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Cheesemaking
Cheesemaking
Cheesemaking
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During industrial production of Emmental cheese, the as-yet-undrained curd is broken by rotating mixers.
A cheesemaking workshop with goats at Maker Faire 2011. The sign declares, "Eat your Zipcode", in reference to the locavore movement.

Cheesemaking (or caseiculture) is the craft of making cheese. The production of cheese, like many other food preservation processes, allows the nutritional and economic value of a food material, in this case milk, to be preserved in concentrated form. Cheesemaking allows the production of the cheese with diverse flavors and consistencies.[1]

History

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Cheesemaking is documented in Egyptian tomb drawings and in ancient Greek literature.[1]

Cheesemaking may have originated from nomadic herdsmen who stored milk in vessels made from sheep's and goats' stomachs. Because their stomach linings contain a mix of lactic acid, bacteria as milk contaminants and rennet, the milk would ferment and coagulate.[2] A product reminiscent of yogurt would have been produced, which through gentle agitation and the separation of curds from whey would have resulted in the production of cheese; the cheese being essentially a concentration of the major milk protein, casein, and milk fat. The whey proteins, other major milk proteins, and lactose are all removed in the cheese whey. Another theory is offered by David Asher, who wrote that the origins actually lie within the "sloppy milk bucket in later European culture, it having gone unwashed and containing all of the necessary bacteria to facilitate the ecology of cheese".[3]

Ancient cheesemaking

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One of the ancient cheesemakers' earliest tools for cheesemaking, cheese molds or strainers, can be found throughout Europe, dating back to the Bronze Age.[4] Baskets were used to separate the cheese curds, but as technology advanced, these cheese molds would be made of wood or pottery. The cheesemakers placed the cheese curds inside of the mold, secured the mold with a lid, then added pressure to separate the whey, which would drain out from the holes in the mold. The more whey that was drained, the less moisture retained in the cheese. Less moisture meant that the cheese would be firmer. In Ireland, some cheeses ranged from a dry and hard cheese (mullahawn) to a semi-liquid cheese (millsén).[5]

The designs and patterns were often used to decorate the cheeses and differentiate between them. Since many monastic establishments and abbeys owned their share of milk animals at the time, it was commonplace for the cheeses they produced to bear a cross in the middle.

Although the common perception of cheese today is made from cow's milk, goat's milk was actually the preferred base of ancient cheesemakers, because goats are smaller animals than cows. This meant that goats required less food and were easier to transport and herd. Moreover, goats can breed any time of the year as opposed to sheep, who also produce milk, but mating season only came around during fall and winter.

Before the age of pasteurization, cheesemakers knew that certain cheeses could cause constipation or kidney stones, so they advised their customers to supplement these side effects by eating in moderation along with other foods and consuming walnuts, almonds, or horseradish.[6][7]

Process

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The production of Gruyère cheese at the cheesemaking factory of Gruyères, Canton of Fribourg, Switzerland

The goal of cheese making is to control the spoiling of milk into cheese. The milk is traditionally from a cow, goat, sheep, or buffalo, although, in theory, cheese could be made from the milk of any mammal. Cow's milk is most commonly used worldwide. The cheesemaker's goal is a consistent product with specific characteristics (appearance, aroma, taste, texture). The process used to make a Camembert will be similar to, but not quite the same as, that used to make Cheddar.

Some cheeses may be deliberately left to ferment from naturally airborne spores and bacteria; this approach generally leads to a less consistent product but one that is valuable in a niche market.

Culturing

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Cheese is made by bringing milk (possibly pasteurised) in the cheese vat to a temperature required to promote the growth of the bacteria that feed on lactose and thus ferment the lactose into lactic acid. These bacteria in the milk may be wild, as is the case with unpasteurised milk, added from a culture, frozen or freeze dried concentrate of starter bacteria. Bacteria which produce only lactic acid during fermentation are homofermentative; those that also produce lactic acid and other compounds such as carbon dioxide, alcohol, aldehydes and ketones are heterofermentative. Fermentation using homofermentative bacteria is important in the production of cheeses such as Cheddar, where a clean, acid flavour is required. For cheeses such as Emmental the use of heterofermentative bacteria is necessary to produce the compounds that give characteristic fruity flavours and, importantly, the gas that results in the formation of bubbles in the cheese ('eye holes').

Starter cultures are chosen to give a cheese its specific characteristics. In the case of mould-ripened cheese such as Stilton, Roquefort or Camembert, mould spores (fungal spores) may be added to the milk in the cheese vat or can be added later to the cheese curd.

Coagulation

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During the fermentation process, once sufficient lactic acid has been developed, rennet is added to cause the casein to precipitate. Rennet contains the enzyme chymosin which converts κ-casein to para-κ-caseinate (the main component of cheese curd, which is a salt of one fragment of the casein) and glycomacropeptide, which is lost in the cheese whey. As the curd is formed, milk fat is trapped in a casein matrix. After adding the rennet, the cheese milk is left to form curds over a period of time.

Fresh chevre hanging in cheesecloth to drain.

Draining

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Once the cheese curd is judged to be ready, the cheese whey must be released. As with many foods the presence of water and the bacteria in it encourages decomposition. To prevent such decomposition it is necessary to remove most of the water (whey) from the cheese milk, and hence cheese curd, to make a partial dehydration of the curd. There are several ways to separate the curd from the whey.

Maturing cheese in a cheese cellar

Scalding

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In making Cheddar (or many other hard cheeses) the curd is cut into small cubes and the temperature is raised to approximately 39 °C (102 °F) to 'scald' the curd particles. Syneresis occurs and cheese whey is expressed from the particles. The Cheddar curds and whey are often transferred from the cheese vat to a cooling table which contains screens that allow the whey to drain, but which trap the curd. The curd is cut using long, blunt knives and 'blocked' (stacked, cut and turned) by the cheesemaker to promote the release of cheese whey in a process known as 'cheddaring'. During this process the acidity of the curd increases to a desired level. The curd is then milled into ribbon shaped pieces and salt is mixed into it to arrest acid development. The salted green cheese curd is put into cheese moulds lined with cheesecloths and pressed overnight to allow the curd particles to bind together. The pressed blocks of cheese are then removed from the cheese moulds and are either bound with muslin-like cloth, or waxed or vacuum packed in plastic bags to be stored for maturation. Vacuum packing removes oxygen and prevents mould (fungal) growth during maturation, which depending on the wanted final product may be a desirable characteristic or not.

Mould-ripening

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Main article: Cheese ripening

In contrast to cheddaring, making cheeses like Camembert requires a gentler treatment of the curd. It is carefully transferred to cheese hoops and the whey is allowed to drain from the curd by gravity, generally overnight. The cheese curds are then removed from the hoops to be brined by immersion in a saturated salt solution. The salt absorption stops bacteria growing, as with Cheddar. If white mould spores have not been added to the cheese milk it is applied to the cheese either by spraying the cheese with a suspension of mould spores in water or by immersing the cheese in a bath containing spores of, e.g., Penicillium candida.

By taking the cheese through a series of maturation stages where temperature and relative humidity are carefully controlled, allowing the surface mould to grow and the mould-ripening of the cheese by fungi to occur. Mould-ripened cheeses ripen very quickly compared to hard cheeses (weeks against months or years). This is because the fungi used are biochemically very active when compared with starter bacteria. Some cheeses are surface-ripened by moulds, such as Camembert and Brie, some are ripened internally, such as Stilton, which is pierced with stainless steel wires, to admit air to promote mould spore germination and growth, as with Penicillium roqueforti. Surface ripening of some cheeses, such as Saint-Nectaire, may also be influenced by yeasts which contribute flavour and coat texture. Others are allowed to develop bacterial surface growths which give characteristic colours and appearances, e.g., by the growth of Brevibacterium linens which gives an orange coat to cheeses.

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Cheesemaking has served as the theme of several fictional works and games. This includes Fromage, a 2024 strategy board game.[8][9]

See also

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References

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Bibliography

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[edit]
Revisions and contributorsEdit on WikipediaRead on Wikipedia

Cheesemaking

View on Grokipedia
from Grokipedia
Cheesemaking is the and of producing cheese by coagulating proteins to form curds, separating them from the liquid , and then processing the curds through steps such as salting, pressing, and to develop flavor, texture, and preservation qualities. This process transforms fresh —typically from cows, goats, sheep, or other mammals—into a concentrated that can range from soft and fresh varieties like queso fresco to hard, aged types like , with approximately 10 pounds of yielding 1 pound of cheese due to the removal of and . The process generally begins with preparing high-quality , often pasteurized using methods like low-temperature long-time (LTLT) at 63°C for 30 minutes to control microbial growth while preserving desirable properties. Starter cultures of , such as , are added to acidify the , followed by using to form curds. The curds are then cut, drained of , salted, pressed into shape, and often ripened under controlled conditions to develop the cheese's characteristics. Regulations govern aspects like raw milk use—such as the U.S. FDA requirement (as of 2025) for at least 60 days aging to enhance safety in interstate commerce, though recent studies indicate it may not fully eliminate certain pathogens like H5N1—and compositional standards for , , and , ensuring consistency and protection across more than 2,000 known cheese varieties worldwide.

History

Origins in Ancient Civilizations

The earliest archaeological evidence for cheesemaking emerges from the Neolithic period in Europe and North Africa, highlighting the practice's deep prehistoric roots. In Poland's Kuyavia region, sieve-like pottery fragments dated to approximately 5500 BCE contain residues of milk fats, indicating the separation of curds from whey in early cheese production by Linearbandkeramik farmers. These perforated vessels, analyzed through lipid extraction and gas chromatography, represent the oldest direct proof of cheesemaking in Europe, predating previous estimates by over a millennium. Similarly, in Libya's Tadrart Acacus Mountains, unglazed pottery from the Takarkori rock shelter, around 5000 BCE, bears chemical signatures of processed ruminant milk, suggesting pastoralists in the "Green Sahara" transformed milk into cheese or other dairy products to support their mobile lifestyles. The development of cheesemaking was closely tied to the of lactating animals in the , which provided a surplus of requiring preservation techniques for nomadic communities. Goats and sheep were domesticated around 8000 BCE in regions like modern-day and , followed by shortly thereafter, enabling herders to coagulate into portable cheese forms that resisted spoilage during migrations. This innovation likely arose from observing natural curdling in animal stomachs, where enzymes like facilitated solidification, a method that became foundational to early processing. By 4000 BCE, nomadic groups in and employed such stomach-derived for coagulation, as later corroborated by textual and visual records, transforming cheese into a vital nutrient-dense for and sustenance. In Sumerian civilization, cheesemaking gained prominence as a staple, with inscriptions from the Third Dynasty of around 2000 BCE referencing various cheese types in administrative and dietary contexts, underscoring its economic and culinary importance. An even earlier clay tablet from , dated to 3200 BCE, features the first known pictographic sign for cheese (GA'AR), evidencing its integration into Mesopotamian society millennia before formalized writing. Egyptian tomb murals from circa 2000 BCE, such as those in the , depict workers straining curds and shaping cheese, illustrating a sophisticated process involving salting and storage in reed molds. These practices spread via ancient trade routes and migrations, carrying cheesemaking techniques from the to and , where local adaptations emerged among diverse cultures.

Evolution Through the Middle Ages and Renaissance

During the , monastic orders, particularly the , played a pivotal role in advancing cheesemaking techniques across , building on ancient herding practices to develop more standardized and durable varieties. In 12th-century , monks refined production methods for both soft and hard cheeses, adapting local cow's resources to create products like the precursor to Pont-l'Évêque, originally known as Angelot. This square-shaped, , made by heating to around 40°C and adding , was crafted in monasteries near in the region, serving as a reliable source for monastic communities and pilgrims. These innovations emphasized controlled and rind development to enhance flavor and , marking a shift toward more consistent quality in regional dairying. To facilitate trade and long-term preservation, introduced advanced salting and aging techniques, exemplified by the emergence of Parmigiano-Reggiano in around 1250 CE. Benedictine and Cistercian orders in the region utilized cow's milk from monastery herds and salt from nearby Salsomaggiore mines to produce large wheels of hard, granular cheese, aged for extended periods to yield a dry paste suitable for transport. The first documented evidence of this cheese appears in a 1254 notarial from , noting its acquisition as a valuable , which underscores its role in medieval commerce. By the , such aged cheeses were widely traded, supporting economic exchanges across and beyond. The Renaissance period saw further commercialization, particularly in the Netherlands, where guild systems formalized cheesemaking standards around the 1500s to boost exports. In cities like Gouda, trade guilds enforced rigorous quality controls on production, weighing, and marking, ensuring uniformity in cheeses named after market towns rather than origins. This led to the rise of Gouda cheese, a semi-hard variety made from cow's milk and aged in wax-coated wheels, which became a staple for Dutch maritime trade, accounting for a significant portion of Europe's cheese exports by the 16th century. These guilds not only standardized techniques like pressing and brining but also protected regional reputations, laying groundwork for modern protected designations. The (1347–1351) profoundly disrupted European cheesemaking through massive labor shortages, prompting adaptations in agricultural practices that favored over intensive arable farming. With up to half the population lost, farms reduced grain cultivation and expanded rearing, as pastoral activities required roughly one-fifth the labor of crop production, leading to higher prices for milk, cheese, and related products. In and parts of , this shift increased dairy output but necessitated simplified recipes and processes—such as reduced handling and shorter aging for certain varieties—to accommodate fewer workers, ultimately influencing the scale and methods of cheese production into the late medieval era.

Industrialization and Modern Developments

The industrialization of cheesemaking began in the early , marking a transition from small-scale artisanal production to large-scale operations that enabled greater efficiency and consistency. The world's first commercial cheese was established in in 1815, initiating methods that relied on centralized processing of from multiple farms. In the United States, Jesse Williams opened the first cheese in 1851 near , where he innovated by pooling from neighboring farms and using mechanized equipment to produce standardized on a commercial scale. This model spread rapidly, with over 3,900 U.S. cheese factories operating by 1880, producing 216 million pounds of cheese annually and contributing to cheddar's emergence as a globally standardized variety through uniform manufacturing techniques. A pivotal technological advancement came with the invention of by in 1864, initially developed to prevent spoilage in wine and but soon adapted for to eliminate harmful pathogens, thereby facilitating safer and more reliable of cheese. Although adoption in cheesemaking was gradual, by the early , became widespread; for instance, Danish dairies implemented it for hard cheese production as early as 1908–1909, and by the 1930s, nearly all U.S. cheese factories had incorporated pasteurized to reduce risks of contamination. This process not only extended but also allowed for year-round production without seasonal quality variations, fundamentally transforming industrial cheesemaking. Regulatory developments in the further shaped modern cheesemaking by protecting traditional varieties amid growing industrialization. The European Union's (PDO) system, established under Council Regulation (EEC) No 2081/92 in 1992, safeguards cheeses tied to specific regions and production methods, such as France's , which must be made from in the Roquefort caves using traditional techniques. This framework has preserved over 200 European cheese designations, balancing industrial expansion with cultural heritage. Post-World War II, the rise of exemplified further modernization, driven by innovations like James L. Kraft's 1916 U.S. (No. 1,186,524) for emulsified, sterilized cheese that could be canned and stored indefinitely without spoilage. This technology gained prominence during and after the war for its convenience in and consumer products, leading to widespread adoption; by the mid-20th century, accounted for a significant portion of U.S. production, reflecting the shift toward shelf-stable, uniform dairy items in global markets.

Scientific Principles

Milk Composition and Properties

, the foundational ingredient in cheesemaking, consists primarily of , which accounts for approximately 87% of its total composition, serving as the medium in which other components are dispersed. The remaining solids include fats at about 3.5–4%, proteins at 3.2–3.3%, at around 4.8%, and minerals with vitamins comprising roughly 0.7%. These proportions can vary slightly by , diet, and stage of , but they establish the biochemical framework for cheese formation, where is largely expelled during , while fats and proteins are concentrated in the . Proteins in are divided into caseins (about 80% of total protein, or 2.6%) and proteins (20%, or 0.7%), with caseins forming the critical structure for development. Caseins aggregate into spherical micelles, typically 50–250 nm in diameter, stabilized by κ-casein on their hydrophilic surface, which prevents premature and maintains colloidal stability in . These micelles, comprising αs1-, αs2-, β-, and κ-caseins bound with , enable the gelation essential to cheesemaking when destabilized. Fat in milk exists as globules (3–10 μm in diameter for cow's milk), encapsulated by a phospholipid membrane, influencing cheese texture and yield through retention in the curd (up to 90%). Variations across species affect processing: cow's milk, with 3.5–4% fat, yields higher volumes of cheese due to greater overall milk production; goat's milk (4–4.5% fat) features smaller globules (around 2–3 μm), contributing to softer curds; while sheep's milk (6–8% fat) provides richer flavor and higher fat recovery but lower volume yields. The of fresh cow's milk ranges from 6.6 to 6.8, reflecting its near-neutral buffering capacity, which supports microbial activity and enzymatic reactions during early processing stages; acidity increases as forms, lowering to influence protein solubility and curd firmness. Elevated somatic cell counts (SCC >200,000 cells/mL), indicative of udder health issues like , degrade milk quality by increasing and , reducing efficiency, cheese yield (by 5–10%), and sensory attributes.

Role of Microorganisms and Enzymes

Microorganisms and enzymes are essential biological agents in cheesemaking, driving the biochemical transformations that convert milk into cheese through acidification, coagulation, and flavor development. (LAB), such as , serve as primary starter cultures that initiate by metabolizing , the primary sugar in milk, into via , which lowers the of the curd to approximately 4.6–5.2 and facilitates protein destabilization for proper texture formation. This acidification not only preserves the cheese by inhibiting pathogenic growth but also enables syneresis, the expulsion of whey from the . Propionic acid bacteria, including , play a specialized role in certain cheeses by fermenting into , acetic acid, and during ripening at elevated temperatures, leading to the characteristic eye formation through gas bubble expansion within the matrix. These bacteria contribute to the nutty flavor profile while maintaining microbial balance in the ripening environment. Enzymes are equally critical, with rennet—primarily composed of the chymosin extracted from calf stomachs or produced via microbial —hydrolyzing the kappa-casein in proteins to initiate , forming a stable network that traps fat and water. Microbial alternatives to animal-derived chymosin, such as those from genetically engineered fungi, offer consistent activity and ethical sourcing without compromising curd firmness. Lipases, often derived from microbial sources or animal pregastric tissues, break down fats into free fatty acids and , enhancing flavor complexity through the release of volatile compounds during . Molds like are introduced in specific varieties to promote internal sporulation and , producing blue-green veins and pungent flavors via secondary metabolites such as andrastins and mycotoxins that are safely metabolized or limited in concentration. These fungi also contribute to texture softening through enzymatic degradation of proteins and fats. However, bacteriophages pose significant contamination risks by infecting starter cultures, leading to incomplete acidification, weak curds, and economic losses in production; airborne or whey-derived phages can infiltrate vats, necessitating strict and phage-resistant strains. Overall, the interplay of these agents ensures the controlled biochemical evolution from to mature cheese.

Core Production Process

The basic cheesemaking process consists of the following sequential steps: beginning with fresh milk from sources such as cows, goats, or sheep, which may be pasteurized for safety or used raw in traditional and artisanal varieties; introducing starter cultures of lactic acid bacteria to ferment lactose into lactic acid, thereby acidifying the milk and initiating flavor development; coagulating the milk using rennet enzymes from animal, vegetable, or microbial origins to form a gel-like curd from milk proteins; cutting and stirring the curd to release the liquid whey portion, often with heating; draining the whey, salting the curds, pressing them into forms, and shaping; and ripening many cheeses for weeks to years, during which bacteria, molds, or yeasts continue fermenting to develop complex flavors and textures. Fermentation plays a central role throughout, particularly in acidification and ongoing microbial transformations.

Milk Preparation and Culturing

Milk preparation is the foundational step in cheesemaking, where raw or processed milk is sourced, standardized, and prepared for microbial activity to ensure consistent quality and safety. , primarily composed of water (about 87%), fat (3-5%), proteins (3-4%, mainly ), , and minerals, serves as the base material whose composition directly influences cheese yield and texture. Cheesemakers source from cows, goats, sheep, or other mammals, with bovine being the most common. , unheated and containing natural microorganisms, is used for traditional artisanal cheeses like certain hard varieties (e.g., ), as it preserves indigenous that contribute to flavor development, though it requires careful handling to mitigate pathogens. Pasteurized , heated to eliminate harmful , is preferred for most commercial production to enhance safety and standardize the process. Seasonal variations affect milk quality; fat content is typically lowest in summer (e.g., June) and highest in winter (e.g., ), with variations often within 0.5-1% around an average of ~3.8%, influencing cheese yield and necessitating adjustments during warmer months when protein levels also dip. Standardization adjusts the 's fat and protein content to achieve optimal ratios for specific cheese types, ensuring uniform composition and yield. Fat is commonly standardized to about 3.5% by blending whole with separated or skim , targeting a fat-to-casein ratio of approximately 1:0.7, which optimizes recovery (around 93% for Cheddar) and texture. Protein levels are fortified using skim powder or retentate to maintain consistency, particularly to counteract seasonal fluctuations. Following , the is pasteurized by heating to 72-73°C for 15-20 seconds to destroy pathogens while preserving desirable properties, then rapidly cooled to 30-32°C to prepare for culturing without promoting unwanted microbial growth. Culturing begins with of the cooled using starter cultures—primarily such as mesophilic strains (e.g., ) for milder cheeses or thermophilic strains (e.g., ) for harder varieties—at 1-2% of the volume to initiate . The mixture then undergoes a period of 30-60 minutes at the culturing , allowing the to multiply and produce , gradually lowering the to around 6.3-6.4 for optimal subsequent processing.

Coagulation and Curd Separation

Coagulation in cheesemaking involves the transformation of liquid into a gel-like state, primarily through enzymatic or acid-based methods, which sets the foundation for formation. The most common enzymatic approach utilizes , an preparation derived from calf stomachs or microbial sources, added to after culturing to initiate clotting. is typically added at concentrations of 0.02-0.1% (w/v), depending on its strength and the cheese variety, with the warmed to 30-40°C to optimize activity. This addition leads to gelation within 30-60 minutes, as in hydrolyzes kappa-, destabilizing casein micelles and allowing them to aggregate into a firm network that traps fat and water. Acid coagulation serves as an alternative, particularly for fresh cheeses like or , where direct acidification bypasses enzymes. Agents such as lemon juice () or vinegar lower the rapidly to around 4.6-5.2, causing to precipitate without the need for ; this method contrasts with enzymatic coagulation by producing a coarser, more fragile suitable for unripened varieties. Enzymatic methods, however, yield finer, more elastic curds ideal for aged cheeses due to the controlled and restructuring. Once the gel forms, curd separation begins with cutting the coagulum to release whey, the liquid byproduct. The curd is sliced into uniform cubes of 1-2 cm to increase surface area, promoting syneresis—the contraction of the protein matrix that expels moisture and whey from the curd particles. This process is crucial for achieving the desired moisture content in the final cheese, as smaller cuts accelerate whey expulsion but risk higher fat losses if not managed carefully. Several factors influence curd firmness during coagulation and cutting, ensuring a robust structure for subsequent processing. Temperature controls the rate of gelation and syneresis, with higher values (within 30-40°C) enhancing firmness by accelerating enzyme action and protein interactions. Calcium levels, often adjusted via calcium chloride addition, stabilize casein micelles and increase gel strength by bridging negative charges on proteins. Additionally, a gradual pH drop to 6.0-6.5, facilitated by starter cultures, promotes optimal aggregation and firmness by reducing electrostatic repulsion between micelles.

Draining, Pressing, and Salting

Following coagulation and curd separation, draining removes excess to concentrate the solids and control the cheese's moisture content. The curds are typically transferred to cheesecloth-lined colanders, perforated vats, or drainage systems, where they are allowed to drain passively for 1 to 24 hours, with the duration varying by cheese type—shorter for fresh or soft varieties (e.g., 10–60 minutes for ) and longer for semi-hard or hard cheeses to achieve lower moisture levels. During this phase, the curds are gently stirred or turned periodically to prevent matting, promote uniform acid development, and facilitate even whey expulsion without compacting the particles prematurely. Pressing consolidates the drained curds by expelling residual and shaping them into forms such as wheels or blocks, which is essential for developing the cheese's and texture. The curds are placed in molds, then subjected to graduated pressure using manual weights (typically 5–50 kg, starting light and increasing over time) or pneumatic cylinders in industrial settings, with pressing lasting from 15 minutes to overnight depending on the variety. For hard cheeses like Cheddar, higher pressures (e.g., up to 50 kg or equivalent) and extended durations (several hours) create a dense, firm texture by knitting the curds tightly together, whereas lower pressures suffice for softer styles. Salting is performed after draining or pressing (or integrated during milling in some processes) to enhance flavor, preserve the cheese by inhibiting unwanted , and further reduce moisture through osmotic draw. Dry salting involves mixing or rubbing 1–3% salt by curd weight directly onto the s, often stirred for 5–10 minutes to distribute evenly, as in Cheddar production. Alternatively, brining submerges the formed cheese in a 10–20% NaCl solution at 12–16°C for 1–24 hours (e.g., scaled to 1 hour per kg of cheese), commonly used for varieties like Gouda or to achieve a salt gradient and promote rind development. These methods collectively lower the , influencing the final texture—drier salting yielding firmer results—and preventing spoilage during subsequent .

Shaping, Molding, and Ripening

After the draining, pressing, and salting steps, the is transferred into molds or hoops to achieve the desired final shape and size of the cheese. These molds typically produce wheels or blocks with diameters ranging from 10 to 50 cm, depending on the cheese variety, such as smaller forms for semi-hard types like Gouda or larger ones for hard cheeses like Cheddar. The molded is then pressed under controlled to expel remaining , consolidate the structure, and form a smooth exterior, ensuring uniform texture and preventing defects like cracks. In cheeses that develop eyes, such as , the pressed wheels are placed in a warm room (around 20-22°C) initially to promote propionibacterial activity, which generates for eye formation; excess gas may be managed through careful monitoring or occasional piercing to prevent over-pressurization and splitting. During the subsequent phase, cheeses are stored in controlled environments typically at 8-15°C and 80-90% relative humidity, with durations varying from as short as 2 days for fresh varieties to up to 2 years for aged hard types like . To develop desirable rinds and ensure even maturation, wheels are regularly turned, brushed to remove excess moisture or unwanted growth, and sometimes washed or rubbed with solutions to encourage specific surface microflora. Salt incorporated in the prior salting step plays a key role in preservation by inhibiting pathogens and regulating moisture during this extended aging. Ripening involves intricate biochemical transformations that mature the cheese's flavor, texture, and aroma. Primary among these is , where enzymes from , starter , and non-starter microorganisms break down caseins into smaller peptides and free , contributing to savory notes and softening the texture over time. , the of fats by microbial lipases, releases free fatty acids that serve as precursors for volatile flavor compounds, enhancing pungency in varieties like blue or certain hard cheeses. These processes are complemented by remnants and citrate metabolism, yielding compounds such as for buttery aromas. The ripening stages begin with initial acid development, driven by starter lactic acid bacteria metabolizing residual lactose into lactic acid, which stabilizes the pH around 5.0-5.2 and sets the foundation for further changes. As starter bacteria decline, secondary fermentation takes over, primarily through non-starter lactic acid bacteria (e.g., Lactobacillus species) that proliferate under the low-oxygen, high-salt conditions, accelerating proteolysis, deaminating amino acids, and producing additional flavor volatiles to deepen the cheese's complexity. This microbial succession, lasting from weeks to years, is crucial for achieving the characteristic profiles of ripened cheeses.78952-7/pdf)

Variations and Cheese Types

Fresh and Soft Cheeses

Fresh and soft cheeses are unaged or minimally aged varieties characterized by their high content, typically ranging from 50% to 80%, which contributes to their creamy texture and short . These cheeses are produced through a rapid process involving of proteins, followed by draining of the without pressing, allowing for consumption within days of production. The basic step often uses acid, heat, or to form curds from solids, separating them from the liquid . Unlike aged varieties, fresh and soft cheeses do not develop a rind, as they lack the extended exposure to environmental factors that promote surface mold or . Prominent examples include , a stretched-curd cheese made by heating and the curds to achieve its characteristic elasticity; , which is whey-based and produced by reheating the leftover liquid from other cheese productions to extract additional proteins; and , a high-fat variety with 20% to 33% butterfat content. These cheeses emphasize simplicity in manufacture, focusing on fresh or sources to preserve mild flavors and soft consistencies suitable for immediate use in dishes. Culturally, fresh cheeses trace origins to Mediterranean and Latin American traditions, such as Italian mozzarella and , which have been staples in regional cuisines for centuries, and queso fresco, a crumbly variety from Central American countries like . The production yield for these cheeses reflects minimal concentration of solids, with approximately 1 liter of yielding 100-200 grams of finished product, depending on content and draining efficiency.

Semi-Hard and Hard Cheeses

Semi-hard and hard cheeses are produced through pressing and aging processes that result in firmer textures and longer shelf lives compared to softer varieties, typically featuring contents below 45% and solids levels of 50-60% achieved via protein compaction during handling and maturation. These cheeses rely on bacterial and enzymatic breakdown to develop complex flavors, with aging periods ranging from several months to over three years, allowing for the concentration of proteins and fats while reducing to minimal levels. The production emphasizes manipulation techniques that expel and control acidity, leading to dense, sliceable or grateable consistencies suitable for grating in the case of very hard types like . Key process adaptations distinguish these cheeses, such as cheddaring for varieties like Cheddar, where drained curds are cut into slabs, stacked repeatedly, and turned to promote further drainage and acidity development through activity. For elasticity and firmness, curds are often cooked or heated to 50-55°C during stirring, which expels additional moisture and restructures proteins into a more compact matrix, as seen in the manufacture of semi-hard cheeses. In , a semi-hard example, hole formation occurs via production from propionic acid fermentation by species during warm-room aging at 19-24°C, creating characteristic eyes as gas collects in the curd structure. Representative examples include Gouda, a semi-hard cheese made using a washed curd method where whey is partially drained and replaced with warm water to reduce lactose and acidity, followed by brining and aging for 4-12 months to yield a supple, nutty profile. , or Parmigiano Reggiano, represents hard cheeses through extensive aging of 12-36 months (often 24-36 for market standards), resulting in a granular texture ideal for grating, with no additives beyond milk, salt, and in its process. Storage for these cheeses involves protective coatings to maintain humidity and prevent drying or contamination during aging; wax coatings are commonly applied to Gouda wheels to seal the rind while allowing subtle flavor exchange, whereas cloth wrapping, often with or , is used for traditional hard cheeses like Cheddar to facilitate rind development and microbial balance. These methods ensure the cheeses achieve their final protein-dense structure, with solids compaction enhancing durability for extended maturation periods.

Blue and Mold-Ripened Cheeses

Blue and mold-ripened cheeses are distinguished by the intentional introduction of the fungus , which develops characteristic blue-green veins and imparts a pungent, complex flavor through its metabolic activities during ripening. These cheeses typically use cow's or and require specific aeration techniques to promote mold growth inside the paste. Representative examples include , made exclusively from raw of the Lacaune breed in , and , produced from pasteurized cow's milk in specific English counties. The production process begins with inoculating the milk or curd with P. roqueforti spores alongside starter cultures and to initiate . After curd formation, draining, and salting—often dry-salting the curd—the wheels or loaves are pierced multiple times with needles to introduce oxygen, enabling the mold to sporulate and form intricate veining patterns. This needling typically occurs around five weeks into for , with a second piercing after one week to enhance mold distribution. follows in controlled cool, humid environments at 10–12°C for 2–6 months, allowing the mold to break down fats and proteins while developing the cheese's crumbly yet creamy texture. The flavor profile of these cheeses arises primarily from methyl ketones, such as and 2-nonanone, produced by P. roqueforti through β-oxidation of fatty acids, yielding spicy, tangy, and earthy notes. During , the cheese's rises from an initial acidic level of about 4.6 to around 6.4–6.5 due to the mold's metabolism, which consumes and creates conditions favorable for further fungal growth and enzyme activity. Historically, the unique qualities of trace back to natural cave aging in the Combalou mountain's limestone cellars near , , where cool, humid conditions and natural ventilation through "fleurines" (air vents) fostered P. roqueforti development; this led to its recognition as the world's first (PDO) cheese in 1925, later formalized under EU PDO in 1996. Similarly, Stilton's traditional maturation in English dairies earned it PDO status in 1996, preserving methods that emphasize regional milk and controlled piercing for mold aeration.

Modern Practices and Innovations

Industrial Scalability and Equipment

Industrial cheesemaking has evolved to support high-volume production through advanced , enabling factories to thousands of liters of daily while maintaining consistency and . Large-scale operations adapt core , handling, and pressing steps using mechanized systems that minimize labor and maximize throughput. For instance, modern facilities can produce hundreds of tons of cheese annually by integrating continuous lines that handle volumes far exceeding traditional batch methods. Key equipment includes automated cheese vats with capacities up to 10,000 liters, constructed from for durability and hygiene. These vats feature integrated agitators, heating/cooling jackets, and automated curd cutting mechanisms to ensure uniform and syneresis across large batches. Manufacturers like Scherjon Dairy Equipment offer pre-press vats in sizes from 5,000 to 10,000 liters, allowing for efficient formation and initial whey drainage in a single unit. Continuous coagulation systems further enhance scalability by enabling non-stop milk processing, reducing downtime between batches. These systems, such as in-line flow processes, use immobilized enzymes like rennin in packed-bed reactors to achieve rapid and uniform formation without traditional vat interruptions. A patented continuous flow method, for example, forms discrete, firm in seconds, supporting output rates suitable for industrial lines producing semi-hard cheeses. Robotic pressing lines automate the forming and compression of curds into wheels or blocks, handling weights from 10 to 40 kilograms per unit at speeds of up to 100 pieces per hour. Systems from Fibosa, for instance, employ robotic arms to transfer curds to molds, apply precise pressure via pneumatic or hydraulic presses, and flip forms for even drainage, minimizing human intervention and defects like uneven texture. This automation is particularly vital for hard cheese varieties, where consistent pressing over 24-48 hours ensures proper expulsion and structure development. Standardization relies on computer-controlled monitoring of critical parameters like and temperature, integrated via sensors and IoT platforms throughout the production line. Probes immersed in vats track drops during culturing (typically from 6.7 to 4.6-5.2) and maintain temperatures between 30-40°C for , with real-time adjustments via automated valves and heaters to optimize yields. Such systems, as implemented by EDIBON, use data logging to predict cutting times and adjust for variability, achieving cheese yields of approximately 9-12 kilograms per 100 liters of for most varieties—equivalent to concentrating and fat about 10-fold. Hygiene protocols are paramount in industrial settings, with all equipment surfaces made of polished (typically 304 or 316 grade) to resist and bacterial adhesion. (CIP) systems automate sanitation by circulating alkaline detergents, acids, and disinfectants through pipelines and vats without disassembly, following a sequence of pre-rinse, wash, intermediate rinse, acid clean, and final sanitize. These protocols, outlined in USDA guidelines, reduce contamination risks from pathogens like , ensuring compliance with FDA standards and extending equipment life. The exemplifies industrial scalability, producing 14.2 billion pounds (approximately 6.5 million short tons) of cheese annually as of 2024, primarily through large factories equipped with these technologies. Leading producers like operate multiple facilities, such as those in and , where automated lines process millions of gallons of yearly to yield processed and natural cheeses for global markets.

Artisanal and Home Methods

Artisanal and home cheesemaking emphasize manual techniques that allow for customization and small-scale production, often drawing on traditional methods to create unique flavors reflective of local ingredients and environments. Practitioners typically work with batches ranging from a few liters to support experimentation, using hands-on processes like stirring curds by hand and monitoring temperatures without automated controls. These approaches contrast with industrial methods by prioritizing sensory qualities and variability, enabling makers to adapt recipes based on available resources. Essential tools for home and artisanal cheesemaking include basic kitchen items adapted for the process, such as a large stock pot for heating , a thermometer to track precise temperatures between 30–40°C for culturing, and measuring spoons or cups for dosing cultures and . Specialized equipment like a knife for cutting curds evenly, butter muslin or for draining , and colanders or strainers facilitate separation steps. For pressing, simple DIY presses can be fashioned from wooden boards and weights, while molds—often made from household items like plastic containers lined with —shape the curds; beginner starter kits commonly bundle these with mesophilic cultures, , , and small molds to simplify initial attempts. Adaptations in these methods frequently involve in small batches of 1–5 liters to preserve natural enzymes and that enhance flavor complexity, as seen in farm-style fresh cheeses where is cooled overnight and cultured at for 24–48 hours. Natural sourced locally from like , nettle, or provides a vegetarian alternative to animal-derived options, extracted by infusing parts in water to coagulate gently over 30–60 minutes. These adaptations allow for expression, where regional feed and microbial profiles influence the final product's taste. However, these hands-on approaches present challenges, including inconsistent results from variable milk quality, such as seasonal fluctuations in fat content or counts that affect firmness and yield during . Raw 's unpasteurized nature heightens safety risks, particularly from pathogens like , which can survive in soft cheeses and cause severe if not managed through proper acidification and aging. Home makers must rigorously test milk sources and follow protocols to mitigate these issues. A notable revival in farmstead cheesemaking—where cheese is produced solely from a single farm's —has occurred , with nearly 1,000 and specialty operations established since the late , many post-2000, emphasizing terroir-specific flavors from pasture-grazed animals. This growth, from fewer than 50 makers in the to over 800 by 2012, reflects increased interest in sustainable, place-based dairy products.

Sustainability and Quality Control

Sustainability in cheesemaking encompasses efforts to minimize environmental impacts through efficient byproduct management and responsible sourcing, while quality control ensures product safety and consistency via rigorous testing protocols. A primary focus is the handling of whey, the liquid byproduct comprising approximately 90% of the milk volume processed into cheese. This whey, rich in proteins, lactose, and minerals, is increasingly repurposed to avoid waste, with common applications including animal feed, biogas production via anaerobic digestion, and extraction for protein powders used in food and supplements. For instance, whey protein concentrates and isolates are produced through ultrafiltration, transforming what was once a disposal challenge into valuable resources that reduce biochemical oxygen demand in wastewater by over 80% when lactose is recovered. These practices align with circular economy principles, significantly cutting landfill contributions from dairy operations. Sustainable sourcing of milk further supports eco-friendly cheesemaking by prioritizing certifications and farming methods that lower . certifications, mandated under regulations like EU Regulation 2018/848, promote practices free from synthetic pesticides and fertilizers, enhancing and . Grass-fed herds, often encouraged in pasture-based systems, reduce carbon footprints by minimizing reliance on grain feeds and lowering enteric production during digestion. The , through its Farm to Fork Strategy, aims for at least 25% of EU agricultural land to be organic by 2030, directly influencing dairy supply chains by incentivizing such sustainable transitions and reducing use in by 50%. These approaches not only mitigate environmental harm but also improve milk quality for cheesemaking. Quality control in cheesemaking relies on standardized protocols to detect pathogens and evaluate sensory attributes, ensuring safe and high-standard products. The system, as outlined by the FDA, identifies risks like and in or during , with serving as a key monitored for time-temperature compliance (e.g., 161°F for 15 seconds). This preventive framework mandates corrective actions for deviations, such as holding suspect batches, to eliminate contamination risks. Complementing microbiological testing, sensory panels—typically comprising 5-8 trained evaluators—assess flavor and texture using defined attributes like saltiness, bitterness, or crumbliness, comparing samples against gold standards to grade quality and detect defects. These panels, often employed in industry settings, facilitate consistent flavor profiling essential for both industrial and artisanal cheeses. Despite these advancements, cheesemaking faces environmental challenges, particularly and consumption linked to upstream . accounts for approximately 50% of the sector's , with contributing about 30% to global anthropogenic , a potent short-lived pollutant. management exacerbates this, with operations responsible for a significant portion of agricultural (up to 40% in some estimates). use presents another hurdle, with the total for cheese production averaging around 5,000 liters per kilogram, encompassing for feed crops, animal , and processing—though direct processing ranges from 13 to 77 liters per kilogram depending on methods. Recent innovations include of low- cows and feed additives, potentially reducing emissions by up to 40% over 20 years. Addressing these requires ongoing innovations in feed additives to curb and efficient in facilities.

Cultural and Economic Significance

Role in Global Cuisine and Traditions

Cheese occupies a prominent place in , serving as a versatile ingredient that enhances flavors and fosters communal dining experiences across cultures. In , fondue—a melted cheese dish typically made with Gruyère and , dipped with bread—represents a cherished tradition originating in the , often enjoyed with white wine to balance its richness. In , hard cheeses like Parmigiano-Reggiano are integral to pairings, grated over dishes such as spaghetti or incorporated into antipasti platters, underscoring cheese's role in everyday and festive meals. In , , a fresh cheese made from curdled , is a staple in curries like masala or saag , providing a protein-rich element in vegetarian diets and reflecting ancient Vedic influences on dairy processing. Beyond culinary applications, cheese features prominently in rituals and festivals that reinforce regional identities and community bonds. Swiss alpine herding festivals, known as désalpe, celebrate the seasonal return of from mountain pastures with parades, music, and cheese-focused feasts, highlighting the symbiotic relationship between herders and their produce. In , cheese carries deep cultural weight, used in religious feasts and ceremonies since ancient times, where it was offered as tribute and valued for its brining preservation method tied to Mediterranean . England's cheese-rolling tradition at Cooper's Hill, dating back centuries, involves competitors chasing a Double wheel down a steep hill during spring , blending competition with local heritage. With over 1,000 recognized varieties worldwide, cheese embodies diverse regional specialties that preserve unique terroirs and techniques. , a brown cheese crafted from caramelized , exemplifies this diversity, prized for its sweet, spreadable texture and integral to breakfast spreads and snacks in Scandinavian traditions. Contemporary health perceptions of cheese balance its nutritional merits against potential drawbacks in modern diets. Fermented cheeses harbor from starter cultures, supporting gut health and digestion while offering low levels suitable for many with intolerances. However, cheese's naturally high sodium content raises concerns for cardiovascular health, prompting recommendations for portion control and selection of lower-sodium options to align with balanced eating patterns.

Economic Impact and Trade

The cheesemaking industry plays a significant role in the global economy, with production reaching approximately 23.5 million tonnes as of 2024/2025 (up from 23.8 million tonnes in 2023, a 2.2% increase). The European Union dominates as the leading producer, accounting for approximately 44% of global output at around 10.5 million tonnes in 2024, followed by the United States with about 6.5 million tonnes. This scale underscores cheesemaking's integration into broader dairy processing, where industrial methods have enabled efficient large-volume output to meet rising demand. Global cheese trade forms a vital component of international , with export values totaling approximately $45 billion in 2024, reflecting steady growth from prior years. Trade dynamics are shaped by tariff rate quotas and disputes, particularly between the and the , where retaliatory s have targeted specific cheeses like during broader agricultural conflicts, such as the 1990s banana trade war. These barriers, including quotas limiting EU cheese imports to the US, influence market access and pricing, though agreements like the US-EU aim to reduce such frictions. The industry supports substantial employment within dairy sectors, contributing to livelihoods for over 600 million people worldwide, with direct jobs in production, processing, and distribution estimated in the tens of millions, particularly in rural and developing regions. (PDO) labels enhance economic value for small farms by commanding premium prices—often 20-40% higher—for cheeses tied to specific regions, thereby sustaining local economies and encouraging traditional practices. Emerging trends highlight challenges from plant-based cheese alternatives, which grew at approximately 12.5% from 2023 to 2024 (market size from USD 3.10 billion in 2023), capturing market share amid vegan and health-conscious consumer shifts. Conversely, the premium artisanal segment is expanding at around 6-7% annually, driven by demand for high-quality, craft-produced varieties that differentiate from mass-market options.

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