rainforests exhibit substantial sequestration potential; for instance, mature C. inophyllum plantations store approximately 54 Mg C/ha in , while broader tropical forest contexts with Calophyllum contributions reach 100–200 Mg C/ha, underscoring their role in mitigating atmospheric CO₂. These functions are particularly pronounced in coastal habitats, where Calophyllum helps maintain structural integrity against .

Uses and Cultural Significance

Economic and Traditional Uses

Calophyllum species, particularly C. inophyllum, yield a valuable hardwood utilized in various commercial applications due to its strength and workability. The timber is employed in boat-building, especially for constructing outrigger canoes and traditional vessels in tropical regions, where it forms keels, ribs, masts, spars, and oars. It is also used for furniture, cabinetry, flooring, and plywood production, serving as a general utility wood in construction. The air-dry density of the wood ranges from 540 to 900 kg/m³, with a reference value of 640 kg/m³, contributing to its suitability for structural uses. While durability varies by species, the heartwood exhibits moderate resistance to decay in certain contexts, such as marine environments, enhancing its longevity in boat construction. Beyond timber, Calophyllum provides materials for other products. Seeds of C. inophyllum, known as tamanu nuts, are pressed to extract oil used in for its moisturizing and emollient properties, rich in fatty acids like oleic (30-55%) and linoleic (15-45%) acids, which nourish the skin without medicinal claims. Bark decoctions serve as a and toughener for fishing nets and cords in traditional settings. The tree is commonly planted as an ornamental in coastal landscapes for its foliage and shade provision, valued in across tropical areas. In Pacific Island cultures, Calophyllum wood plays a key role in traditional crafts, particularly the of canoes essential for and inter-island . Its historical use in boat-building facilitated Austronesian navigation and settlement patterns across , as the durable timber supported long-distance voyages. Communities in and incorporate the wood into rituals involving seafaring tools, underscoring its cultural utility in crafts tied to maritime heritage.

Medicinal Properties

The genus Calophyllum is renowned for its rich array of bioactive compounds, particularly coumarins such as calophyllolide, xanthones, and inophyllums, which exhibit , antiviral, and cytotoxic properties. These secondary metabolites, isolated primarily from species like C. inophyllum and C. brasiliense, contribute to the plant's pharmacological potential through mechanisms including inhibition of inflammatory pathways and modulation of viral enzymes. For instance, xanthones and coumarins from Calophyllum species have demonstrated significant cytotoxic effects against various cancer cell lines , attributed to their ability to induce and inhibit . In , oil extracted from the seeds of C. inophyllum, known as , has been widely used topically for and treating skin conditions such as eczema, burns, and infections in Polynesian and Indian practices. This oil promotes tissue regeneration and reduces when applied to cutaneous lesions, a practice documented in ethnomedicinal records from Pacific Island and Southeast Asian communities. Its efficacy in accelerating cicatrization stems from the presence of fatty acids and bioactive coumarins that enhance deposition and defense at wound sites. Modern research has substantiated and expanded on these traditional applications, revealing activity against and fungi. Extracts from Calophyllum species, including and fractions of C. inophyllum, inhibit such as Staphylococcus aureus and certain fungi, with minimum inhibitory concentrations as low as 0.5 mg/mL in some assays. Notably, inophyllum B, a derivative, acts as a potent non-nucleoside inhibitor of HIV-1 , with an IC50 value of 38 nM, demonstrating antiviral efficacy in cell-based models without significant at therapeutic doses. properties have been explored for , where Calophyllum-derived xanthones and coumarins suppress tumor growth in leukemic and colon lines, though clinical trials remain limited as of 2025, with most confined to preclinical studies. Safety profiles indicate low in animal models, but high doses of -rich extracts may pose risks of due to metabolic activation in the liver, necessitating cautious use and further toxicological evaluation.

Symbolism

Calophyllum inophyllum holds a prominent place in national symbolism as part of Nauru's , adopted in , where a stylized branch of its white flowers appears in the lower right quarter against a background, evoking the island nation's coastal and natural heritage. This depiction underscores the tree's integral role in the Pacific island's identity, reflecting its prevalence along shorelines and its enduring presence amid environmental challenges. In Polynesian lore, , known locally as tamanu or kamani, is associated with voyaging and protection, stemming from its historical use in crafting durable canoes essential for long-distance ocean travel . Dedicated to deities like Tane, the god of forests, the tree was often planted near temples and sacred sites, symbolizing spiritual safeguarding and the interconnectedness of land and sea in indigenous traditions. Today, Calophyllum embodies tropical and , serving as a key element in eco-tourism and conservation projects that promote coastal restoration and environmental resilience in regions like and the Pacific. Its adaptability to marginal lands positions it as a model for sustainable practices, highlighting the balance between human activity and ecological preservation in modern tropical contexts.

Conservation

Threats and Status

Calophyllum species face significant threats primarily from anthropogenic activities that degrade their habitats. for , particularly oil palm plantations, and commercial has led to substantial habitat loss across , where many species occur; for instance, alone experienced a 28% decrease in tree cover between 2000 and 2019, equivalent to 8.12 million hectares lost. Overharvesting for high-quality timber, valued in construction and furniture, further exacerbates population declines, as seen in species like , which is selectively logged in its native range. Climate change poses additional risks, especially to coastal species such as , through sea-level rise and increased salinity, which threaten mangrove-associated and littoral forest habitats by inundation and altered hydrology. These pressures compound , reducing and regeneration potential in remaining stands. Regarding , the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) has assessed only a subset of the approximately 200 Calophyllum species, with no comprehensive genus-wide evaluation available as of 2025. Several taxa are classified as threatened, including Calophyllum morobense and Calophyllum waliense, both imperiled by deforestation in . In contrast, widespread species like are listed as least concern globally. Some Calophyllum species exhibit invasive potential outside their native range. Calophyllum inophyllum has naturalized in , where it spreads in coastal and disturbed areas, potentially competing with native vegetation due to its salt tolerance and by ocean currents, though it is not aggressively invasive.

Conservation Measures

Several Calophyllum species are protected within key reserves that safeguard habitats. In , the genus is present in , a encompassing the Leuser Ecosystem, where it forms part of the diverse dipterocarp and lowland flora essential for regional . In , species such as C. paniculatum, C. drouhardii, and C. milvum occur in protected areas like , supporting conservation efforts amid threats like vascular wilt pathogens. Ex situ conservation complements these efforts through botanic garden collections focused on propagation and genetic safeguarding. The National Tropical Botanical Garden (NTBG) in maintains living accessions and specimens of C. inophyllum, facilitating research and reintroduction potential. Similarly, the Royal Botanic Gardens, , contributes via its database, which documents Calophyllum distributions and supports global threat assessments for species conservation. Reforestation initiatives in the Pacific Islands prominently feature C. inophyllum for coastal stabilization and restoration, with programs in regions like and promoting its use in systems to enhance resilience against erosion and climate impacts. While no Calophyllum species are listed under at the genus level, individual taxa such as C. cuneifolium (Critically Endangered, IUCN) highlight the need for enhanced protections. Ongoing research emphasizes preservation through studies on population structure, such as those on C. brasiliense in Brazilian wetlands, which advocate for banks and targeted restoration to maintain adaptive variation. Sustainable harvesting protocols for medicinal Calophyllum , valued for compounds like calanolides, align with WHO Good Agricultural and Collection Practices, ensuring non-destructive collection to support long-term resource availability.

Species

Diversity and Enumeration

The genus Calophyllum comprises 204 accepted species, according to the most recent compilation in the database maintained by the Royal Botanic Gardens, , though taxonomic revisions continue to refine this count as new phylogenetic and morphological data emerge. Numerous synonyms—over 1,000 names historically associated with the genus—and a handful of unresolved are documented in major botanical databases, highlighting the challenges in delimiting boundaries due to morphological variability and historical misclassifications. These revisions often involve integrating molecular evidence to resolve polyphyletic groupings previously recognized within the genus. Historically, Calophyllum has been informally divided into sections such as Calophyllum and Kayea, differentiated primarily by venation patterns (e.g., parallel vs. non-parallel secondary veins) and characteristics (e.g., capsule dehiscence and seed coat texture). Recent phylogenetic analyses, however, have supported the reinstatement of Kayea as a distinct within Calophyllaceae, separating it from Calophyllum based on monophyletic clades defined by reproductive and traits, thereby simplifying the intrageneric classification of Calophyllum proper. This shift underscores the evolving understanding of the genus's internal structure through cladistic approaches. In terms of regional diversity, the genus exhibits a strong center of richness in the region, with the majority of species occurring predominantly in tropical rainforests of and the Indo-Malesian floristic realm. Only about 10 species are native to the , mainly in Central and South American neotropical forests, representing a minor portion of the genus's overall distribution. Biodiversity hotspots like host particularly high endemism, with over 50 species recorded across the island, many restricted to its diverse montane and lowland habitats.

Notable Species

Calophyllum inophyllum, commonly known as the tamanu tree or Alexandrian laurel, is a medium-sized characterized by its red outer bark, opposite leaves with parallel veins, and fruits. It exhibits a pantropical distribution, native to coastal regions from eastern through southern , , , and the Pacific Islands, where it thrives in sandy or rocky seaside habitats. This species is renowned for producing from its seeds, which has been traditionally used in and for its anti-inflammatory and wound-healing properties, and it also serves as a source for . Calophyllum brasiliense, or Santa Maria, is another medium-sized tree found predominantly in the Neotropics, including the , , and parts of southern . It features similar taxonomic traits to other Calophyllum species, with buttressed trunks and elliptic leaves. In traditional Brazilian medicine, its trunk bark decoction treats , while leaves yield mammea-type coumarins with anticancer potential; the heartwood contains xanthones exhibiting trypanocidal activity against parasites like . The wood is highly valued for timber in construction, furniture, and flooring due to its durability and resistance to decay, making it a commercially important species in the American tropics. Calophyllum soulattri is a medium-sized with reddish bark and fruits, distributed across , including , , and the , often in lowland rainforests. Traditionally, its infusion alleviates rheumatic pain, and seed oil addresses skin infections and , supported by xanthones and coumarins with effects. This faces threats from loss in tropical forests, contributing to its endangered status in certain regions. Other notable species include Calophyllum tetrapterum, a Southeast Asian tree valued for its ornamental white flowers and potential in landscaping, and Calophyllum ferrugineum, an endemic to Sri Lanka's wet zone forests, recognized for its ecological role in montane habitats despite limited commercial uses.

References

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