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Galero
Galero
Galero
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A cardinal's hat worn by St Jerome, depicted c. 1625 by Rubens

A galero (plural: galeri; from Latin: galērum, originally connoting a helmet made of skins; cf. galea) is a broad-brimmed hat with tasselated strings which was worn by clergy in the Catholic Church. Over the centuries, the red galero was restricted to use by individual cardinals while such other colors as black, green and violet were reserved to clergy of other ranks and styles.

Description

[edit]
Pius XII placing the galero upon the head of a cardinal at a consistory.

When creating a cardinal, the pope used to place a scarlet galero on the new cardinal's head during the papal consistories, the practice giving rise to the phrase "receiving the red hat." In 1969, Pope Paul VI issued a decree ending the use of the galero.[1] Since that time, only the scarlet zucchetto and biretta are placed over the heads of cardinals during the papal consistory. Some cardinals continue to obtain a galero privately so that the custom of suspending it over their tombs may be observed. Raymond Cardinal Burke has been known to publicly wear the galero on occasion in the 21st century.[2]

A few cardinals from Eastern Catholic sui iuris Churches don their distinctive headdresses particular to the Churches. Other ecclesiastical hats are used by ministers of other Christian communities. Alongside Catholic clergy, the Scots Public Register records its use by Episcopal and Presbyterian ministers. The Moderator of the General Assembly of the Church of Scotland uses a black hat, with blue cords and ten tassels.

The galero of the late Cardinal Owen McCann hangs from the roof of St. Mary's Cathedral in Cape Town, South Africa.

Traditionally, the galero hangs over a cardinal's tomb until it is reduced to dust, symbolizing how all earthly glory is passing. In a cathedral that has no crypt, the galeri are suspended from the ceiling. For example, following the death of Basil Cardinal Hume, Archbishop of Westminster, in 1999, his relatives had a galero installed above his tomb in Westminster Cathedral, alongside those of his predecessors.[citation needed]

History

[edit]

The privilege of wearing the red galero was first granted to cardinals by Pope Innocent IV in 1245 at the First Council of Lyon.[3][4] Tradition in the Archdiocese of Lyon is that the red color was inspired by the red hats of the canons of Lyon.[5] Pope Innocent wanted his favorites to be distinct and recognizable in the lengthy processions at the council.[6]

Anachronistically, some early Church Fathers are shown wearing a galero, notably Saint Jerome frequently is pictured in art either wearing a galero, or with one close by.[4] Even though the office of cardinal did not exist in Jerome's day, he had been secretary to Pope Damasus I, which in later days would have made him a cardinal ex officio.

Cardinal Jean Cholet used his galero to crown Charles of Valois in 1285 at Girona during the Aragonese Crusade, pronouncing him King of Aragon. As a result, roi du chapeau ("king of the hat") became Charles's nickname.

The use of the galero was abolished in 1969 with instruction Ut sive sollicite.[7]

Ecclesiastical heraldry

[edit]
Archbishop Giovanni Colombo wearing a galero with ten green tassels on each side

The galero continues to appear today in ecclesiastical heraldry as part of the achievement of the coat of arms of an armigerous Catholic cleric. The galero was originally a wide-brimmed pilgrim's hat, like a sombrero.[8] The ecclesiastical hat replaced the helmet and crest, because those were considered too belligerent for men in the clerical estate.[9]

The color of the hat and number of tassels indicate the cleric's place in the hierarchy. Generally, priests, abbots and ministers have a black hat with cords and tassels, the number depending upon their rank. Bishops generally use a green hat with green cords and six green tassels on each side, archbishops have likewise a green hat with green cords and ten green tassels on each side, and cardinals have a red hat with red cords and fifteen red tassels on each side. Depiction in arms can vary greatly depending on the artist's style.[9]

[edit]
  • Coat of arms of Lorenzo Cardinal Antonetti, with red galero
    Coat of arms of Lorenzo Cardinal Antonetti, with red galero
  • Bishop of Colonna family arms with green galero
    Bishop of Colonna family arms with green galero
  • Coat of arms of St. John de Britto with black galero
    Coat of arms of St. John de Britto with black galero
  • Coat of arms of Paulinus Greenwood, Abbot of St Augustine's Abbey with black galero
    Coat of arms of Paulinus Greenwood, Abbot of St Augustine's Abbey with black galero
  • Chinese bishops occasionally avoid having a green galero in their arms, as "wearing a green hat" is a Chinese idiom for "cuckold"; for some years as an auxiliary bishop of Hong Kong, Bishop John Tong Hon used a violet galero with violet tassels (which is actually the galero proper to an Honorary Prelate of His Holiness). However, he resumed the use of the green galero on his coat of arms when he became the bishop of Hong Kong until he was created cardinal in 2012.
    Chinese bishops occasionally avoid having a green galero in their arms, as "wearing a green hat" is a Chinese idiom for "cuckold"; for some years as an auxiliary bishop of Hong Kong, Bishop John Tong Hon used a violet galero with violet tassels (which is actually the galero proper to an Honorary Prelate of His Holiness). However, he resumed the use of the green galero on his coat of arms when he became the bishop of Hong Kong until he was created cardinal in 2012.

See also

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Further reading

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References

[edit]
[edit]
Revisions and contributorsEdit on WikipediaRead on Wikipedia

Galero

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from Grokipedia
The galero is a broad-brimmed, flat-crowned with tassels, traditionally presented to cardinals of the Roman Catholic Church by the as a symbol of their rank and authority. Originating from a Latin term denoting a made of skins, the galero evolved into a distinctive by the 13th century, with its earliest documented use dating to at least 1245 during the presentation to cardinals at the papal court. The hat features a wide silk brim edged with ribbon and a crown, often in vibrant scarlet to signify the cardinal's willingness to shed blood for the faith, and it includes thirty tassels (fifteen on each side) arranged in rows to denote the bearer's ecclesiastical status. Historically, the galero was conferred upon a cleric's to the cardinalate in a formal ceremony, where it was placed on their head or held above them, marking their entry into the as principal advisors to the . Following the cardinal's , a cherished custom involved suspending the galero above their tomb in a or , where it remained until the cords rotted and it fell to the floor—a symbolic act representing the soul's release from and ascent to heaven. This practice, documented in cathedrals such as St. Patrick's in New York (where Cardinal Francis Spellman's galero has hung since 1967) and , persisted for centuries but was formally abolished in 1969 by through the Instruction on the Dress of Cardinals, Bishops, and Other Prelates, which sought to modernize clerical attire amid post-Vatican II reforms. Despite the discontinuation of its physical presentation and use, the galero endures as a prominent symbol in ecclesiastical heraldry, appearing atop the coats of arms of cardinals to signify their dignity, even for those elevated after 1969. Custom replicas can still be commissioned from traditional Roman tailors like Gammarelli, and informal suspensions continue in some churches as a nod to liturgical , underscoring the galero's lasting cultural and symbolic resonance within Catholicism.

Overview

Definition and Etymology

The galero is a large, broad-brimmed, tasseled hat traditionally worn by high-ranking in the , particularly cardinals, serving as a symbol of their office and authority. It holds an exclusive association with the Latin Rite of the , distinguishing it from headwear traditions in the . The term "galero" derives from the Latin galērum (also spelled galerus or galera), which originally denoted a Roman lined with , as referenced in classical texts. Over time, the word evolved through , particularly Italian (galero) and Spanish (galero), to specifically refer to a wide-brimmed in the context of Catholic clerical attire. This linguistic development reflects the hat's transition from a general form of to a specialized symbol within Western , with its formal introduction to cardinals occurring in 1245 by .

Physical Characteristics

The galero is characterized by its distinctive broad, circular brim and low, flat crown, forming a wide, round designed for ceremonial wear. The brim, often described as very wide to provide substantial coverage, is edged with a silk ribbon for durability and aesthetic finish. This overall shape emphasizes functionality in outdoor settings while maintaining a formal, appearance. The hat's construction typically involves felt or for the main body, offering a sturdy yet lightweight material suitable for processional use, with used for the interior lining and decorative elements. Tassels are attached via long cords that descend symmetrically from both sides of the brim, creating balanced rows that hang down and terminate in fringed bows, enhancing the hat's ornate profile without impeding movement. Originally evolving from practical pilgrim headwear, the galero's broad brim was intended to offer shade and protection from the elements during travel and cavalcades.

Historical Development

Origins and Introduction

The galero emerged in the 13th century as a papal gift to newly created cardinals, marking their elevation within the Catholic hierarchy. formally introduced the red galero at the in 1245, bestowing it upon cardinals as a symbol of their distinguished status. This , held amid political tensions between the papacy and the , provided the occasion for Innocent IV to standardize elements of cardinal attire, including the galero, to visibly set them apart during gatherings. Initially, the galero served a practical purpose as headwear for outdoor papal processions and coronations, where its wide brim helped distinguish cardinals from lower-ranking in large crowds. Prior to its adoption, cardinals often relied on mitres for liturgical settings or simpler caps for everyday use, but the galero's design addressed the need for a more suitable, broad-brimmed option in public ceremonies. Introduced to distinguish cardinals from lower-ranking in large processions, it facilitated recognition amid crowds, enhancing the visibility of their role in papal events. From its inception, the galero carried early symbolic weight, representing the cardinal's direct appointment by the through the act of bestowal during consistories. It also embodied solidarity among members of the , underscoring their collective advisory function to the and shared commitment to the Church's mission. The term "galero" itself traces briefly to ancient broad-brimmed worn by pilgrims, adapted over time into this ecclesiastical form.

Evolution and Decline in Use

Following its initial introduction in 1245 for cardinals by at the , the galero's use expanded during the medieval period to encompass other ecclesiastical ranks. By the 14th and 15th centuries, bishops began incorporating a galero into their heraldic achievements, symbolizing their episcopal authority, while abbots adopted similar forms, often in black to reflect their monastic leadership. This period also saw increasing complexity in the design, evolving from simple cords to multiple rows of tassels—typically six per side for bishops—allowing for clearer distinction of rank within the Church hierarchy. During the and eras, the galero became standardized in papal ceremonies, particularly for cardinals, where the red variant with fifteen tassels per side underscored their role in consistories and processions. However, its broad brim and weight proved increasingly impractical for extended wear, especially indoors or during non-festive duties, leading to the —a smaller, square-capped alternative—as the preferred headgear for everyday clerical use by the 16th century. This shift reflected broader liturgical adaptations amid the , prioritizing functionality while retaining the galero for symbolic occasions like papal inaugurations. The 19th and 20th centuries marked a decline in the galero's active wear, phased out for routine ecclesiastical functions by the mid-1960s amid post-Vatican II reforms emphasizing simplicity. presented the last galeros to new cardinals during the consistory of June 26, 1967, after which the tradition of papal bestowal ceased; a formal in 1969 suppressed its ceremonial placement on cardinals' heads, replacing it with the scarlet and . The galero remained in use during papal coronations until Paul VI's own in 1963, the final such rite, but persisted thereafter solely in as a enduring of clerical rank.

Design and Symbolism

Colors and Materials

The galero is traditionally constructed from or felt for its durable yet lightweight body, often lined with for added comfort and elegance. For cardinals, the hat employs red or felt, a material choice that underscores its ceremonial prominence. While the physical galero was primarily presented to cardinals, in , bishops and archbishops are represented with green variants of the same materials, while lower clerical ranks, such as priests and canons, employ black or felt to reflect their position in the hierarchy. Certain dignitaries, like apostolic protonotaries, use violet galeros. The construction involves meticulous hand-sewing of the wide brim and low , ensuring the hat's distinctive flat, broad shape suitable for outdoor processions. Tassels attached to the hat are crafted from or cords, meticulously dyed to match the galero's color, providing both functional suspension and decorative flair. These materials and techniques emphasize the galero's role as a of , blending practicality with artisanal craftsmanship in attire. Colors in the galero serve to denote clerical rank, with the red hue for cardinals symbolizing the blood of martyrs and a commitment to defend the faith unto death. The green for bishops and archbishops originated in Spanish tradition where bishops formerly wore green hats, signifying pastoral authority. Black for lower ranks signifies humility and service within the Church structure. This color symbolism, rooted in longstanding liturgical traditions, visually reinforces the hierarchical order among clergy.

Tassels and Rank Indicators

The tassels, known as fiocchi in Italian or houppes in French, attached to the galero serve as primary visual indicators of a cleric's rank within the Catholic Church hierarchy. Suspended from cords on each side of the hat, their number and arrangement convey precise status distinctions, with higher ranks featuring more tassels organized in increasingly complex rows. This system allows for immediate recognition in both physical and heraldic contexts. Primarily used in heraldry since the physical presentation ended in 1969, these conventions were largely fixed by the 16th century for cardinals and extended to other ranks by the 17th century. A cardinal's galero features 15 red tassels per side, arranged in five rows of 1, 2, 3, 4, and 5 tassels. This elaborate configuration, totaling 30 tassels, underscores the cardinal's preeminent position as a prince of the Church and advisor to the . Bishops employ a green galero with six tassels per side, arranged in three descending rows of 1, 2, and 3 tassels, for a total of 12 tassels overall. Archbishops use a galero with 10 tassels per side, arranged in four descending rows of 1, 2, 3, and 4 tassels, for a total of 20 tassels. These setups reflect their pastoral authority over a or archdiocese. Clergy of lower ranks utilize fewer tassels, with configurations scaled to their office; for instance, priests are depicted with a black galero bearing one tassel per side, while mitred abbots typically have three black tassels per side arranged in two rows of 1 and 2, and protonotaries apostolic use six red tassels per side on a violet galero. These variations maintain the hierarchical progression without overlapping higher dignities. The heraldic conventions for tassel numbers and arrangements were largely fixed by the 16th century, drawing from earlier medieval practices, and exerted lasting influence on coat-of-arms depictions long after the galero's physical presentation ended in 1969. The color of the galero and tassels further reinforces rank associations, such as scarlet for cardinals and green for bishops and archbishops.

Uses and Traditions

Ceremonial Applications

The galero served as a prominent element in the ceremonial attire of cardinals during processions and outdoor liturgical events throughout much of its history. It was typically donned for festive processions accompanying papal coronations, where cardinals participated in cavalcades that emphasized the solemnity and hierarchy of the occasion. For instance, during the consistory held by on December 15, 1958, newly elevated cardinals received and wore the galero as part of the ceremonial , underscoring their role in the Church's leadership. This practice extended to outdoor masses and other public celebrations until the mid-20th century, when the wide-brimmed design proved practical for protection from the elements while symbolizing cardinalatial authority in open-air settings. Due to its broad brim and tassels, the galero was not suitable for indoor use and was removed by cardinals upon entering churches or basilicas. Inside sacred spaces, it was replaced by more appropriate head coverings such as the during liturgical functions or the for general wear, aligning with rubrics that prioritized solemnity and functionality within enclosed environments. A notable early instance of the galero's ceremonial presentation occurred at the in 1245, where granted the privilege of the red galero to secular cardinals as a distinctive of their dignity, marking its formal integration into processions and councils. The hat's use persisted in non-liturgical parades into later centuries. Its active ceremonial role diminished following a 1969 decree by , which suppressed the galero in favor of simpler attire like the .

Role in Ecclesiastical Heraldry

In ecclesiastical heraldry, the galero serves as a prominent external ornament placed above the shield in the coat of arms of Catholic clergy, with its wide brim and symmetrically hanging tassels indicating the bearer's rank within the hierarchy. This stylized representation, often depicted without a crown or with a low profile to emphasize its symbolic nature, replaced earlier conventions such as the mitre positioned over the shield, which had been common for bishops and higher prelates since the medieval period. The tassels, known as fiocchi, descend in ordered rows on both sides, their color and quantity providing a visual shorthand for ecclesiastical status, while the galero itself underscores the clerical identity in contrast to secular helmets used in lay arms. The standardization of the in emerged in the , building on earlier sporadic uses and formalizing a system that extended to all ranks of , from cardinals and bishops to monsignors and lower prelates. Attributed in part to French heraldist Pierre Palliot's influential works, this codification established the galero as a universal emblem, adaptable across diocesan, personal, and institutional arms, and integrated into documents, seals, and architectural elements for authentication and identification. By this period, the practice had evolved from its origins in the 13th-century grant of a to cardinals by , transforming a practical pilgrim's headwear into a heraldic fixture that symbolized both authority and the Church's noble traditions. Representative examples illustrate the galero's role as a rank identifier: a cardinal's arms feature a scarlet galero with 30 tassels arranged in 15 per side (in rows of 1-2-3-4-5), evoking the of martyrdom and supreme dignity. Bishops' arms employ a galero with 12 tassels (6 per side, in rows of 1-2-3), signifying episcopal jurisdiction while distinguishing from higher or lower ranks; this configuration, with cords of matching hue, hangs below the brim in a balanced, pyramidal form to frame the shield harmoniously. Such designs ensure clarity and adherence to heraldic principles of simplicity, avoiding overlap with non-clerical symbols. Vatican guidelines, as outlined in the 1969 instruction Ut sive sollicite issued by the Congregation for Divine Worship under , abolished the physical galero and certain other vestments but explicitly preserved its stylized form in ecclesiastical heraldry, allowing continued use even for no longer wearing the hat in practice. This retention aligns with broader norms for armorial bearings, mandating simple, clear designs free of suppressed elements like the or in favor of the galero's enduring symbolic precision. The instruction thus affirmed the galero's place as a non-liturgical, representational tool, applicable from the highest curial offices to titular sees, ensuring its relevance in modern Catholic visual tradition.

Posthumous Customs

The tradition of suspending a cardinal's galero posthumously emerged in the during the late medieval period and evolved into a formalized practice by the , serving as a symbol of the cardinal's eternal dignity and readiness to shed blood for the faith. This custom, rooted in the galero's original bestowal by in 1245, initially involved placing the hat at the foot of the during funerals before it became standard to hang it permanently above the tomb. The practice underscored the transient nature of earthly honors while prompting ongoing prayers for the deceased cardinal's soul. In the procedure, following a cardinal's , the red galero—typically with its 15 tassels on each side—was suspended from a beam, vault, or directly over the site in the or , often secured by a cord or chain. It remained in place indefinitely, allowed to disintegrate naturally over decades or centuries, symbolizing the body's return to dust and, according to legend, the soul's release from upon the hat's fall. This act not only honored the cardinal's rank but also served as a perpetual reminder to the faithful to pray for their , with the galero's slow decay mirroring the passage of time and the impermanence of worldly glory. Notable examples include the galero of Basil Cardinal Hume, created specially by his niece since modern cardinals no longer receive one, which hangs above his tomb in the Chapel of St. Gregory and St. Augustine at Westminster Cathedral following his death in 1999. Similarly, the galero of John Cardinal O'Connor was hung in St. Patrick's Cathedral, New York, after his death in 2000, continuing the tradition in that archdiocese despite broader changes. For instance, the galero of Cardinal Francis George was suspended in Holy Name Cathedral, Chicago, following his death in 2015. In St. Peter's Basilica, galeros have been suspended over the tombs of several cardinals who later ascended to the papacy, preserving the custom in the heart of the Vatican. The practice declined significantly after 1969, when Pope Paul VI's instruction Ut sive sollicite abolished the ceremonial use of the galero amid post-Vatican II reforms emphasizing simplicity in attire. Although formally discontinued, some dioceses retained the posthumous suspension through privately commissioned galeros, as seen in the cases of Hume, O'Connor, and George, allowing the symbolic tradition to persist in select locations.

Modern Context

Current Practices

On 31 March 1969, formally abolished the galero as official liturgical attire through the Instruction on the Dress of Cardinals, Bishops, and Other Prelates, issued by the Papal Secretariat of State, which eliminated the presentation of the red cardinalitial hat during consistories and replaced it with simplified headwear such as the and to align with post-Vatican II reforms emphasizing humility and modernity in ecclesiastical dress. This decree ended the mandatory Vatican issuance of the galero, marking the close of its centuries-long role in formal cardinal elevation ceremonies. Despite the abolition, limited revivals and reproductions persist in non-official contexts. Modern replicas are crafted for collectors, ecclesiastical , and the ongoing of suspending a cardinal's galero in after death, where it remains until naturally disintegrating as a of the soul's release from . For example, when historical galeros deteriorate during renovations, new ones are sometimes commissioned to maintain the display, as occurred in recent conservation efforts. In the , rare instances of wearing the galero have been documented among traditionalist . Cardinal , known for his advocacy of pre-Vatican II liturgical practices, donned a galero during a 2011 prize-giving ceremony in , , hosted by the Tu es Petrus association to honor his defense of traditional liturgy; this posed appearance, though not part of a formal , represented one of the few verified modern uses. Such occurrences remain exceptional and are typically confined to private or ceremonial events outside Vatican norms, with no evidence of widespread adoption by traditionalist orders.

Cultural and Symbolic Legacy

The galero's enduring presence in art underscores its role as a potent visual of power and piety during the and beyond. In paintings of the period, such as those commissioned for papal patrons, the wide-brimmed often appears suspended or resting nearby to signify the subject's cardinalatial status without overwhelming the figure's portraiture. This artistic convention extended to colonial contexts, where styles incorporated the galero in portraits of bishops and saints to evoke Rome's spiritual centrality. Beyond historical canvases, the galero has permeated modern media, reinforcing its iconic status in narratives of Catholic intrigue and leadership. The 1968 film The Shoes of the Fisherman, adapted from Morris L. West's novel, features the hat in ceremonial sequences portraying cardinals' deliberations and elevations, evoking the pre-Vatican II Church's grandeur. Such portrayals draw on the galero's visual familiarity to symbolize the weight of papal succession and doctrinal fidelity, blending historical accuracy with dramatic tension. Symbolically, the galero embodies cardinalatial commitment to the , with its scarlet hue signifying readiness to shed in martyrdom and underscoring the wearer's role in the Church's governance. This interpretation, rooted in medieval traditions, has permeated language, giving rise to the "receiving the " as for a cleric's promotion to the . The hat's tassels further denote rank, reinforcing themes of ordered authority and sacrificial service in Catholic iconography. The galero's influence extends to secular spheres, inspiring elements in —where broad-brimmed hats symbolize prestige across traditions—and even , with wide-brimmed designs echoing its form in ecclesiastical-inspired attire. Physical examples are preserved in institutions like the , safeguarding the hat as a artifact of liturgical history. In the , amid ongoing debates on post-Vatican II reforms, traditionalist advocates have invoked the galero in calls for restoring symbolic vestments to enhance liturgical solemnity and continuity with pre-conciliar practices. The galero persists in ecclesiastical as a mark of clerical office.

References

  1. https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/galero
  2. https://www.liturgicalartsjournal.com/2024/03/the-custom-of-suspending-galero-in.html
  3. https://curate.nd.edu/articles/educational_resource/Instruction_on_the_dress_of_cardinals_bishops_and_other_prelates_Papal_Secretariat_of_State_/24723693
  4. https://www.jstor.org/stable/j.ctvx077ht
  5. https://shop.borgoshop.com/shop/en/product/italiano-cappello-2/
  6. https://collections.vam.ac.uk/item/O154797/cardinal-ecclesiastical-figure-unknown/
  7. https://www.detroitcatholic.com/news/honoring-a-cardinal-s-legacy
  8. https://rowantreeworkshop.com.au/medieval-galero-hat/2024/
  9. https://aleteia.org/2023/12/06/where-does-the-big-hat-on-a-bishops-coat-of-arms-come-from/
  10. https://www.papalencyclicals.net/councils/ecum13.htm
  11. https://now.fordham.edu/living-the-mission/the-galero-of-avery-cardinal-dulles-s-j/
  12. http://philippi-collection.blogspot.com/2011/04/galero-galerus-pontifical-hat-and.html
  13. https://exarandorum.com/2018/02/27/abbot-of-averbode/
  14. https://sacrosancta.blogspot.com/2012/01/coats-of-princes.html
  15. https://www.papalartifacts.com/highlighting-50-artifacts-in-this-collection-32-a-galero-given-to-pius-xii-upon-his-appointment-as-cardinal-in-1929/
  16. https://www.nytimes.com/1967/06/29/archives/pontiff-presents-red-hats-to-24-new-cardinals.html
  17. https://www.ncronline.org/blogs/ncr-today/prelate-disobeying-pope
  18. https://www.archbalt.org/the-archbishop/archbishop-loris-coat-of-arms-3/
  19. https://www.newadvent.org/cathen/07243a.htm
  20. https://nypost.com/2012/02/18/st-patricks-is-redecorating-for-new-cardinal/
  21. https://www.simplycatholic.com/colors-worn-by-cardinals-and-bishops/
  22. https://dioknox.org/coat-of-arms
  23. https://exarandorum.com/2013/04/18/how-many-tassels-does-a-cardinal-get/
  24. https://charlestondiocese.org/bishop-jacques-fabre-jeune-cs/coat-of-arms/
  25. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=vvyUf7pKDZg
  26. https://www.papalartifacts.com/portfolio-item/galero-given-to-pius-xii-upon-his-appointment-as-cardinal-in-1929/
  27. https://www.newadvent.org/cathen/03333b.htm
  28. https://cardinals.fiu.edu/instruction69.htm
  29. http://www.shetlersites.com/clericaldress/utsivesollicite.html
  30. https://westminstercathedral.org.uk/wp-content/uploads/2025/08/Westminster-Cathedral-Features-of-a-church.pdf
  31. https://catholickey.org/2015/02/24/what-is-a-cardinal/
  32. https://abc7chicago.com/post/cardinal-georges-ceremonial-hat-to-be-hung-at-holy-name-/717773/
  33. https://praytellblog.com/index.php/2011/06/02/is-this-prelate-disobeying-the-pope/
  34. https://www.psupress.org/books/titles/978-0-271-03468-3.html
  35. https://academicworks.cuny.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1433&context=gc_etds
  36. https://www.imdb.com/title/tt0063599/
  37. https://exarandorum.com/2014/12/31/happy-new-year/
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