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Islands of the Forth
Islands of the Forth
Islands of the Forth
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Satellite photo of the Firth of Forth and the surrounding area
The Bass Rock from North Berwick
Foghorn on the Isle of May

The Islands of the Forth are a group of small islands located in the Firth of Forth and in the estuary of the River Forth on the east coast of Scotland. Most of the group lie in the open waters of the firth, between the Lothians and Fife, with the majority to the east of the city of Edinburgh. Two islands lie further west in the river estuary.

The islands have a varied geology and history; over the centuries, several have had both ecclesiastical connections and a history of involvement in military occupations. Various lighthouses and other aids to navigation have been erected on the islands and skerries — one of these dates to the 17th century. But only one of the islands still has year-round human inhabitants. The area has diverse bird and sea life. The scientific name for the northern gannet was chosen in recognition of this bird's connection with the Bass Rock.

There are only a few islands off the coast of eastern Scotland, and most of them of any significant size are included in this group.[Note 1]

Geography

[edit]

Furthest east is the Isle of May, off the coast of Fife south of Crail. To the south in the outer Firth there is a group of islands off East Lothian near North Berwick and Gullane; from east to west they are the Bass Rock (also known simply as "The Bass"[1]), Craigleith, Lamb, Fidra and Eyebroughy. A second group lie in the inner Firth of Forth. Inchkeith and Inchcolm are off Kinghorn and Aberdour on the north shore, Inchgarvie lies midway between North and South Queensferry, and Inchmickery and Cramond Island are nearer to Edinburgh on the south shore. Alloa Inch and Tullibody Inch are furthest west in the estuarine waters of the River Forth.

Only one of these islands, Inchcolm, has had a resident population in recent years, although there have been monasteries, hermitages, lighthouses and fortifications on most of them in the past. In the late 19th century, the Isle of May had a population of over 20.[2] Many of the island names have the first element, "Inch-" (from Innis, the Gaelic word for "island").[3][Note 2]

Geology

[edit]

Geologically, most of the islands are the remnants of igneous intrusions. The Isle of May's rock is "fine grained basalt of a dark-grey colour with tinges of green and greenstone".[2] Fidra is also largely basalt[4] and The Bass is a phonolite volcanic plug.[5] Craigleith is a laccolith made up of essexite which is popular for making curling stones[6] and Cramond island is made up of dolerite.[7] Inchmickery and Inchgarvie are of igneous origin and the latter is partly made up of picrite. Studies of the landscape beneath the waters of the firth have revealed that the visible surface of Inchgarvie is only the top of a larger crag and tail structure similar in structure to Edinburgh Castle and the Royal Mile created by glacial action.[8][9][10] The tidal islet of Eyebroughy is about 1.5 kilometres (0.93 mi) to the west of Fidra.[11] Its component rock is trachyte and Lower Carboniferous in origin.[12]

Most of Inchkeith is of volcanic origin but there are also sections of sandstone, coal, limestone and shale, the last named containing numerous fossils. There are also several springs on the island.[13] Inchcolm is similarly varied, consisting of greenstone, sandstone, shale and limestone.[14]

Natural history

[edit]

The Firth is an important area for nature conservation and has a range of habitats including extensive mudflats, shingle shorelines and saltmarsh. The last named, which is well developed on Alloa Inch, is typically dominated by saltmarsh rush, sea club-rush, sea aster and common saltmarsh-grass.[15] The inner Firth is important for nationally and internationally important numbers of wintering wildfowl and wading birds and hosts populations of shelduck, knot, redshank, great crested grebe, teal and goldeneye.[16] The outer islands support significant numbers of nesting seabirds. The Bass Rock has more than 150,000 nesting northern gannets and is the largest single rock gannetry in the world.[17] When viewed from the mainland much of the rock looks white due to the sheer number of birds (and their droppings, which give off 152 tonnes of ammonia per year).[18] The scientific name of this gannet, Morus bassanus, is derived from the rock. The bird was traditionally known locally as the solan goose, and its eggs and meat were considered delicacies. It is estimated that in 1850 almost 2000 birds were harvested from the rock. Other bird species on the rock include guillemot, razorbill, cormorant, puffin, eider duck and numerous gulls.[19]

Craigleith from North Berwick harbour

Craigleith lies close to North Berwick's harbour and historically was used as a rabbit warren. The rabbits were bred for food but they were wiped out by myxomatosis in the 1950s. The Atlantic puffin colony on Craigleith, once one of the largest in Britain with 28,000 pairs, became endangered from 1999 onward, due to invasion of non-endemic tree mallow, which choked the puffins' burrows, preventing them from rearing their pufflings. A five-year project, SOS Puffin, led by the Scottish Seabird Centre at North Berwick, was launched early in 2007. Since then, hundreds of volunteers have been working hard to rid the island of the problem, ferried out by boat from the Seabird Centre during the winter months, when the puffins are at sea. There are signs that the puffins are starting to return to the island to breed.[20] Fidra, Inchmickery and Eyebroughy are RSPB reserves, the last being noted for its cormorants.[4][12][21] Over 240 species of bird and 60 varieties of seaweed have been recorded on the Isle of May.[2]

History

[edit]

Several of the islands contain pre-historic remains created by cultures whose names are unknown. They have also been affected by the successive influences of Celtic, Norse and English-speaking peoples during the historic period and this is reflected in their names. The islands also came under attack from Vikings during the early Historic period.

15th century

[edit]

During the reign of King James IV Inchkeith was the site of an extraordinary experiment. According to the historian Robert Lyndsay of Pitscottie, in 1493 James directed that a dumb woman and two infants be transported to the island, to ascertain which language the infants would grow up to speak when isolated from the rest of the world. It was thought that this would be the "original" language, or language of God. There is no reliable account of how the infants spoke although Lyndsay of Pitscottie reported that "some say they spoke good Hebrew".[22]

In 1497 Inchkeith and Inchgarvie were used as an isolated refuge for victims of syphilis[23] and in 1589, history repeated itself when Inchkeith was used to quarantine the passengers of a plague-ridden ship. (More plague sufferers came from the mainland in 1609 and in 1799, Russian sailors who died of an infectious disease were buried there.)[24]

Inchcolm is mentioned in Shakespeare's Macbeth where it is described as "Saint Colmes ynch".[25]

English garrisons

[edit]

Inchcolm was raided by English troops during the 14th century Wars of Independence.[25] In the 16th century Inchkeith, Inchcolm and Inchgarvie all suffered English occupation. The Earl of Somerset garrisoned the islands in 1547 after the Battle of Pinkie Cleugh. His force of marines were ordered to reinforce Inchkeith, and they built a large square fort, with corner towers, on the site of the present day lighthouse. His forces, mainly Italian mercenaries, were ejected by a combined Franco-Scottish force under General D’ Essé in 1549.[26]

Later fortifications

[edit]
Jetty and fortifications on Inchmickery

Only Inchcolm was fortified during the Napoleonic wars. Inchkeith was fortified (along with Kinghorn) in 1880. Inchgarvie was armed early in the 20th century. In the First World War and the Second World War Inchmickery, Inchcolm and Cramond Island formed part of a defensive line of guns covering anti-submarine booms across the river. [27] There is no evidence to support the popular belief that the defensive structures on Inchmickery were designed to make the island look like a battleship from a distance: the structures were placed to provide the best fields of fire for the guns, and to squeeze in as much accommodation as possible for the garrison. These buildings were later used for filming scenes of the film Complicity.[28]

Ecclesiastical associations

[edit]
Inchcolm Abbey

Many of the islands were said to have Culdee connections, and had chapels on them. Various saints also have connections with the islands. St Thaney or Thenaw was reputedly the mother of St Kentigern and is said to have been cast adrift in an oarless coracle in deep waters beyond the Isle of May by her father King Leudonus, which resulted in an abundance of fish in the seas nearby.[29] St Adrian of May was murdered there by invading Danes in 870 (who killed St Monance in the same raid). He was buried in a stone coffin on the island but is said to have floated across the Firth before coming to rest in a churchyard at Anstruther.[2][30] The Isle of May has a long history of ecclesiastical activity and there are various remains including that of a 13th-century Benedictine church.[2]

The Irish missionary Saint Baldred of Tyninghame resided on The Bass in the 8th century and there is a ruined 12th century chapel on Fidra dedicated to St Nicholas.[31][32] Inchcolm has connections to St Columba and King Alexander I was marooned on the island, and decided to make it the site of an Augustinian monastery.[24][25] In the 7th century St Adomnán of Iona founded a "school of the prophets" on Inchkeith in the late 7th century having met St Serf there.[24] Inchmickery's name may be derived from the Gaelic for "island of the vicar".[24]

[edit]
The lighthouse on the Isle of May

Many of the isles act as an aid to navigation. There are various lighthouses[33] and numerous devices to guide shipping in the busy waters near the ports of Leith and Rosyth.

In 1803, construction was begun of Inchkeith Lighthouse, designed and built by Thomas Smith and Robert Stevenson. The lighthouse stands 67 metres high and was operational by 1804.[34] The Fidra light was built in 1885 and automated in 1970.[35]

The light on the small rock of Oxcars was automated as early as 1894. At that time it was controlled by a clockwork timer and was powered using gas delivered weekly from Granton gasworks.[36] A lighthouse was constructed on the Bass Rock in 1902.[5]

The Isle of May light has a long history having been in operation since 1635 when a crude coal-fired structure was erected. The existing building was constructed in 1816, which was converted to a "rock station" in 1972 and automated in March 1989.[37] The island is owned by the Commissioners of the Northern Lights although managed by Scottish Natural Heritage as a national nature reserve.[2]

None of the islands are accessible by public transport except Inchcolm, which has a regular summer service.[38]

List

[edit]
Island Gaelic Name[39] Meaning of name Location Area (ha)[40] Highest point[11] Last inhabited
Alloa Inch Unknown Alloa island grid reference NS871915 c. 33 <5 20th century?
Bass Rock Unknown Possibly from Gaelic bathais, meaning "forehead".[5] grid reference NT602874 7.5[5] 107 1970s[5]
Craigleith Creag Lìte Rock of Leith grid reference NT555868 5 24[6] Inhabitation unlikely
Cramond Island Unknown island of the fort on the Almond river[Note 3] grid reference NT194785 7.7[41] 28 Possibly World War II
Fidra Unknown From the Norse for "feather island"[42] grid reference NT513868 10 20 1970[4]
Inchcolm Innis Choluim Calum/Malcolm or Columba's island grid reference NT189824 9 34 First decade of the 21st century
Inchgarvie Innis Garbhach rough island grid reference NT136795 0.83 19 Probably World War II
Inchkeith Possibly Innis Cheith or Innis Coit.[43][44][Note 4] wooded island[43] grid reference NT294825 20 59 1986
Inchmickery Possibly Innis nam Bhiocaire Possibly "island of the vicar" grid reference NT207803 <5 14 Probably World War II
Lamb Unknown From a common Norse name for a small island grid reference NT536867 0.5 15 Inhabitation unlikely
Isle of May Eilean Mhàigh Possibly "gull island"[2] grid reference NT653996 45 50 1989
Tullibody Inch Unknown Tullibody island grid reference NS862925 6 <5 Unknown

Outer

[edit]

The Isle of May is in the north of the outer Firth of Forth, about 8 kilometres (5.0 mi) off the coast of mainland Fife. It is 1.8 kilometres (1.1 mi) long, less than 0.5 kilometres (0.31 mi) wide and has a total area of 45 hectares (110 acres) making it by far the largest of the Forth islands. Although often inhabited in the past nobody has been recorded as living there since the automation of the lighthouse.[2][37] Rona is a tidal islet to the north joined to the main island by a bridge. Further north are North Ness, the Mars Rocks and Norman Rock. Clett and the Middens are stacks to the east and The Pillow is a skerry to the south east. Maiden Rocks and Maiden Hair lie just offshore to the south.[11]

The Bass Rock is about 2 kilometres (1.2 mi) offshore, and 5 kilometres (3.1 mi) north-east of North Berwick. This steep-sided island is currently uninhabited, but was lived on for many centuries. It has a castle dating from the 14th century, which was later used as a prison and there are the remains of a chapel built circa 1491. The Lauder family owned the island for almost six centuries, and it now belongs to Sir Hew Dalrymple whose family purchased it in 1701.[5] The rock features in various works of fiction, including Robert Louis Stevenson's Catriona. At 7.5 hectares (19 acres) in extent the Bass Rock is the second largest of the islands of the Forth. The Middens is a small stack that lies just offshore to the northwest.[5][11]

Craigleith lies north of North Berwick harbour. It was also purchased by Sir Hew Dalrymple, from North Berwick Town Council in 1814.[45]

Fidra

The Lamb is an uninhabited island about 100m long by 50m wide, flanked by the skerries North Dog and South Dog. There are other skerries between it and the shore including Bubbly Buss, the Law Rocks and the Hummel Ridges.[11] In February 2009, the island was bought by the Israeli paranormalist Uri Geller for £30,000.[46][47][48]

Fidra, archaically Fetheray,[49] is 4 kilometres (2.5 mi) north-west of North Berwick. Like the nearby islands it is the result of volcanic activity and has a substantial seabird population.[4] It can be accessed via a primitive jetty on the eastern shore.[24] It is said that R. L. Stevenson based his map of Treasure Island on the shape of Fidra.[4] The island is also attended by companion islets called North Dog and South Dog and Castle Tarbet is another islet to the south separated from the main bulk at high tides.[11]

Inner

[edit]

Inchkeith is close to the shores of Fife. Its history has been dominated by religion, its use as a quarantine and military events (see above). It is currently owned by Tom Farmer, founder of Kwikfit, although he doesn't live there.[24]

Inchmickery lies about 8 kilometres (5.0 mi) east of Inchkeith and it is about 3.5 kilometres (2.2 mi) north of the city of Edinburgh. It is only about 100 metres by 200 metres in size. Rocks known as the Cow and Calf lie to the north and beyond that, about halfway to Inchcolm, are the Oxcars, a hazard identified by a permanent light.[11]

Inchgarvie Island, showing position and size relative to the Forth Bridge.

Incholm is the only island in the Firth with a recent resident population, of whom there were two in the 2001 census[50] although there was no usually resident population recorded at the time of the 2011 census.[51] There is a resident custodian employed by Historic Scotland who maintains the island and runs the shop during the summer.[2] In the 14th century John of Fordun records the name as "Euomonia" (referring to the monasterium Sancti Columbe in insula Euomonia).[52] There are various skerries in the sea to the north including Swallow Craig, Car Craig, Meadulse and Craigdimas.[11]

Construction of the Inchgarvie cantilever of the Forth Bridge

Inchgarvie's name is from Innis Gharbhaidh which is Scottish Gaelic for "rough island" or possibly "Garbhach's island".[3] This island has a long history of fortification and is now incorporated into the Forth Bridge. In 1878, foundations for Thomas Bouch's Forth Bridge were laid on Inchgarvie but after the Tay Bridge Disaster these plans were abandoned. When construction of the bridge recommenced in 1882, the west end of the island was extended with a pier and used as the foundation for one of the cantilevers. The island was also used for a construction office and the castle buildings were re-roofed to accommodate workers. Some of the stone from the former castle was used to build the caissons of the bridge.[2][53]

Cramond Island in the Almond estuary is a tidal island that is 7.7 hectares (19 acres) in extent and is currently part of the Dalmeny Estate.[41] It lies about a mile from the shore and is a popular recreation area. The speed with which the water rises can catch visitors unawares, leaving them stranded.[54]

The ruins on Alloa Inch

Alloa Inch is an island in the tidal reaches of the River Forth near Alloa that consists of reed beds and salt marshes. There is a derelict farmhouse on the island and the Scottish Wildlife Trust has managed the island as a nature reserve since 1996.[55][56] Just upstream is the smaller Tullibody Inch – both are part of the Firth of Forth SSSI, which also includes the John Muir Country Park.[15]

Smaller and former

[edit]
Haystack rock off Inchcolm

There are various other small islets and skerries in the Firth. Along the north shore, from west to east, Preston Island near Culross is an artificial former island. This reclaimed land was created c. 1800 for salt production. More land was then reclaimed using ash slurry from Longannet power station from 1970 onward and it is now part of the mainland.[11][57] Just offshore are the Craigmore Rocks at grid reference NT001845, which were called "Kraig Maur" in Blaeu's Atlas. "Dow Kraig" on the same 17th century map appears to be under reclaimed land just along the coast south of Dunsyre House at grid reference NT116817[58][59] Nearby Rosyth Castle is a former tidal island[60] and Long Craig is now part of the Forth Road Bridge.[11]

There is another Long Craig south of Dalgety Bay and Haystack lies between it and Inchcolm. The Common Rocks are in Silversands Bay at Aberdour and West Vows, East Vows and another Long Craig lie off Kirkcaldy. Much farther along the coast there is another West Vows and East Vows at Earlsferry. The Carr Brigs are a hazard to shipping at the entrance to the Firth just off Fife Ness.[11]

There are fewer skerries on the south coast of the Firth. Little Ox lies off Musselburgh and the Black Rocks, including the Middle and Eastern Craigs lie just outside the Port of Leith.[11]

See also

[edit]
View of a snow-covered Fife, with Inchkeith in the foreground, from Portobello, Edinburgh.

References and footnotes

[edit]
[edit]
Revisions and contributorsEdit on WikipediaRead on Wikipedia

Islands of the Forth

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from Grokipedia
The Islands of the Forth are a collection of approximately 40 small islands, islets, and rocks scattered across the , the estuary of Scotland's on the east coast where it flows into the . These islands, divided into inner low-lying groups near the mainland and outer higher, rockier formations farther seaward, span from near in the west to beyond the Forth Bridges near and . Mostly uninhabited today, they feature diverse habitats including maritime grasslands, cliffs, and beaches, supporting significant and preserving layers of from prehistoric times through medieval monastic settlements to modern military defenses. Geographically, the islands range in size from mere rocks to larger landmasses up to 1.5 km long, with the inner Forth hosting sites like Inchcolm, , , and , while the outer Forth includes prominent features such as , , Craigleith, the Lamb, , and of May**. The Isle of May, located about 6 km off Fife's coast, covers 57 hectares and consists of red sandstone cliffs rising to 50 meters, serving as a key navigational landmark. , a southeast of , stands 107 meters high and is one of the world's largest colonies. Inchcolm, roughly 2 km offshore from Aberdour, measures about 70 hectares and is accessible by boat, while lies partially beneath the , historically used for quarantine and defense. Ecologically, the islands form a critical component of the Outer and Bay Complex (SPA), designated in 2020 to safeguard hundreds of thousands of breeding seabirds and diverse wintering waterfowl populations. Recent outbreaks have caused significant declines in some populations, notably gannets on . They support internationally significant numbers of species such as (Morus bassanus, with approximately 46,000 pairs on as of 2024), (Fratercula arctica, exceeding 110,000 pairs across sites as of recent surveys), (Gulosus aristotelis), (Sterna hirundo), and (Somateria mollissima). The Isle of May hosts the largest Scottish colony of s and substantial s, while the overall complex protects over 35% of Britain's and 23% of (Melanitta fusca) in winter. Managed as nature reserves by organizations like NatureScot, these sites face pressures from developments but benefit from monitoring and measures. Historically, the islands have been strategic outposts due to their position controlling access to the Forth estuary, with evidence of occupation dating back to the period on sites like the Isle of May. Inchcolm, known as the "Iona of the East," features Scotland's best-preserved monastic ruins, including a 12th-century Augustinian abbey founded around 1123 by King David I, which endured Viking raids and later served as a in both World Wars. Inchkeith boasts fortifications from the 16th-century Franco-Scottish wars, including a star-shaped fort, and was a key defense line in with gun batteries and searchlights. Similarly, Inchgarvie and hosted plague quarantine stations and anti-submarine defenses during the world wars, while was a notorious prison in the 17th century for . These layered histories underscore the islands' enduring role in Scotland's maritime and cultural narrative.

Physical Environment

Geography

The Firth of Forth is an approximately 50-mile-long extending from in the west, near the tidal limits of the River Forth, to the in the east, where it divides into an inner section dominated by narrower, more enclosed waters and an outer section that opens broadly to the sea. This , separating the regions of to the north and to the south, encompasses a diverse array of small islands scattered across its length, with the majority concentrated in the central and outer portions where tidal currents and wave action are strongest. Among the major islands, the Bass Rock lies in the outer Firth at coordinates 56°04′36″N 2°38′28″W, rising as a steep, isolated volcanic plug to a height of 107 meters and covering about 7.6 hectares. The Isle of May, positioned farther east at 56°11′03″N 2°33′20″W, is the largest of the group at 57 hectares, featuring undulating topography with a highest point of 49 meters and consisting of interconnected rocky outcrops suitable for seabird nesting. Inland toward the central estuary, Inchcolm is located at 56°02′02″N 3°22′41″W, a compact island of roughly 9 hectares with low-lying, rounded hills reaching up to 34 meters, surrounded by shallow waters. In total, about 12 notable islands dot the Firth, collectively spanning less than 200 hectares, their positions influenced by underlying geological formations such as volcanic plugs and sedimentary deposits. Tidal influences play a key role in the islands' physical layout and accessibility, with the inner featuring extensive mudflats and saltmarshes that emerge at , connecting some smaller islets temporarily to the mainland shores. In the outer sections, exposure to waves results in rugged coastlines and limited landing points, often restricted to specific harbors or calm conditions, while strong currents around the islands can render approaches hazardous during high tides or storms. These estuarine dynamics shape the islands' isolation, with mudflats providing foraging grounds and saltmarshes buffering wave energy, though they also contribute to variable erosion patterns along the shorelines.

Geology

The islands of the Forth primarily originated from volcanic activity during the and Permian periods, around 300 million years ago, amid the rifting that shaped the Midland Valley of . This episode involved widespread extrusion of lavas, pyroclastic deposits, and intrusive bodies such as sills and dykes, with subsequent differential by rivers, glaciers, and marine processes exposing resistant volcanic structures like plugs and necks. Offshore boreholes in the confirm interbedded tuffs, tuffaceous sediments, and rare lavas spanning from the Passage Formation into the Coal Measures. Igneous rocks dominate the islands' compositions, reflecting alkali basalt and related magmas. The Bass Rock exemplifies this as a volcanic plug of phonolitic trachyte, an alkali-rich igneous rock with low silica content, formed by the hardened core of an ancient volcano. Inchkeith displays basalt lavas and basaltic tuffs within a sequence of interbedded sedimentary rocks, including steeply dipping shales, mudstones, limestones, and sandstones totaling about 290 meters thick, dated to the Viséan stage. The Isle of May consists of a single sill of analcite-olivine-dolerite, a fine-grained mafic rock akin to basalt, dipping northeast at a low angle. Fidra and Lamb islands form parts of thick basalt sills, intrusive sheets of microporphyritic olivine- that intrude surrounding sediments. Post-Ice Age isostatic rebound has shaped coastal features, including raised beaches around the and scattered glacial erratics deposited by retreating glaciers during the . The durable igneous foundations of these islands, such as on , provided seismic stability critical for engineering feats like the , where solid rock allowed secure caisson placements.

Natural Environment

Ecology

The ecology of the Islands of the Forth is characterized by rich populations that dominate the biodiversity, supported by diverse habitats in a marine-influenced environment. The hosts one of the world's largest colonies of northern gannets (Morus bassanus), with approximately 110,000 individuals during peak breeding season as of 2023, though numbers have declined due to . Atlantic puffins (Fratercula arctica) are prominent on islands such as Craigleith and , where colonies include up to 5,000 and 900 apparently occupied burrows respectively, contributing to the regional puffin population. Roseate terns (Sterna dougallii) formerly bred within the Forth Islands (), though in smaller numbers, but no nests have been recorded in recent years, highlighting the islands' past role in supporting vulnerable tern species. Key habitats include steep cliffs ideal for nesting seabirds like gannets and terns, which utilize ledges and crevices for breeding, while grasslands on islands such as the provide burrowing sites for puffins and other . Surrounding marine waters form productive foraging areas, sustaining grey seals (Halichoerus grypus) and harbour seals (Phoca vitulina), with up to 4,000 grey seal pups born annually across the Forth islands. These habitats, shaped by the volcanic and sedimentary of the islands, foster interconnected ecosystems where terrestrial and marine elements overlap. The food webs of these island ecosystems revolve around small schooling fish, with seabirds heavily reliant on sandeels (Ammodytes marinus) and (Clupea harengus) as primary prey for provisioning chicks, influencing breeding success and . Seasonal migrations amplify , as the Isle of May serves as a critical stopover and breeding ground for approximately 200,000 seabirds annually, including passage migrants that rest and forage in the nutrient-rich waters. Invertebrates and vascular play supporting roles, with rabbits (Oryctolagus cuniculus) present on several islands grazing and altering vegetation structure, promoting short grasslands that benefit burrowing birds. Salt-tolerant grasses, such as those in the maritime grasslands of the Isle of May, dominate the flora, alongside lichens that colonize exposed rocky surfaces, including rare species like Anaptychia ciliaris subsp. mamillata on the Isle of May. These elements contribute to the islands' resilience in a saline, wind-exposed setting.

Conservation and Threats

The islands of the Forth are protected under several key designations that safeguard their , particularly for breeding . The Forth Islands (), designated in 1990, covers key sites such as , , and Craigleith, focusing on internationally important populations of species like cormorants, shags, and roseate terns. The broader Outer and St Andrews Bay Complex , extending across the and including islands like the May and the Lamb, protects a diverse assemblage including kittiwakes, puffins, guillemots, and razorbills. These , along with component Sites of Special Scientific Interest (SSSIs) such as the Forth Islands SSSI and Long Craig SSSI, form part of the EU's network, ensuring coordinated conservation management across the region. Conservation projects have targeted habitat restoration and control to support recovery. The Scottish Seabird Centre's Puffin initiative, launched in 2007 on Craigleith, has focused on removing the invasive tree mallow (Lavatera arborea), which had overgrown burrows and contributed to a decline in puffin breeding pairs from around 5,000 to fewer than 1,000. Through volunteer-led efforts, the has cleared significant areas of the , leading to increased puffin burrowing activity and breeding success by 2023, with ongoing monitoring showing no evidence of rats or other predators. Complementing this, the Restoration Forth , initiated in 2022 by a partnership including WWF and the Scottish Seabird Centre, aims to restore meadows across 4 hectares and reintroduce 30,000 European flat oysters by 2026, enhancing prey availability for seabirds in the surrounding waters. Emerging threats from , , and human activities pose significant risks to the islands' ecosystems. Sea-level rise, projected at approximately 0.47 meters by 2080 under high-emission scenarios for the Forth estuary, could erode low-lying islands and mudflats critical for , exacerbating habitat loss on sites like the group. Warmer sea temperatures are shifting fish distributions, reducing prey for s and contributing to breeding failures, as noted in monitoring of the Forth Islands . remain a concern, with tree mallow continuing to invade colonies despite control efforts, while sporadic incursions—such as detections on Inchcolm—threaten ground-nesting birds. Shipping-related , including transfer risks and coastal , further endangers marine habitats, prompting contingency plans like Forth to mitigate spills in the estuary. Recent developments highlight both challenges and community responses up to 2025. Monitoring in the Forth Islands indicates unfavourable conditions for roseate terns, with breeding pairs declining from 8 at designation in to zero recorded nests in recent years, attributed partly to prey scarcity amid environmental shifts. As of 2025, continues to impact breeding success, with fledging rates at 0.56 chicks per pair on , though survivors show resilience. The Scottish Centre has led cleanups along the Forth coastline, engaging volunteers in removing to reduce pollution impacts on island-adjacent habitats.

Historical Context

Early and Medieval History

The earliest evidence of human activity on the islands of the Forth dates to the period, with archaeological investigations revealing settlements and tools indicative of fishing camps along the Forth littoral. Sites such as Echline Fields and have yielded microliths and other artifacts dating to around 8000 BCE, suggesting seasonal occupation by hunter-gatherers exploiting marine resources. During the early medieval period, the islands experienced Norse influence through raids that disrupted monastic centers in the region beginning in the late 8th century, extending into the 9th and 10th centuries as Viking fleets targeted coastal areas including the . These incursions affected Pictish and emerging Gaelic societies, contributing to the cultural shifts in the area. Many island names incorporate "Inch," derived from Gaelic innis meaning island, though some scholars suggest possible Pictish substrates in the nomenclature of Forth islands, reflecting pre-Gaelic linguistic layers. In the early , Inchcolm was home to a hermitage inhabited by an unnamed religious . This site received royal recognition following King Alexander I's there in 1123, paving the way for later monastic development. Resource exploitation intensified in the medieval era, including the introduction of warrens on islands like Craigleith by the 13th century for fur and meat production, a practice common in Scottish estates. Monastic communities on Inchcolm engaged in farming, with grants of supporting agricultural activities such as cultivation and rearing to sustain the . By the 15th century, fortifications appeared on some islands, such as the , where Robert Stewart, an illegitimate son of King James V, received a grant in 1491 and began developing defensive structures amid ongoing regional conflicts. Early quarrying of occurred on , providing material for local constructions and later lighthouses, exploiting the island's geological resources.

Military and Fortifications

During the (1543–1550), English forces occupied key islands in the to secure naval dominance and facilitate invasions of mainland Scotland. In May 1547, Edward Seymour, Earl of Hertford, led an expedition that captured Inchcolm, establishing it as a forward base for ravaging the Lothians and attacking ; the occupation caused substantial destruction to Inchcolm Abbey's monastic structures. Later in 1547, Sir John Luttrell commanded a of 150 soldiers on Inchcolm, erecting defensive ramparts, gun platforms, and supporting naval vessels like the Saker and Double Rose to control shipping lanes until the English withdrew in March 1548 amid a Scottish blockade. was similarly seized by English admiral Edward Fiennes de Clinton in August 1548 to block French reinforcements, prompting Scottish and French counter-fortifications after its recapture. Subsequent centuries saw enhanced defensive works on the islands amid fears of foreign invasion. In the mid-16th century, Scottish forces, aided by Italian military engineers such as Lorenzo Pomarelli, constructed artillery batteries on to protect the Forth estuary following the . By the late , in response to perceived threats from French ironclad warships, the program led to the building of three self-defensible batteries on between 1878 and 1881, each equipped with underground magazines and modified gun pits for . received a similar battery installation during this era, armed initially with 6-inch guns to guard the outer estuary approaches as part of Britain's Victorian coastal defense network. In the , the islands played roles in both world wars, particularly during when the became a vital naval anchorage. Inchcolm hosted stations and anti-aircraft batteries, including aprons for 4.7-inch guns and emplacements, as part of the middle defenses controlling anti-submarine booms stretching to the coast. The Isle of May featured installations for aircraft detection and calibration, supporting the Chain Home Low system along Scotland's east coast. served as a base for anti-submarine nets and booms under the , preventing incursions into the protected anchorage. The functioned as a state prison in the late , notably holding —Presbyterian dissenters opposing the restoration of episcopacy—between 1672 and 1687, with around 39 prisoners incarcerated there at various times, including ministers like John Blackadder who endured harsh conditions in a purpose-built fortress. During Jacobite risings, the island saw significant military action, including a prolonged from 1691 to 1694 when Jacobite prisoners seized control, holding out with French support until surrendering on terms; the fortress was largely demolished by government forces in 1701.

Ecclesiastical and Cultural Significance

The islands of the have long held profound ecclesiastical significance, serving as remote sanctuaries for monastic communities and sites of martyrdom that drew medieval pilgrims seeking spiritual solace. Inchcolm Abbey, established around 1123 following King Alexander I's shipwreck on the island where he was sheltered by hermits, was formalized as an Augustinian priory under his brother David I and elevated to full abbey status in 1235, becoming a center of religious life and royal patronage in . The abbey, with its well-preserved church and cloister, symbolized the spread of Augustinian amid the rugged , though it endured fortifications and damages during later conflicts. On the Isle of May, St. Adrian's Chapel commemorates the 9th-century martyrdom of St. Adrian (also known as Ethernan), a and slain by Viking raiders around 875 alongside his companions, marking the site as an early Christian outpost in the face of pagan incursions. The chapel, part of a Benedictine founded around 1153 by monks from , evolved from earlier timber structures into a stone edifice that housed relics and graves, underscoring the island's role as a holy destination. Medieval pilgrims flocked to the Isle of May in significant numbers, with records indicating it attracted up to half a million visitors over centuries to venerate saints' shrines and seek cures, establishing it as one of Scotland's premier pilgrimage sites before its decline in the 16th century. The also contributed to this spiritual heritage through its early hermitage, founded by the 7th-century saint Baldred, who established a there as a place of ascetic retreat overlooking the Forth. This solitary outpost later transitioned to more fortified uses, but its origins as a hermitage highlighted the islands' appeal for contemplative religious life amid isolation. Culturally, the islands have inspired enduring literary works that weave their mystique into broader narratives. In William Shakespeare's (1606), Inchcolm appears as "Saint Colme's Inch," referenced in Act 1, Scene 2, where Norwegian invaders are denied burial until paying a ransom to the abbey, evoking the island's historical role in wartime diplomacy and sanctity. Similarly, the silhouette of influenced Robert Louis Stevenson's map for (1883), with the island's distinctive shape—visible from Stevenson's childhood home in —mirroring the fictional Skeleton Island and capturing the Forth's adventurous allure. Folklore surrounding the islands enriches their cultural legacy, particularly through tales tied to the abundant seals of the Forth. Selkie myths, prevalent in Scottish oral traditions, portray seals as shape-shifting beings who shed their skins to assume human form on land, often symbolizing themes of longing, captivity, and the sea's transformative power; these stories, while rooted in the , resonate with the Forth's seal populations and islands like the Isle of May, where sightings fueled beliefs in otherworldly encounters. On the , ghost stories persist from its time as a 17th-century prison for and political foes, including accounts of spectral apparitions haunting former inmates, such as a ghostly figure that appeared to a captive, compelling him to recount visions of unrest amid the rock's echoing cliffs.

Modern Uses

The islands of the play a crucial role in maritime , serving as sites for key that guide vessels through the estuary's hazardous waters. The hosts Scotland's oldest , the , established in 1636 as a coal-fired structure to warn ships of the rocky island. The island features multiple towers, including the main Northern Lighthouse built in 1816 by Robert Stevenson and the Low Light erected in 1844 to provide directional guidance for approaching ships. On , a constructed in 1903 by David A. Stevenson aids for vessels entering from the , and it was fully automated in 1988 with remote monitoring from . Inchkeith's , operational since 1804 and designed by Thomas Smith and Robert Stevenson, includes a historic installed in 1899 to signal in poor visibility, enhancing safety amid the island's surrounding reefs. Additional aids to shipping around the islands include navigation buoys marking safe channels and systems integrated into the Forth's (VTS), which monitors traffic near and other islands to prevent collisions with bridge structures and rocky outcrops. has historically served as a site, including during the plague outbreak of 1589, and functioned as a formal station from the late 18th to early 20th centuries, detaining ships and passengers during outbreaks to protect mainland ports. Major infrastructure developments leverage the islands for support in one of Europe's busiest maritime routes. The , a railway structure built between 1883 and 1890 under engineers Sir John Fowler and Sir Benjamin Baker, features its central tower and foundations on , spanning 2,529 meters and facilitating rail traffic across the estuary. The , completed in 1964, passes over and nearby islets, with its suspension design incorporating protective measures around island foundations to accommodate heavy vehicular and shipping volumes connecting to trade lanes. These bridges, vital for economic links between and , are navigated daily by thousands of vessels. Since the early , the adoption of GPS and (AIS) technologies has transformed navigation in the Forth, providing real-time positioning and vessel tracking to complement traditional aids. AIS, mandatory for larger ships since 2002 under rules, integrates with VTS radar for enhanced around the islands. These advancements have contributed to a significant decline in shipwrecks, from historical rates exceeding 100 per century in the —driven by , rocks, and —to near-zero incidents in recent decades, as recorded losses dropped sharply post-2000.

Tourism and Access

Access to the Islands of the Forth is primarily via organized boat trips, as private vessels face restrictions on most sites to safeguard and historical structures. Ferries to Inchcolm operate daily from Hawes Pier in between April and October, with typical adult fares around £25-£30 for a three-hour round trip including time ashore; additional landing fees apply separately. Trips to the Isle of May depart from during the same season, lasting four to five hours and costing £45-£50 per adult for landings, allowing 2-3 hours on the island for exploration. Landings on are prohibited without special permits due to its status as a protected bird sanctuary, though circumnavigation cruises from provide close views of the colony for £20-£30 per person. Key attractions focus on cultural heritage and wildlife observation, with guided tours of Inchcolm Abbey offering insights into its medieval monastic history; these one-hour walks, led by staff, explore the ruins and ancillary buildings during the 90-minute onshore stay. Birdwatching cruises to and Craigleith, operated from harbour, peak from May to August when puffin colonies are active, drawing several thousand visitors annually for sightings of , seals, and occasionally dolphins on 75- to 90-minute outings priced at £20-£25 for adults. These non-landing trips emphasize sustainable viewing, complementing brief mentions of the islands' ecclesiastical past without delving into detailed historical narratives. Tourism contributes to the local economy through facilities like the Scottish Seabird Centre in , which uses live camera feeds to the Forth islands and supports boat operations, employing the equivalent of 35 full-time staff and indirectly sustaining 30 additional jobs in the area. Following the 2020 disruptions, eco-tourism has rebounded with an emphasis on low-impact activities, aligning with broader Scottish recovery efforts that boosted visitor numbers to pre-pandemic levels by 2023 and reached record highs in 2024. Regulations ensure minimal environmental disturbance, including a £8.50 adult landing fee for Inchcolm to fund site maintenance, with no public access permitted on or routine landings on and Craigleith to protect breeding under NatureScot guidelines. These rules, which limit group sizes and enforce seasonal closures, support conservation objectives by reducing human-wildlife interactions. Since 2022, virtual viewing options through the Scottish Seabird Centre's online cameras and drone feeds have expanded, allowing remote observation of island colonies without on-site impact as of 2025.

List of Islands

Outer Islands

The outer islands of the Forth lie at the firth's eastern entrance, exposed to the and characterized by rugged volcanic formations that serve as vital stopover points for migratory seabirds. These islands, including the Isle of May, , , Lamb, and Craigleith, feature dramatic cliffs and limited vegetation, supporting large colonies of species such as puffins, gannets, and guillemots during breeding seasons. Historically, many have hosted lighthouses to guide maritime traffic through the hazardous approaches to the firth. The Isle of May, the largest of the outer islands at approximately 57 hectares, is a low-lying plateau with cliffs rising to 50 meters, managed as a National Nature Reserve since 1956. It supports over 200,000 breeding annually, including significant populations of puffins and razorbills, though numbers have been impacted by in recent years. It houses a seabird observatory established in the early for monitoring migratory patterns. The island's , operational since 1816 and automated in 1989, marks the end of permanent human habitation, with access now limited to seasonal boat trips from April to September. As a , it exemplifies the geological origins shared among the outer islands. Bass Rock, a sheer volcanic stack covering about 3 hectares and rising 107 meters from the sea, hosts the world's largest colony, with approximately 46,000 breeding pairs (as of 2024), though populations have declined due to from earlier peaks of around 75,000 pairs in 2014. The island features the ruins of a 16th-century , once a prison, but lacks permanent human access due to its steep terrain and protected status, with visits restricted to occasional guided boat landings. Its , built in 1903 and automated since 1988, aids at the firth's mouth, while the rock's exposure to swells makes it a key site for observing pelagic migratory species. Fidra, an RSPB Scotland nature reserve spanning roughly 10 hectares with cliffs up to 20 meters, is renowned for its puffin colony, which has benefited from habitat management to control invasive species. The island's distinctive shape, including a central archway, connects at low tide to the smaller Lamb island, a 0.25-hectare outcrop that also supports nesting seabirds and was colonized by puffins in the 1970s. Fidra's automated lighthouse, dating to 1885, continues to operate remotely, highlighting the islands' role in historical maritime safety amid their importance for trans-Saharan bird migrations. Craigleith, covering about 7 hectares with elevations reaching 48 meters, serves as a focal point for puffin conservation through the SOS Puffin project, which has removed invasive tree mallow to restore burrowing habitat after numbers dropped from approximately 28,000 pairs in 1999 to fewer than 1,000 by the mid-2000s; numbers have since recovered to over 5,000 pairs as of 2024. The island now hosts recovering colonies of puffins, shags, and other , with its cliffs providing ideal nesting ledges exposed to winds. A former site, demolished in 1966, underscores the navigational legacy common to these outer islands, which collectively form part of the for their avian biodiversity.

Inner Islands

The inner islands of the , located in the more sheltered western reaches of the estuary, are characterized by their partial protection from open-sea conditions, significant tidal fluctuations that influence ecosystems and , and extensive modifications stemming from historical fortifications, religious sites, and modern integration. These islands, generally smaller and more modified than their eastern counterparts, have served strategic roles in defense and while supporting diverse adapted to tidal cycles. Inchcolm, the largest and most prominent inner island at approximately 10.5 hectares, features the ruins of a 12th-century Augustinian abbey founded around 1123, which earned it the nickname "Iona of the East" due to its religious significance. The island's monastic buildings, including a well-preserved church, were fortified during the Wars of Independence and later used as a military garrison in both world wars, with up to 500 soldiers stationed there at times. It was last inhabited by a small permanent population of two recorded in 2001, with no residents by 2011, though caretakers associated with Historic Environment Scotland maintained the site into the 2020s; today, it remains uninhabited but is the most visited Forth island, accessible year-round by ferry from South Queensferry and drawing tourists to explore its abbey ruins and wildlife, including seals and seabirds. Inchgarvie, a compact island of about 0.8 hectares situated directly beneath the , has a long fortified history, including a 15th-century built by King James IV that later served as a state prison from 1519 to 1671 and a site for plague victims in 1580. During the World Wars, it formed part of "Fortress Forth" defenses protecting the bridge and nearby , with additional fortifications added for anti-submarine measures. Now uninhabited and integrated into the bridge's foundations, Inchgarvie supports nesting fulmars, , and cormorants but has no public access due to its structural role and restricted status. Smaller inner islands include , measuring around 1.3 hectares and located near Edinburgh's shore, which was fortified with gun emplacements during and II, including structures disguised as a to mislead potential invaders. These WWII ruins remain visible on the uninhabited island, now a for the Protection of Birds nature hosting colonies, though tidal conditions limit access to low tide or boat approaches. Long Craig, a low rocky islet partially incorporated into the Forth Road Bridge's support structure, contributed to historical bridge defenses and was designated a in 1989 for its nationally important breeding colony, reflecting ongoing tidal and human influences on its ecology.

Smaller and Former Islands

The smaller islands and islets of the consist primarily of rocky outcrops and stacks that are largely unlandable due to their exposed nature and tidal exposure. These features, such as the Cow and Calves—a cluster of rocks situated between and Inchcolm—pose navigation hazards for vessels in the busy shipping lanes of the inner firth. Similarly, rocky outcrops near Inchcolm serve as haul-out sites for and harbour seals, providing resting and moulting areas amid the surrounding monastic ruins and colonies. The Cow and Calves is also recognized as a designated seal haul-out, supporting populations of both seal species that frequent the firth's intertidal zones. Birnie Rocks, located approximately 0.4 km west of Granton Point along the southern shore, exemplify these minor features as a low-lying formation extending about 350 m in length and connected to the mainland at . Composed of Lower similar to nearby Wardie shore exposures, these rocks support niche including cormorants, which nest on exposed ledges during breeding seasons. Such islets collectively cover less than 5 ha and remain inaccessible for human landing except under optimal tidal conditions, emphasizing their role in the firth's coastal ecosystem rather than recreational or infrastructural use. Among the former islands, Preston Island stands out as a prominent example of 19th-century industrial alteration. Originally a rocky outcrop in Torry Bay south of Low Valleyfield, it was reclaimed around 1800 by Sir Robert Preston, 6th of Valleyfield, through the construction of a sea wall and infilling to create an for and salt production. Three coal pits—George, Lady Anne, and Eye—were sunk by 1807 to exploit shallow seams, with steam-powered machinery and a freshwater supporting operations that employed up to 30 workers. The venture collapsed in 1811 following a explosion that killed all underground miners, leading to abandonment; salt production persisted until the mid-1850s before the site fell into disuse. Subsequent land reclamation in the 20th century integrated Preston Island into the mainland, with ash slurry from Longannet Power Station filling surrounding areas from 1970 onward, transforming it into part of Torry Bay nature reserve. This reflects broader 18th- and 19th-century industrial reclamations along the firth's shores for mining and saltworks, reducing intertidal habitats. Ongoing sea-level rise, averaging 1.7 mm annually since the early 20th century, has contributed to the submergence or erosion of other minor features, exacerbating tidal influences on remaining stacks like Birnie Rocks.

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  112. https://www.innerforthlandscape.co.uk/about-the-landscape
  113. https://blog.historicenvironment.scot/2016/02/scotlands-dynamic-coasts/
  114. https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/earth-and-environmental-science-transactions-of-royal-society-of-edinburgh/article/quaternary-sea-level-change-in-scotland/0F061105A0C8695ABFA33D25AC01D87C
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