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Mandaean priests inspecting Mandaic manuscripts for photographing in Ahvaz, Iran. Salem Choheili is at the left, Tarmida Sam Zahrooni is at the right.

This article contains a list of Mandaic manuscripts, which are almost entirely Mandaean religious texts written in Classical Mandaic.

Well-known Mandaean texts include the Ginza Rabba (also known as the Sidra Rabbā), the Mandaean Book of John, and the Qulasta. Texts for Mandaean priests include The 1012 Questions, among others. Some, like the Ginza Rabba, are codices (bound books), while others, such as the various diwans, are illustrated scrolls.[1]

Background

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Mandaean copyists or scribes (Mandaic: sapra[2]) may transcribe texts as a meritorious deed for one's own forgiveness of sins, or they may be hired to copy a text for another person.[3] Mandaean sacred scriptures, such as the Ginza Rabba are traditionally kept in wooden chests wrapped in layers of white cotton and silk cloth. These protected manuscripts are generally not touched by ordinary laypeople, although learned laymen (yalufa) who demonstrate proper knowledge and respect for the manuscripts are usually granted access by priests, similar to the level of respect given to the Guru Granth Sahib in Sikhism.[4] Gloves are worn while handling copies of the Ginza Rabba that are used for liturgical purposes.

Types

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Mandaean religious texts can be written in book or codex form (draša ࡃࡓࡀࡔࡀ, sidra ࡎࡉࡃࡓࡀ, or ktaba ࡊࡕࡀࡁࡀ) or as scrolls (diwan ࡃࡉࡅࡀࡍ, šafta ࡔࡀࡐࡕࡀ, or šarḥ ࡔࡀࡓࡇ) that are often illustrated. The illustrations, usually labeled with lengthy written explanations, typically contain abstract geometric drawings of uthras that are reminiscent of cubism or prehistoric rock art.

In Mandaean texts, the end of each chapter or section is typically denoted by the Mandaean letters s—a (ࡎࡀ; also known as saka), which are separated by a long ligature.[5]

Some scrolls are talismans (zrazta ࡆࡓࡀࡆࡕࡀ), amulets (qmaha ࡒࡌࡀࡄࡀ), or exorcisms (pašar ࡐࡀࡔࡀࡓ or pišra ࡐࡉࡔࡓࡀ), all of which are subtypes of phylacteries. Others consist of prayers such as rahmia ࡓࡀࡄࡌࡉࡀ ('devotions'), ʿniania ࡏࡍࡉࡀࡍࡉࡀ ('responses'), and rušuma ࡓࡅࡔࡅࡌࡀ (' "signing" prayers'). Many scrolls contain symbolic descriptions of rituals, such as various types of masiqta and masbuta rituals. Mandaean texts typically have colophons (tarik ࡕࡀࡓࡉࡊ) giving detailed information about the scribes who had transcribed them, as well as dates, lineages, and other historical information.[6]

Drower (1953) recognizes six main groups of Mandaean literature.[5]

  1. esoteric texts, exclusively for priests
  2. ritual texts, exclusively for priests
  3. hymns, psalms, and prayers
  4. hortatory and general texts
  5. astrological texts
  6. magical writings

History

[edit]

Little is known about the redactors or authors of the texts. The contents date to both pre-Islamic and Islamic periods. The oldest Mandaean magical text is dated to the 4th and 5th centuries CE.[citation needed]

During the past few decades, Majid Fandi Al-Mubaraki, a Mandaean living in Australia, has digitized many Mandaean texts using typesetted Mandaic script.[7]

Texts

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This section lists the titles of various Mandaic religious texts.

Main scriptures

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The primary three scriptures containing the most important narratives, liturgies, and doctrines of Mandaeism are the Ginza Rabba, Mandaean Book of John, and Qulasta. They widely used by both lay Mandaeans and Mandaean priests. The Haran Gawaita is a text that discusses the origins and history of the Mandaean people.

Primary scriptures
History

Priestly texts

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Magical texts

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Magical texts (or grimoires) such as zrazta, qmaha, and the like are listed below. Note that these manuscript designations (zrazta, qmaha, etc.) are interchangeable, with different manuscript titles providing varying designations.

Library collections

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The majority of known Mandaean texts are currently held at libraries in Oxford, London, and Paris.

Bodleian Library

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Bodleian Library manuscripts (excluding the Drower Collection)
  • Oxford Scroll G; Bodleian Library. Two texts for repelling evil spirits.
  • Codex Marsh. 691 (Oxford); Bodleian Library. Dates to September 5, 1529 A.D., in Huwayza.[10]: 70  It is the oldest Mandaean manuscript held in a European library, since Thomas Marshall's servant had donated the book (obtained by Marshall via Dutch merchants) to the Bodleian Library in 1689 or 1690, after Marshall's death. Codex of prayers with 116 pages. Unpublished (see Lidzbarski, Mandäische Liturgien).
  • Hunt. 6 (Ginza), unpublished.
  • Hunt. 71 (JB) (see Lidzbarski, Johannesbuch, MS D.). Copied by Adam bar Sam in Basra, on August 15, 1659 A.D. (1068 A.H.).[11]
  • MS Asiat. Misc. C 12: Diwan ḏ-Qadaha Rba Šuma ḏ-Mara ḏ-Rabuta u-Dmut Kušṭa or simply Dmut Kušṭa ("The Scroll of the Great Prayer, the Name of the Lord of Greatness and the Image of Truth"), unpublished. Copied by Yahia Ram Zihrun, son of Mhatam in 1818 in Qurna.
  • MS Asiat. Misc. C 13: Diuan u-Tafsir ḏ-Raza ḏ-Abahata ("The Scroll [of] the Secrets of the Ancestors" (or "Parents")). Copied at Mučarra in 1238 A.H. (1822-3 A.D.) by Iahia Ram Zihrun br Mhatam.[12] The text lists the names Barmeil, Bihdad, Bihram, Šišlam, Šišlameil, Manhareil, Nureil, Zihrun, Sahqeil, Haiil, and Reil.[13] CAL text.
  • MS Syr. E 15 (a small prayerbook copied in 1849 containing 151 folios).[14]
  • MS Syr. E 18 (prayers), unpublished.
  • MS Syr. F 2 (R) (Mandaean liturgies) (Lidzbarski's "Roll F") (see Lidzbarski, Mandäische Liturgien). Copied in 1203 A.H. (1788-9 A.D.) near Shushtar.[15]
  • MS Syr. G 2 (R): Qaština ("The Archer") and Šambra ("The Rue"). Copied by Iahia Ramzihrun br Mhatam br Mhata Iuhana in Qurna in 1231 A.H. (1815-6 A.D.).[16][17] CAL texts of Šambra and Qaština.

British Library

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See also: British Library Syriac Manuscript Collection
British Library manuscripts
  • Add. 23,599, Add. 23,600, and Add. 23,601: three Ginzas catalogued under the same title, Liber Adami Mendaice.[18]
    • Add. 23,599 was presented to Queen Victoria by the rishama Sheikh Yahana 10 December 1872, via Colonel Herbert, Consul General of Baghdad.
    • Add. 23,600 was donated to the British Museum in April 1860 by the widow of Colonel J. E. Taylor, the British Vice-Consul at Baghdad. It has 315 folios and was copied by Adam Yuhana, the father of Yahia Bihram.
    • Add. 23,601 was copied by Adam Yuhana, son of Sam and dates to 1824.
  • Add. 23,602A, Kholasta sive liturgica Sabiorum Libri Joannis Fragmenta Mendaice ("scrapbook of Mandaean manuscript fragments"). 101 pages. Folia 76–98 and 99–101 contain parts of the Mandaean Book of John.[11]
  • Add. 23,602B, Kholasta sive liturgica Sabiorum Libri Joannis Fragmenta Mendaice: book of fragments probably obtained by Colonel John George Taylor. Contains fragments of Maṣbuta ḏ-Hibil Ziua and Alma Rišaia Rba.[19] Folia 15–18 contain parts of the Mandaean Book of John.[11] Documented in Wright (1872).[20]
  • Or. 1236 (Oriental 1236): Sidra Rba Mandaitic
  • Or. 6592 (Lidzbarski's "Roll A" or "London Scroll A"), text called Šarh ḏ-Taraṣa ḏ-Taga ḏ-Šišlam Rba.[21] It was copied in Muḥammara in 1289 A.H. (1872-1873 A.D.), itself copied from a composite text.[22]
  • Or. 6593 (Lidzbarski's "Roll B" or "London Scroll B"), apotropaic contents. The two rolls A and B (i.e., OR 6592 and OR 6593) are in one container. Both date from 1869, with the first one from Muhammerah and the second one from Qurna.
  • Small lead plates held at the British Museum

Bibliothèque nationale de France

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Bibliothèque nationale de France Code Sabéen manuscripts

The Code Sabéen (also Codex Sabéen or CS) manuscripts are held at the National Library of France (BnF). Much of the following information is derived from an 1874 catalogue of Syriac manuscripts compiled by Jules-Antoine Taschereau [fr], which lists descriptions for Mss. Sabéen 1–19.[23] Many of the manuscripts can be viewed online at the Bibliothèque nationale de France's Gallica digital library.

  • Code Sabéen 1 (PDF), also known as MS Paris A (dated to 1560 A.D.): Ginza Rabba. Copied at Maqdam, Iraq by Ram Baktiar bar Bihram Šadan. Julius Heinrich Petermann's Ginza transcription into Mandaic and Syriac was primarily based on this manuscript, although he consulted Mss. Paris B, C, and D as well.[24] The CAL text of the Left Ginza is mostly based on this manuscript.
  • Code Sabéen 2, also known as MS Paris B: Ginza that was translated into Latin by Matthias Norberg (1816). Copied at Basra and Maqdam by the chief priest Baktiar-Bulbul bar Ram Ziwa[24] in 1042 A.H. (1632-1633 A.D.) for Adam Zihrun bar Sharat.
  • Code Sabéen 3, also known as MS Paris C: Ginza copied at Howaiza, in 1091 A.H. (1680 A.D.). The first half of the first part was copied (except for a few pages) by Ram Yuhana bar Hawa. The second half of the first part was copied by Yahÿa Adam bar Rabbai Bakhtiar Bulbul. The second part was copied for Ram Yuhana bar Hawa, by Yahya Sam bar Bihram.
  • Code Sabéen 4 (PDF), also known as MS Paris D: Ginza copied at a location on the Shamaniya Canal, for Abdallah or Bihram, son of Anhara. There appears to have been many copyists. The introductory formula has the name Bihram bar Simath. In the colophon of the first part and the second part, Yahya Bihram, son of Adam Yuhana, names himself expressly as the copyist of the manuscript. The date is unclear, but is sometime in the early 1700s. The colophon of the first part mentions the date 1100 A.H. Matthias Norberg's Mandaic transcription and Latin translation of the Ginza was primarily based on this manuscript.
  • Code Sabéen 5 (PDF): Prayers, many of which are also found in the Left Ginza.
  • Code Sabéen 6-7 (PDF): Ginza copied from MS Colbert 1715 by L. Picques in 1683 A.D. The notes are originally from MS Colbert 382.
  • Code Sabéen 8: Mandaean Book of John. Copied by Adam Zihrun bar Zaki Shitil in Khalafabad, Iran, in August or September 1630 A.D. (1039 A.H.) during the month of Hitia.[11]
  • Code Sabéen 9: Mandaean Book of John. Copied in 1102 A.H. at Duraq (or Dawraq; now Shadegan), Iran by Adam Zihrun bar Mhatam on January 18, 1691.[11]
  • Code Sabéen 10: Mandaean Book of John. Copied by Zihrun bar Adam in al-Mīnā’, Basra, on October 13, 1616.[11]
  • Code Sabéen 11: Mandaean Book of John copied from Sabéen 8 by L. Picques. Many passages are accompanied by Latin translations.
  • Code Sabéen 12: Qulasta (masbuta and masqita hymns). Copied at Kamalawa in 978 A.H. (1570 A.D.) by Adam Shitlan br Yahia Sam br Zihrun Bihram. Lacks prayers 5-10. Included in Euting (1867).[25]
  • Code Sabéen 13: Qulasta (masbuta and masqita hymns). Copied at Basra in 1105 A.H. (1694 A.D.).
  • Code Sabéen 14: Qulasta (masbuta and masqita hymns). Copied from Colbert m.s. 4108 (see Sabéen 12) by L. Picques and partially translated into Latin.
  • Code Sabéen 15 (Mark Lidzbarski's F manuscript). This manuscript is a partial copy of The Marriage of the Great Šišlam (Šarh ḏ-Qabin ḏ-Šišlam Rba) and also includes prayers from the Sidra ḏ-Nišmata (part of the Qulasta). Copied at Basra in 1086 A.H. (1675 A.D.) by Yahya bar Sam bar Zakia Shitil. Included in Euting (1867).
  • Code Sabéen 16 (or the Paris Diwan): Scroll, 1360 cm x 16 cm. 409 lines on the cosmogony, beliefs, duties of bishops and priests, and of the faithful, etc., in the form of questions and answers. These questions are believed to have been addressed by Hibil Ziwa Yawar to Nbat Rabba. Copied at Howaiza in 1127 A.H. (1716 A.D.).
  • Code Sabéen 17
  • Code Sabéen 18
  • Code Sabéen 19 (PDF)
  • Code Sabéen 20 (PDF)
  • Code Sabéen 21 (PDF)
  • Code Sabéen 22 (PDF)
  • Code Sabéen 23
  • Code Sabéen 24: Texts about magical amulets.
  • Code Sabéen 25 (PDF) (Mark Lidzbarski's E manuscript). This manuscript is a copy of The Book of the Zodiac (Asfar Malwāšē), and also a partial copy of The Marriage of the Great Šišlam (Šarh ḏ-Qabin ḏ-Šišlam Rba). However, it contains a longer appendix of more recent date.
  • Code Sabéen 26 (PDF)
  • Code Sabéen 27 (PDF): Qmahia (magical amulet texts).
  • Code Sabéen 28 (PDF)
  • Code Sabéen 29 (PDF)
  • Code Sabéen 30 (PDF)

Other libraries

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Individual collections

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Private collections

[edit]

Buckley has also found Ginza manuscripts that are privately held by Mandaeans in the United States (two in San Diego, California; one in Flushing, New York; and one in Lake Grove, New York). Buckley has also located a privately held copy of the Book of the Zodiac dating from 1919, which belonged to Lamea Abbas Amara in San Diego.[6]

Manuscripts of the Mandaean Book of John that are privately held by Mandaeans in the United States include:[6][11]

The Rbai Rafid Collection (RRC) is a private collection of Mandaean manuscripts belonging to the Mandaean priest Rbai Rafid al-Sabti in Nijmegen, Netherlands.[18] Important manuscripts in the collection include different versions of the Ginza Rba, various priestly texts, and numerous magical texts.[28]

Individual Mandaean priests, including Salah Choheili and Sahi Bashikh, among others, also have private manuscript collections.

Rbai Rafid Collection

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The Rbai Rafid Collection (RRC), held by Rbai Rafid al-Sabti in Nijmegen, Netherlands, is likely the world's largest private collection of Mandaean manuscripts. The physical manuscripts date back to the 17th century,[29] while the contents date back to pre-Islamic times. The entire collection was photographed by Matthew Morgenstern in 2013.[30] Many manuscripts in the collection have been digitized and published online in transliterated format by Matthew Morgenstern and Ohad Abudraham. RRC manuscripts cited in the Comprehensive Aramaic Lexicon (CAL) are as follows. The following list is compiled from the CAL[31] and Morgenstern's article "New Manuscript Sources for the Study of Mandaic".[30]

RRC MS Contents Notes
RRC 1A Šarḥ ḏ-Traṣa ḏ-Taga ḏ-Šišlam Rba Copied in Shushtar in 1156 A.H. (1744-5 A.D.) by Iuhana br Ram br Sam br Adam k. Malka Sabur. More accurate than the corrupt Drower version and the late British Library version. Main text used in the CAL.
RRC 1C Šarḥ Maṣbuta Rbtia Copied in 1074 A.H. (1663-4 A.D.) by Yahia Yuhana br Rbai Zihrun Adam in Šuštar.[32][33] Most complete manuscript of Šarḥ Maṣbuta Rbtia. A transliteration and English translation of the colophon is included Morgenstern (2019).[33] Variant: DC 50. Main text used in the CAL.
RRC 1E Šapta ḏ-Pišra ḏ-Ainia Variants: DC 29, DC 21, MS Berlin, RRC 3K.[34]
RRC 1F Qmaha ḏ-br ˁngaria; Qmaha ḏ-br ˁngaria Zuṭa; Qmaha ḏ-Šuba; Qmaha ḏ-Iurba; Qmaha ḏ-Gastata Copied by Mhatam Iuhana br Ram Zihrun br Sam k. ˁAziz l. Kupašia udurašiḥ in 1286 A.H. (1869-70 A.D.). Variants: DC 43g I and DC 43g II (copied by Iahia Bihram br Adam Iuhana in the marshlands in 1272 A.H. (1855-6 A.D.)), DC 46, Codex Sabéen (CS) 27.[35]
RRC 1G Šapta ḏ-Qaština Copied by Mhatam Iuhana br Ram Zihrun br Sam in the marshlands in 1287 A.H. (1870-1 A.D.)
RRC 1P Šapta ḏ-Pišra ḏ-Šumqa Copied in Amara in 1289 A.H. (1872-3 A.D.) by Ram Zihrun br Sam Zihrun br Iahia Zihrun k. ˁAziz
RRC 1T Šapta ḏ-Bit Mišqal Ainia Copied by Adam Yuhana br Sam br Bihram in Shushtar in 1196 A.H. (1782 A.D.). Earliest manuscript of Bit Mišqal Ainia. Variants: DC 26 and DC 28. Main text used in the CAL.
RRC 2C Pašar Mihla Copied in 1274 A.H. (1857-1858 A.D.). More accurate than DC 40. Main text used in the CAL.
RRC 2E Šarḥ ḏ-Traṣa ḏ-Taga ḏ-Šišlam Rba Copied in Mučarra in 1200 A.H. (1785–1786 A.D.). Damaged manuscript.
RRC 2M Diwan Mhita u-Asuta Copied by Zihrun br Yahia Sam[33] in 1086 A.H. (1675–1676 A.D.). Longest RRC manuscript. Contains Neo-Mandaic features.[29] Part of Alf Trisar Šuialia, corresponds to "Blow and healing" (Part 5.1) in Book 2 of Drower (1960).[36]
RRC 2O Diwan Malkuta Elaita Copied by Sam Yuhana br Yahia Adam in Ḥuwaiza in 1077 A.H. (1666–7 A.D.).[33] Missing a large section corresponding to lines 912–1131 of DC 34 but is often more accurate than DC 34.[30]
RRC 2P Alma Rišaia Rba Copied in Dezful in 1259 A.H. (1843 A.D.). Partial copy.
RRC 2U Maṣbuta ḏ-Hibil Ziwa Copied in 1168 A.H. (1754-5 A.D.). DC 35 (from 1247 A.H. (1831–2 A.D.)) was copied from RRC 2U.
RRC 2V Tafsir Rba ḏ-Dmut Kušṭa Copied in 1240 A.H. (1824-5 A.D.).
RRC 2X Tafsir Rba ḏ-Dmut Kušṭa Copied in 1204 A.H. (1789-90 A.D.).
RRC 3D Alma Rišaia Rba Copied in Šuštar in 1274 A.H. (1857–8 A.D.). Partial copy.
RRC 3E Haran Gauaita Copied by Zihrun br Iahia Iuhana br Adam Zihrun in Dezful in 1174 A.H. (1760-1 A.D.)
RRC 3F Alma Rišaia Zuṭa Copied in 1238 A.H. (1822-3 A.D.) by Iahia Ram Zihrun br Mhatam br Mhatam Iuhana br Bihram br Mašad br Naǰmia br Karam br Kairia br Haiat kinianḥ Sabur
RRC 3K Šapta ḏ-Pišra ḏ-Ainia Copied in Šuštar in 1080 A.H. (1669-70 A.D.). Oldest surviving Mandaic magical manuscript. Variants: DC 29, DC 21, MS Berlin, RRC 1E.[34]
RRC 3N Qmaha ḏ-Šiul; Ṣir Sahra Qmaha ḏ-Šiul variants: DC 45:5–7, DC 43b, DC 46, DC 19.[37] Ṣir Sahra variants: DC 43a, Codex Sabéen (CS) 27.[38]
RRC 3R Tafsir u-Afrašta Kasita Copied in 1173 A.H. (1759–0 A.D.). Variant: DC 36.[39] Titled Tafsir u-Afrašta Kasita, it corresponds to Books 6 and 7 in Drower's (1960) Alf Trisar Šuialia.[36]
RRC 4G Draša ḏ-Yahia Copied at Qurna in 1248 A.H. (1832–1833 A.D.) by Yahia Bihram br Adam Yuhana.[40]
RRC 5A – Copied in 1301 A.H. (1883-1884 A.D.); the scribe also copied RRC 2C
RRC 5I Ginza Rba Copied in 1294 A.H. (1877 A.D.) by Bihram br Ram Zihrun br Sam Bihram. Includes a Neo-Mandaic poem that was composed in 1161 A.H. (1748 A.D.) and copied in 1294 A.H. (1877 A.D.) by Yahia Yuhana.[27]
RRC 5J Ginza Rba Copied at the Margab quarter of Suq eš-Šuyūḵ in A.H. 1277 (1860–1861 A.D.).[41]
RRC 5L Ginza Rba Copied at the Margab quarter of Suq eš-Šuyūḵ in A.H. 1256 (1840–1841 A.D.).[41]
RRC 6D Sigia ḏ-Dihbaiia Copied in Šuštar in 1085 A.H. (1674–5 A.D.). Variants: DC 36, DC 6. Part of Alf Trisar Šuialia.

The collection also contains multimedia items, including audio and video recordings. A few of them include:

Drower Collection

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The Drower Collection (DC), held at the Bodleian Library in Oxford University, is the world's most extensive institutional library collection of Mandaean manuscripts. The collection consists of 55 Mandaean manuscripts collected by E. S. Drower. Drower has published some of the smaller texts in journal articles, while other larger texts have been published as monographs. Many texts remain unpublished.[1]

Drower donated MSS Drower 1–53 to the Bodleian Library in 1958. MS Drower 54 (The Coronation of the Great Šišlam) was given to the library by Lady Drower in 1961, and MS Drower 55 (Drower's personal notebook) was added in 1986.[42] DC 1–5, 22, 30, 31, 38, 45, and 53 are codices, with the rest of the DC manuscripts being scrolls.[6]

A list of manuscripts in the Drower Collection, based on primarily on Buckley (2010),[6] as well as Drower (1937)[43] and other sources, is given below. The manuscripts are abbreviated DC.

  • DC 1 – prayerbook (codex) containing prayers for rituals such as minor ablutions (rahmia and lofania).[5] 238 pp.
  • DC 2 – prayerbook (codex)[5] called the Sidra ḏ-Nišmata ("Book of the Soul") that was copied by Shaikh Nejm (or Negm; full priestly name: Adam Negm, son of Zakia Zihrun, son of Ram Zihrun) for Drower in 1933. 155 pp. Jacques de Morgan had also acquired a copy of the Book of Souls during his travels to Iran from 1889 to 1891.[6]
  • DC 3 – codex of prayer fragments (incomplete Qulasta), such as prayers for minor ablutions, the rahmia (devotions), qulasta, masiqta, zidqa brikha (blessed oblations), and myrtle and banner (drabša) hymns. It was bound by Sheikh Dakhil Aidan in Amarah.[6]
  • DC 4 – codex consisting of a Mandaic-English glossary compiled by Shaikh Nejm for Drower, with the help of an English-speaking Mandaean. See Hezy & Morgenstern (2012).[44]
  • DC 5 – prayerbook (codex).[5] Known as the "Prayers of Yahya." Copied by Hirmiz bar Anhar.
  • DC 6 – Alf Trisar Šuialia ("1012 Questions", incomplete version[5]). Contains parts 3-7 (out of 7 parts total) of the 1012 Questions. One part is known as the Tafsir Pagra. 14400 mm long by 337 mm wide (about 12 inches) with 1652 lines. Copied by Adam Zihrun, son of Bihram Šitlan, of the Šaʿpuria clan in Shushtar in 1557 (965 A.H.).[45]
  • DC 7 – Diwan Nahrwata ("The Scroll of the Rivers"). The illustrated scroll is a geographical treatise.[1] Kurt Rudolph published a German translation in 1982, based on a Baghdad copy originally from Ahvaz.[46] In 2022, Brikha Nasoraia published an English translation and analysis.[47] About 3300 words. Copied by Ram Zihrun, son of Sam Bihram, Kupašia in Shushtar in 1259 A.H. (1843 A.D.).
  • DC 8 – Diwan Abatur. Copied by Ram Yuhana, son of Ram, of the Dihdaria and Sabur clans (active ca. 1743). A scroll wrapped in linen cloth that is 14,630 mm long by 316 mm wide (about 48 feet long and 1 foot wide), with approximately 800 lines. Interspersed illustrations. A note inside the box is labelled "Bahrami purchase". Donated by Drower to the Bodleian Library in 1950.[48]
  • DC 9 – Haran Gawaita. Copied by Ram Zihrun, son of Sam Bihram, Kupašia in Margab, Iran in 1276 A.H. (1859 A.D.).
  • DC 10 – Pišra ḏ-Šambra[49] (love charm magic scroll). A qmaha that is an invocation to Libat (Venus). Translated and published in JRAS (1939).
  • DC 11 – zrazta (talisman). Illustrated scroll with 183 lines.
  • DC 12 – Pašar Haršia ("The Exorcism of Wizards" / "The Loosing of Spells"). A qmaha that is an exorcism of witches and wizards. Purchased by Drower from Shaikh Abdallah in Ahvaz in 1933. Dates to 1196 A.H. / 1782 C.E. Transcribed by Adam Yuhana, son of Sam, son of Bihram, Kamisia clan at Šaka by the Karka River (or Kerak River).[50] An English translation of the colophon can be found in Gelbert (2017).[51]: xlii–xliii  CAL text.
  • DC 13 – zrazta of Hibil Ziwa. Also called "Roll C." Part of the Zrazta ḏ-Hibil Ziwa (DC 44). Purchased by Drower from Shaikh Kumait in 1933.
  • DC 14 – zrazta or magical / "protective" text.[5] Part of the Zrazta ḏ-Hibil Ziwa (DC 44). Purchased by Drower from Shaikh Kumait. 185 lines.
  • DC 15 – zrazta of the Great Ptahil (Zrazta ḏ-Ptahil Rba).[5] A very long scroll purchased by Drower from Shaikh Nejm, in Qal‛at Saleh in April 1933. Also called "Roll E."
  • DC 16 – Exorcism scroll. Also called "Roll F." 101 lines. Purchased by Drower in 1933.
  • DC 17 – Šalhafta ḏ-Mahra. A small 2.5-inch wide exorcism scroll also called "Roll G."
  • DC 18 – Zrazta ḏ-Šuba Šibiahia ("The Talisman of the Seven Planets"). There is a section for each of the seven planets. Copied by Shaikh Faraj (Adam br Iahia br Adam Zihrun) for Drower in Baghdad in 1355 A.H. (1935 A.D.). Variants: DC 43i and RRC 1F.
  • DC 19 – Šalhafta ḏ-Mahra ("The Exorcism of Illness"), consisting of two texts.[49] Copied by Adam Zihrun br Ram Zihrun br Adam Iuhana in Baghdad in 1355 A.H. (1935 A.D.). Variants are DC 43d and Codex Sabéen (CS) 27: 10a–14a (undated, prob. 19th century).[52]
  • DC 20 – Šafta ḏ-Dahlulia ("The Scroll of, i.e. against Evil Spirits"). Illustrated scroll copied by Sheikh Faraj for Drower in Baghdad in 1935. Originally copied in 1250 A.H. (1834–5 A.D.) in Shaṭra by Adam br Bihram br Yahia.[53] 236 lines.[54][55] CAL text.
  • DC 21 – Šafta ḏ-Pišra ḏ-Ainia ("Exorcism of the Evil and Diseased Eyes").[49] Copied by Shaikh Faraj for Drower in December 1935. 803 lines. Published by Drower in JRAS No. 4 (Oct. 1937).[56] See also Müller-Kessler (1999).[57] Analysis by Hunter (2013).[58]
  • DC 22 – Ginza Rba codex. Purchased by Drower from Shaikh Nejm in 1936. Transcribed in 1831 by Ram Zihrun, son of Sam Bihram, Kupašia. Ram Zihrun copied the Right Ginza in Qurna, and the Left Ginza in Basra.
  • DC 23 – Pašar Šumqa / Pašar Šmaq ("The Exorcism of Fever").[49] Purchased by Drower from Shaikh Nejm in 1936. 777 lines. Copied in Basra in 1226 A.H. (1811 A.D.) by Bihram Sam br Zihrun.[59] CAL text.
  • DC 24 – Šarḥ ḏ-Parwanaia, or Panšā ("The Scroll of the Parwanaya").[1] German translation and commentary by Burtea (2005).[60] Used for rituals such as the consecration of the cult-hut, the dove (ba) sacrifice, zidqa brikha, the myrtle ritual, etc.
  • DC 25 – a qmaha scroll. Purchased by Drower from Hirmiz bar Anhar in Baghdad in 1936.
  • DC 26 – two talismans (qmahas). Published by Drower in Iraq 5 (1938): 31–54.[1] Consists of two texts: Bit Mišqal Ainia and Riš Tus Tanina. Copied by Shaikh Faraj (Mhatam Yuhana br Adam Zihrun br Yahia Bihram[61]) in 1355 A.D. (December 1936) for Drower in Baghdad. Bit Mišqal Ainia (Qmaha ḏ-Bit mišqal ainia), a different version of DC 28, was published in Drower (1938).[62] Morgenstern finds Drower's translation to be erroneous; he makes uses of RRC 1T in addition to DC 26 and 28.[61]
  • DC 27 – Šarḥ ḏ-Zihrun-Raza-Kasia / Masiqta Zihrun Raza Kasia ("The Masiqta of Zihrun, the Hidden Mystery").[1] The text covers the masbuta (in lines 23–190) and masiqta (in lines 232–523) of Zihrun Raza Kasia. German translation and commentary by Burtea (2008).[63] An illustrated scroll purchased by Drower from Shaikh Yahia, Qal’at Salih in May 1937. The colophon date is 1088 A.H. (c. 1677 A.D).[64] 559 lines. See Rebrik (2008).[65] CAL text.
  • DC 28 – Pišra ḏ-Bit Mišqal Ainia (The Exorcism of "I Sought to Lift My Eyes"),[1] a qmaha text. Purchased by Drower from Shaikh Nejm in June 1937. Published in Drower (1938).[62] Copied by Yahia Bihram br Adam Yuhana br Sam in 1272 A.H. (1855-6 A.D.) in the marshlands.[61]
  • DC 29 – Pišra ḏ-Ainia / Pašar Ainia ("Exorcism of the Evil Eye"). Purchased by Drower from Shaikhs Nejm and Yahia in November 1937. CAL text.
  • DC 30 – Draša ḏ-Yahia ("Teaching of Yahia" or Mandaean Book of John) (codex).[5] Purchased by Drower from Shaikhs Nejm and Yahia in November 1937. The manuscript copying was finished on March 16, 1753 A.D. (1166 A.H.).[11] Copied in Shushtar by Ram Yuhana, son of Ram, Dihdaria.
  • DC 31 – Book of the Zodiac (codex). Purchased by Drower from Shaikhs Nejm and Yahia in November 1937. Copied in Qurna in 1247 A.H. (1831-2 CE) by Ram Zihrun br Bihram Sam br Iahia Zihrun.[66]
  • DC 32 – The qmahia of Nirigh, Sira, and Libat ("exorcism of Mars, Moon, and Venus"). Love talisman scroll. Purchased by Drower from Shaikh Nejm in 1938.
  • DC 33 – Tlata qmahia[67] or the "three qmahia" (exorcism scrolls): Šuba lbišna, ‛Sirna hthimna, and Yawar Ziwa nišimtai. Purchased by Drower at Litlata in April 1938. Published in JRAS No. 3 (1937).[68]
  • DC 34 – Scroll of Exalted Kingship / Diwan Malkuta 'laita. Illustrated scroll purchased by Drower from Shaikh Nejm in April 1939. 1353 lines.
  • DC 35 – Diwan Maṣbuta ḏ-Hibil Ziwa ("The Baptism of Hibil Ziwa").[69] Bought in Persia through Shaikh Nejm on April 29, 1939. Copied by Yahia Bihram, son of Adam Yuhana, of the Qindila, Kamisia and Rish Draz clans in 1831 (1247 AH), but his added postscript extends to 1848. Date incorrectly given as 1750 by Drower. 544 lines of pure text and then 3937 mm of mixed text and illustrations. Donated by Drower to the Bodleian Library in December 1958.[70] Colophons analyzed in Morgenstern (2019).[71]
  • DC 36 – Haran Gawaita and 1012 Questions (complete version with all 7 books).[5] A long scroll that is 12 inches wide and 626 inches (17 yards, 14 inches) long. Copied by Yahia Zihrun br Ram in Shushtar in 1088 A.H. (1677 A.D.).[72] CAL text.
  • DC 37 – Šafta ḏ-Masihfan Rba ("The Scroll of the Great Overthrower").[1] Copied by Yahia Bihram, son of Adam Yuhana, in Suq eš-Šuyuk in 1861. 633 lines. There is also a British Library manuscript fragment. There are two additional copies of Šafta ḏ-Masi(h)fan owned by Suhaib Nashi: a manuscript copied in Qalˤat Ṣāleḥ in 1358 A.H. (1939 A.D.) and another undated manuscript probably copied during around the same time. Both of the Suhaib Nashi manuscripts are based on a different manuscript tradition than DC 37.[30]
  • DC 38 – Šarḥ ḏ-qabin ḏ-Šišlam Rba ("The Marriage Ceremony of the Great Šišlam").[73] A scroll that Drower had purchased from Shaikh Nejm in April 1939, along with DC 36, 37, and 39. Transcribed by Adam Yuhana.
  • DC 39 – Šafta ḏ-Qaština ("The Scroll of 'I Shoot'"),[49] a qmaha that Drower had purchased from Shaikh Nejm in April 1939. Transcribed in 1802 by Adam Yuhana.
  • DC 40 – Šafta ḏ-mihla ("The Scroll of Salt") or Pašra mihla ("The Excorcism of Salt"). An exorcism scroll that uses personified salt to exorcise illnesses and evil spirits. Purchased by Drower from Shaikh Nejm in May 1939. Copied by Bihram br Ram Zihrun br Sam Bihram.[74] Salt is also frequently sprinkled around Mandaean houses to keep evil spirits away.[43] Consisting of 1,137 lines, the manuscript has 14 incantation texts. It was copied in 1247 A.H. (1832 A.D.) by the Bihram bar Ram Zihrun from the Aziz family. See Tarelko (2008).[75]
  • DC 41 – Alma Rišaia Rba ("The Great Supreme World").[5] English translation and commentary by Drower (1963).[76] An illustrated scroll about 545 lines long, dating to 1809 (1220 A.H.). Copied for Colonel J. E. Taylor (Vice-Consul in Baghdad) in Šuštar in 1224 A.H. (1809–10) by Adam Yuhana, son of Sam Bihram (i.e., Ram Zihrun, son of Sam Bihram), of the Kamisia and Rish Draz clans.[77] Bought from Sheikh Nejm in Iraq by Drower in autumn 1939. Donated by Drower to the Bodleian Library in December 1958.[78] CAL text.
  • DC 42 - Šarḥ ḏ-Ṭabahata ("The Scroll of Ṭabahata" [Parents], or "The Scroll of the Ancestors").[1] Used for Parwanaya rituals. Transcribed in 1743 and has 834 lines. Similar to Prayer 170 of the Qulasta, but some names are different. Commentary by Buckley (2010).[6] DC 42 verso contains six texts: šarḥ ḏ-ahaba ḏ-mania b-iuma ḏ-paruanaiia, aprišata ḏ-ahaba ḏ-mania, šarḥ ḏ-ahaba ḏ-mania ḏ-tarmida ʿu ganzibra kḏ napiq, šarḥ ḏ-ṭabahata qria b-šuma ḏ-gabrauʿnta, šarḥ ḏ-dukrana ḏ-šumaiia, šarḥ ḏ-zidqa brika ḏ-paruanaiia. Copied at Basra in 1248 A.H. (1832-3). CAL text of DC 42 verso.[15]
  • DC 43 – The Poor Priest's Treasury,[1] a scroll consisting of qmahas used for exorcism and magic. The contents are: Qmaha ḏ-ṣir Sahria (DC 43a); Qmaha ḏ-Šaiul (DC 43b); the three related texts (DC 43c) Šuba libišna, ʿsirna hthimna, and Yawar Ziwa (see DC 33); Šalhafta ḏ-Mahria (DC 43d; see DC 19); Qmaha ḏ-Dahlulia (DC 43e; see DC 20); Qmaha ḏ-Gastata (DC 43f); Qmaha ḏ-Br ʿngaria (DC 43g); Qmaha ḏ-Yurba (DC 43h); Qmaha ḏ-Šuba (DC 43i); Qmaha ḏ-Qaština (DC 43j; of DC 39 and copy in Bodleian). Purchased by Drower from Shaikh Nejm in 1939[55] and copied in 1270 A.H. (1853 A.D.) in the marshlands in the territory of the Kit bin Sa'ad, by Yahia Bihram br Adam Yuhana. Variants in DC 23b.[79] See also Burtea (2005).[80] CAL texts: DC 43a, 43c, 43d, 43f, 43g I, 43g II, 43h, 43i.
  • DC 44 – Zrazta ḏ-Hibil Ziwa ("The Protection of Hibil Ziwa").[49] The longest talisman in the Drower Collection. Purchased by Drower from Shaikh Nejm in 1939 and was transcribed in 1209 A.H. (1794–1795 A.D.) at Qurna by Sam Bihram, son of Yahia Yuhana, Dihdaria, who also transcribed DC 34. 2140 lines with 2 colophons.[81] The text was first made known to the international scholarly community by Jacques de Morgan (1905),[82] based on a qmaha scroll that de Morgan had purchased during his travels to Iran from 1889 to 1891.[6] Matthew Morgenstern has a photocopy of a Hamš Zaraziata manuscript copied in 1199 A.H. (1784–1785 A.D.), which contains the earliest known copies of Zarazta ḏ-Manda ḏ-Hiia and Zarazta ḏ-Ptahil. There are also many later copies in the Rbai Rafid Collection.[30]
  • DC 45 – Haršia Bišia[5] ("A Mandaean Book of Black Magic"). Partially published in journal articles.[83][49] CAL text of DC 45:5–7 (Qmaha ḏ-Šiul).
  • DC 46 – Haršia Bišia[5] ("A Mandaean Book of Black Magic"[49]). Copied by Shaikh Abdallah in March 1942. Different version of DC 45. Partially published in journal articles.[83] DC 45 and DC 46 contain Arabic spells written in Mandaic script. According to Morgenstern & Alfia (2013), "DC 45 and DC 46 are both late copies of magic recipe books or spell formularies that served Mandaean practitioners in Baghdad at the end of the 19th and beginning of the 20th centuries."[84]
  • DC 47 – Pišra ḏ-Šambra ("A Phylactery for Rue").[85][86][1] Copied in 1249 A.H. (1833-4 A.D.)[16] by Yahia Bihram, son of Adam Yuhana. Another manuscript analyzed by Drower was a manuscript that the Mandaean silversmith Zahroun Amara had copied for Anastase-Marie de Saint-Élie around the turn of the 20th century. Drower abbreviates the manuscript as P.A.[85]
  • DC 48 – Alma Rišaia Zuṭa ("The Smaller Supreme World")[21] (listed as DC 47 in Drower 1953[5]). English translation and commentary by Drower (1963).[76] A text from Shushtar that was copied by Adam Zihrun br Bihram Šitlan br Sam Zakia br Iahia Bulparaš br Ram Iuhana, Ša‛puria clan.[87] Dates to 972 A.H. or 1564 A.D. CAL text.
  • DC 49 – Small exorcism scroll
  • DC 50 – Šarḥ ḏ-Maṣbuta Rabtia ("The Scroll of the Great Baptism").[1] Ritual scroll describing the 360 baptisms (masbutas) for a polluted priest. Also called "Fifty Baptisms" and the Raza Rba ḏ-Zihrun. Dates from 1867 and has 962 lines. See Güterbock (2008).[88] Also known in full as Šarḥ ḏ-Maṣbuta Rabtia ḏ-Tlatma u-Šitin Maṣbutiata.
  • DC 51 – Pišra ḏ-Pugdama ḏ-Mia ("Exorcism: the Command of the Waters"),[49] of which DC 51 is the only surviving copy. Exorcism invoking the personified waters of life. Dates to 1277 A.H. Copied in Margab, Suq es-šuyukh, in 1277 A.H. (1860-1 A.D.) by Ram Zihrun, son of Sam Bihram, Kupašia. Berlin MS Or. Oct 3752 envelope 34, an incomplete manuscript, parallels DC 51 (lines 433-448).[89] CAL text.
  • DC 52 – missing
  • DC 53 – Qulasta (Canonical Prayerbook, a complete codex). Purchased by Drower in 1954. Copied in 1802 by the ganzibra Adam Yuhana, the father of Yahia Bihram, in Huwaiza, Khuzistan.
  • DC 54 – The Coronation of the Great Šišlam. English translation and commentary by Drower (1962). Or. 6592, British Museum is another manuscript of this text.[90] The scroll is from either Basra or Huwaiza[22] and dates to 1008 A.H. (1599 A.D.). Copied by Sam Šitlan, son of Ram Bayan, Ša‛puria clan. Morgenstern notes that DC 54 is corrupt, while RRC 1A and BL. Or. 6592 are more reliable.[22]
  • DC 55 – Drower's personal notebook

Timeline of major publications

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Timeline of major publications of important Mandaean scriptures:

Bibliography

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See also

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References

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Revisions and contributorsEdit on WikipediaRead on Wikipedia

List of Mandaic manuscripts

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The List of Mandaic manuscripts comprises catalogs and inventories of surviving texts written in Classical Mandaic, an Eastern dialect associated with , the ancient Gnostic of the originating in southern . These manuscripts, primarily religious and liturgical works including prayers, hymns, cosmological treatises like the , and magical incantations such as amulet scrolls and bowls, date from the 16th century CE onward, as no earlier codices have survived despite the language's flourishing between the 3rd and 7th centuries CE. Key collections house the majority of these artifacts, with the Drower Collection at the containing 55 volumes acquired in the 20th century, featuring some of the oldest complete copies of texts like the Diwan Abatur and Nahrawata. The (formerly the ) holds 17th-century fragments, including unrecognized magic texts documented in Wright's 1872 catalog, while the preserves Syriac and Mandaic items listed in Hermann Zotenberg's 1874 catalog. Other notable repositories include the , with its 16th-century codex 691 as the earliest known example, and private collections like that of Sheikh Rafid Alsabti, which includes priestly commentaries photographed in 2013. Scholarly catalogs, such as those by , Zotenberg, and later works by Jorunn Buckley, have been essential for identifying and analyzing these manuscripts, revealing insights into Mandaean , colophons documenting like 19th-century epidemics, and linguistic from classical to neo-Mandaic forms. These documents are vital for understanding Mandaeism's theological and cultural continuity, as they preserve esoteric central to rituals and cosmology, with ongoing discoveries enhancing lexicographical and philological studies.

Background

Origins and Production

Mandaean scribes, primarily from the priestly class known as tarmidi and ganzivra, meticulously copied religious texts by hand as a meritorious act to remit sins or upon commission for individuals seeking or personal use. This transcription , often viewed as a sacred and magical endeavor, was typically performed by trained who underwent rigorous starting in childhood, memorizing key texts and verifying accuracy against multiple exemplars. Learned laymen occasionally participated under priestly oversight, though remained largely confined to the clergy. Copying central works like the Ginza Rabba exemplified this focus, ensuring the preservation of core doctrines through faithful replication. Manuscripts were produced using ink formulated by priests from a mixture of glue, charcoal, and river water, sometimes incorporating fish fat or gall-nut for durability, applied to oriental paper in either codex or scroll formats. Codices, bound as books, were preferred for comprehensive scriptures, while elongated scrolls—such as those measuring up to nine yards—suited liturgical or cosmological diagrams. Production techniques emphasized ritual purity, with scribes consulting astrological codices to select auspicious times, and some texts featured illustrations like symbolic trees of life, river charts, or depictions of the soul's journey to enhance instructional value. These illustrated elements, though not universal, appeared in works like the Diwan Abathur, adding visual layers to the textual content. To safeguard sanctity, completed manuscripts were stored in metal boxes, often kept in locked rooms of priestly households, wrapped in multiple layers of white cloth to prevent pollution or damage; the absence of key texts during consecration rituals could invalidate a priest's ordination. Handling required extreme care, with texts lustrated in running water before ritual use to maintain purity. Scribal colophons, termed tarik or ta'rikhi, concluded nearly all manuscripts, recording the scribe's name, genealogy, completion date in the Arab calendar, commissioning details, and contemporary events for historical anchoring. For instance, colophons in editions of the Sidra Rabba list scribes like Nukraia son of Šitil, tracing lineages across copies and aiding in dating texts to periods as early as the mid-7th century CE.

Cultural Significance

In Mandaeism, sacred texts are revered as vessels containing divine knowledge revealed from the World of Light, serving as essential conduits for spiritual enlightenment and the soul's salvation. The Ginza Rabba, known as the "Great Treasure," stands as the core canonical work, encapsulating theological, cosmological, and ethical teachings that guide Mandaean cosmology and ethics. These manuscripts embody the eternal truths transmitted through prophetic figures, preserving the gnostic wisdom that distinguishes Mandaeism from surrounding faiths. Mandaean manuscripts play a pivotal role in religious rituals, priestly education, and communal life, fostering cohesion among adherents. Priests, or tarmidutā, rely on texts like the Canonical Prayerbook (Qolasta) to perform baptisms (maṣbuta) and death masses (masiqta), which are indispensable for purity and the soul's ascent to the divine . Education in these texts is restricted to initiates, with lay Mandaeans prohibited from direct access to esoteric scrolls to maintain sanctity and prevent misuse, thereby reinforcing hierarchical community structures. Scribal copying of manuscripts is viewed as a meritorious act that accumulates spiritual merit for the copyist. As a minority ethnoreligious group facing historical , have relied on these manuscripts to sustain their distinct identity and cultural across diasporas in , , and beyond. The texts act as markers of continuity with ancient gnostic traditions, the transmission of rituals and beliefs that define Mandaean separateness from , . In modern contexts, translations and reproductions of core works like the have aided diaspora communities in preserving practices amid declining priestly numbers and external pressures.

Text Classification

Canonical Scriptures

The canonical scriptures of Mandaeism form the doctrinal and narrative core of the faith, comprising sacred texts that outline cosmology, salvation, prophetic history, and ritual foundations. These works, written in Classical Mandaic, are considered authoritative by Mandaean communities and are essential for understanding the religion's emphasis on gnosis, baptism, and opposition to certain Abrahamic traditions. Unlike later liturgical compilations, these texts emphasize theological principles and historical narratives central to Mandaean identity. The Ginza Rabba, or "Great Treasure," stands as the most sacred and comprehensive canonical text in Mandaeism, serving as the primary repository of doctrinal teachings. It is divided into two distinct sections: the Right Ginza, consisting of eighteen tractates that explore cosmological origins, ethical dilemmas, and the path to salvation through divine knowledge (manda); and the Left Ginza, comprising three main sections of hymns, prayers, and mythological discourses on the soul's ascent and the nature of the divine realms. Thematically, the Right Ginza addresses the emanation of the universe from the Great Life (Hayyi Rabbi), the role of light beings (uthras) in countering darkness, and salvation as liberation from material entrapment via ritual purity and enlightenment, while the Left Ginza delves into eschatological myths and praises of the soul's journey post-death. Spanning approximately 500 pages in modern translations, the Ginza Rabba is revered as the foundational canon, with its composition attributed to multiple authors over centuries, reflecting Mandaean cosmology's dualistic yet monotheistic framework. The Mandaean Book of John (Sidra ḏ-Yahia), another cornerstone of the canon, is a narrative compilation that elevates John the Baptist as the paramount prophet and true revealer of Mandaean truths, contrasting him with figures from Judaism and Christianity. Its content includes dialogues, parables, and historical accounts, with a central narrative arc portraying John's birth, ministry, baptismal role, and martyrdom as emblematic of resistance against corrupt religious authorities. The text incorporates anti-Pauline elements, depicting Paul as a deceptive envoy sent by Jesus to mislead followers and pervert the pure baptismal doctrine, thereby underscoring Mandaean rejection of Pauline Christianity as a deviation from primordial gnosis. Comprising around 200 folios in manuscript form and structured as sixty-four tractates with interspersed hymns, it holds canonical status as a scriptural authority that legitimizes Mandaean origins in Jerusalem and their migration eastward, emphasizing themes of prophetic purity and communal salvation. The Qulasta, or " ," functions as the backbone of Mandaean , canonically compiling prayers essential for sacramental practices. It is organized into sections, with the core comprising 102 prayers dedicated to (masbuta), including invocations for immersion, , and the soul's , recited in during the rite to invoke divine light and purify the participant. Additional prayers extend to daily offices and soul-ascension ceremonies (), but the baptismal establishes its foundational in enacting through and word. As a liturgical canon of over 300 prayers in full editions, the Qulasta is indispensable for priestly transmission, ensuring doctrinal fidelity in that reenact cosmic renewal. These texts are typically preserved as bound codices in Mandaic script, facilitating their transmission across generations in Mandaean communities.

Liturgical and Priestly Texts

Liturgical and priestly texts in Mandaeic manuscripts encompass a range of ritual documents essential for worship and clerical duties, including prayers, hymns, and instructional scrolls that guide ceremonies such as baptism, marriage, and funerary rites. These texts emphasize practical application in maintaining spiritual purity and facilitating the soul's journey, often drawing from established liturgical traditions while serving the needs of the Naṣoraean priesthood. Unlike foundational scriptures, they focus on performative elements, with manuscripts typically featuring invocations, sequences of actions, and symbolic elements like water, myrtle, and incense to invoke divine presence. Prominent among these are the Alma Rišaia Rba ("The Great ") and Alma Rišaia Zuṭa ("The Lesser "), paired Naṣoraean commentaries that function as priestly manuals for ceremonies and eschatological prayers aiding the 's ascent through heavenly realms. The Rba provides detailed expositions on primordial creation and , while the Zuṭa offers complementary interpretations, both recited during masiqta ( ) to passage purgatorial stations. Manuscripts such as DC 41 (copied in 1224 AH/1809–1810 CE) for the Rba and DC 48 (972 AH/1564–1565 CE) for the Zuṭa preserve these texts, highlighting their role in priestly training and funerary contexts. Priestly manuals like the Baptism of Hibil Ziwa (Diwan Maṣbuta ḏ-Hibil Ziwa) illustrate procedures through narrative and liturgical instructions, depicting the descent and purification of the light-being Hibil Ziwa as a model for clerical . This outlines sequences involving 360 immersions in living waters, anointings with , and the bestowal of seals and robes by ethereal figures, serving as a guide for undergoing major purification after pollution. DC 35, dated 1247 AH (1831–1832 CE) and copied in Shustar, includes hymns (lziania) and sacramental elements such as pihta () and mambuha (water or wine), emphasizing the rite's role in restoring cosmic order. Ritual scrolls, known as diwan (collections) and šafta (specific scrolls), compile prayers and directives for core ceremonies, with the Qulasta (Canonical Prayerbook) as the primary liturgical compendium containing over 400 hymns organized by rite. For baptism (masbuta), sequences begin with preparatory invocations like "In the name of that First Being" followed by immersions accompanied by "I went to the ," culminating in sealing prayers such as "Manda created me" over myrtle wreaths to affirm the participant's link to the lightworld. Marriage rites (taga) feature hymns like those in Prayers 179–214, where the bridegroom is invested with vestments amid blessings invoking union, as in Prayer 375's reference to the "Great Mystery" and dual manas (vessels) symbolizing principles, often recited during feast preparations. Death rites (masiqta) employ prayers for soul ascension, starting with incense invocations (" to the First Life") and progressing to pihta blessings ("I worship, laud and praise...") and mambuha offerings ("Biriawis, source of living waters"), guiding the soul through Abathur's stations with wreaths and deliverer hymns (Prayers 66–70). These elements, preserved in manuscripts like those edited in the Qulasta, underscore the texts' ongoing use in priestly practice.

Magical and Esoteric Texts

Magical and esoteric texts in Mandaeic manuscripts encompass a diverse array of non-canonical works focused on protection, invocation, and manipulation of supernatural forces, primarily through amulets, scrolls, and inscribed artifacts. These texts, often produced by Mandaean priests or scribes, served practical purposes such as warding off demons, influencing human affairs, and harnessing celestial influences, reflecting the community's emphasis on ritual purity and cosmic balance. Unlike canonical scriptures, these writings prioritize applied occult knowledge, drawing on invocations of light beings (uthras) and angels to counter malevolent entities. Recent discoveries, such as the publication in 2025 of five Mandaic incantation bowls from the Ābgīne Museum in Tehran, continue to expand knowledge of these early texts. A prominent category includes zrazta, or bowls, which are ceramic vessels inscribed with spiraling Mandaic texts on their interiors, typically from the Sasanian period (circa 3rd–7th centuries CE). These bowls, buried upside down under thresholds or in homes, contained spells to trap and neutralize demons, liliths, and other harmful spirits, often invoking figures like Hibil Ziwa for protection. Zrazta texts, such as those inscribed on bowls in the collection, demonstrate repetitive formulae blending exorcistic commands with mythological narratives, emphasizing themes of cosmic order and angelic intervention. For instance, a bowl from invokes the "great mystery" of to forces, highlighting the texts' in domestic . Qmaha scrolls represent another key type, consisting of narrow, tightly rolled phylacteries written on paper or lead, used as portable amulets against specific threats like illness or possession. These texts, compiled in collections such as DC 43 (The Poor Priest's Treasury), feature multiple formulae (qmahas) for exorcism and healing, including invocations against eye afflictions or nocturnal demons. Examples include the Qmaha ḏ-Bit Mišqal Ainia, a protective spell dated to 1273 AH (circa 1856 CE), which calls upon to avert harm, and love charms that summon ethereal beings to foster affection or resolve disputes. Healing spells often reference cosmic forces, such as the planet , to restore vitality, while exorcism rites target intrusive spirits through binding oaths sworn by lightworld luminaries. Astrological works form a esoteric subset, exemplified by the Sfar Malwašia (Book of the Zodiac), a manuscript tradition outlining zodiacal influences on human fate and ritual timing. This text integrates genethlialogical predictions with mundane astrology, advising on propitious moments for baptisms or protections based on stellar alignments. Themes of angels governing planetary spheres underscore the manuscripts' portrayal of a structured cosmos where hidden knowledge enables harmony between earthly and divine realms. Syncretic elements are evident throughout these texts, blending Mandaean dualism with Jewish angelology—such as to shared protective formulae—and Babylonian astral lore, including zodiacal divisions inherited from Mesopotamian traditions. , for example, parallel Jewish counterparts in demonic nomenclature while incorporating Mandaic motifs, illustrating cultural exchange in late . These influences enriched the esoteric corpus, allowing Mandaean practitioners to adapt regional magical idioms to their gnostic . Such texts are occasionally referenced in priestly rituals for .

Historical Overview

Early Periods

The early period of Mandaic manuscript production, encompassing antiquity through the pre-Islamic era up to approximately 1000 CE, represents the foundational phase of Mandaean written traditions in southern . The oldest known fragments consist of magical texts inscribed on clay and lead amulets, dated to the third and fourth centuries CE, with some evidence extending into the fifth century during the Sasanian period. These artifacts, unearthed in regions like and , demonstrate the initial use of the Mandaic script for incantations invoking divine protection against demons and illnesses, reflecting a practical application of religious beliefs rather than scriptures. Pre-Islamic influences shaped the development of Mandaic as a distinct Eastern , evolving from late Parthian scripts around century CE and incorporating elements from Akkadian, Parthian, and regional . This linguistic adaptation occurred amid the ' transition from predominantly oral transmission of myths, rituals, and teachings—rooted in Gnostic and baptismal practices—to more systematic written documentation, likely driven by the need to preserve esoteric knowledge in a multicultural Sasanian environment. The 's vowel-pointing , unique among varieties, emerged during this time to facilitate accurate in liturgical contexts. Significant historical events, including Mandaean migrations to the alluvial plains of southern by the early centuries CE, facilitated the community's consolidation under Sasanian rule, where they navigated periods of tolerance and Zoroastrian-influenced . By the sixth and seventh centuries, as the Islamic approached, adopted the format for recording texts, aligning with broader Near Eastern trends in book production, though surviving examples postdate this era. This period also saw the proliferation of as a key text type, underscoring the enduring role of magical practices in early Mandaean .

Medieval to Modern Eras

During the Islamic era, from the 9th to the 19th centuries, Mandaic manuscripts continued to be copied primarily by priestly scribes in communities along the rivers of and , preserving sacred texts such as the Ginza Rba, Diwan Abathur, and Qulasta amid the challenges of minority status under Muslim rule. These handwritten copies were produced in ritual contexts, often by ganzibra (head priests) trained from childhood to maintain textual accuracy and ritual purity, with scribes sometimes editing or omitting passages to adapt to contemporary needs. occurred in reed huts or sacred spaces, using to avoid animal-derived materials such as , reflecting the community's emphasis on purity. Colophons (tarik) in these manuscripts frequently recorded the scribe's name, genealogy, completion date, and circumstances of copying, providing valuable historical insights into Mandaean scribal traditions; for instance, genealogies could span over 500 years, linking copyists across generations. Examples include references to early Islamic-era scribes like Ramuia son of Qaimat, who attested to prior transmissions, and later ones such as Hirmiz bar Anhar from priestly families in . The oldest surviving complete manuscripts date to the , such as the Paghra (D.C. 6), though fragments suggest continuity from post-7th-century Arab conquest periods. These colophons highlight the role of priestly lineages in sustaining the corpus despite limited outside the . In the 19th and 20th centuries, as the Mandaean community faced decline due to , intermarriage restrictions, and conversion pressures, European scholars and Mandaean priests actively collected manuscripts to document and safeguard the tradition. German orientalist Julius Heinrich Petermann acquired several key texts in during the 1850s, including copies of the Ginza Rabba, which he published in 1867 as the first printed edition, based on four variant manuscripts compared for accuracy. British scholar E.S. Drower, working in and from the 1920s to 1950s, amassed the largest collection through collaborations with priests like Negm bar Zahroon, obtaining over 50 volumes that captured both canonical and magical texts amid dwindling priestly numbers. These efforts coincided with community contraction, as Mandaeans shifted from rural goldsmith trades to urban professions, reducing traditional scribal activity. Twentieth-century wars and displacements severely impacted manuscript survival, with losses during the Iran-Iraq War (1980–1988) and the 2003 Iraq invasion exacerbating community fragmentation and forcing many into in , , and . , including targeted killings of , led to the destruction or of family-held texts, though significant to Iraq's occurred in post-2003 and fires, including the of an estimated 90% of printed in the of Religious Endowments. Survival relied on private safeguarding by emigrating families and , who buried or transported manuscripts during flights from violence, preserving items like ritual scrolls through oral transmission and hidden storage in communities.

Institutional Collections

Bodleian Library Holdings

The at the houses one of the world's most extensive collections of Mandaic manuscripts, encompassing both early codices and a substantial donation from British E. S. Drower. These holdings include prayer books, canonical scriptures, liturgical texts, and magical scrolls, providing critical resources for the study of . A of the collection is the Drower Collection (shelfmarks MS. Drower 1–55), donated by E. S. Drower ( Drower, 1879–1972), who acquired many items during her fieldwork in and in the 1920s and 1930s. She bequeathed manuscripts 1–53 to the library in 1958, followed by MS. Drower 54 in 1961 and MS. Drower 55 in 1986, forming a total of 55 items primarily consisting of 20th-century copies, though the earliest dates to 1561. These manuscripts, chiefly magical and esoteric texts, include scrolls and codices in Classical Mandaic script on paper, with some featuring illustrations of Mandaean cosmology and rituals. Physical conditions vary; many are well-preserved due to careful handling, but older scrolls show signs of folding and ink fading from repeated use in ceremonies. As of 2025, several items are digitized and accessible online via the Digital Bodleian portal. Among the key items is MS. Drower 22, a complete copy of the Ginza Rabba (Great Treasure), the central canonical scripture of , acquired by Drower in 1936 and notable for its comprehensive coverage of Mandaean and cosmology. Another significant acquisition is Codex Marsh 691, a 16th-century prayer book dated September 5, 1529, copied in Huweiza by Zihrun of Bihram; it contains dozens of Mandaean prayers and is the oldest surviving Mandaic manuscript in a European institution, bound in leather with pages showing minor worming but intact script. The collection also features over 20 illustrated scrolls, such as MS. Drower 8 (R), the Diwan Abatur (a cosmological scroll depicting the soul's ascent through heavenly realms, on a 10-meter roll with vivid ink drawings), and MS. Drower 35 (R), the Diwan Maṣbuta Hibil Ziwa (Baptism of Hibil-Ziwa, an illustrated ritual scroll from 1910 with depictions of baptismal scenes). These items, acquired via Drower's networks among Mandaean priests, highlight the diversity of formats, from compact codices to elongated scrolls used in priestly rites. Additional holdings beyond the Drower subclass, such as the aforementioned , underscore the Bodleian’s role in preserving Mandaic heritage, with shelfmarks facilitating scholarly access through detailed cataloging. Overall, these more than 60 manuscripts (including Drower items and earlier acquisitions) represent a vital archive for understanding Mandaean textual traditions. As of 2025, ongoing digitization efforts by the Bodleian Libraries enhance global access to these materials.

British Library Holdings

The maintains one of the premier institutional collections of Mandaic manuscripts outside the , encompassing over 20 items that represent key aspects of Mandaean religious , including scriptures, liturgical works, and magical texts. These holdings originated primarily through acquisitions by the , facilitated by British explorers, diplomats, and direct presentations from Mandaean priests . Notable among these are purchases made by Colonel during the 1850s and 1860s, with several items donated to the museum by his widow following his death . Other manuscripts arrived via gifts to the British crown, such as those presented by the Mandaean high priest () Yahana . With the creation of the , these materials transferred from the , preserving their Oriental collections intact. Prominent among the canonical texts are three substantial copies of the (Great Treasure), catalogued collectively as Liber Adami Mendaice: Additional Manuscripts (Add.) 23,599, 23,600, and 23,601. Add. 23,599, dating to the late and copied by Mandaean female priests (tarmidutā), spans over 400 folios and contains the full right and left sections of the , though it suffers from inconsistent handwriting and scribal errors due to hasty transcription. Add. 23,600 and 23,601, both from the early 19th century, similarly preserve the text but vary in completeness and orthographic fidelity, reflecting the challenges of production in Mandaean communities at the time. These volumes were acquired in by Taylor and entered the collection in the 1870s, providing early European access to this foundational Mandaean scripture. The collection also features numerous magical and esoteric texts, underscoring the practical dimensions of . For instance, Add. 23,602 includes fragments of 17th-century magical compendia and personal amulets, such as two leaves (foll. 23–24) forming a book of protective formulas against ailments like fear and , inscribed by the Iahia son of Haua Simat. Another fragment within the same volume (foll. 26–28) comprises a personalized amulet for Iahia Bihram son of Iasmin, originally a rolled now in poor condition with edges damaged and text partially effaced. These items, likely collected by Taylor in , highlight the diversity of Mandaic incantatory traditions and have been noted for their fragmentary state, possibly due to environmental exposure during travel or storage. Additional holdings encompass scrolls and priestly manuals, some exhibiting or ink fading from age, though many remain legible for scholarly study.
ShelfmarkDescriptionApproximate DateKey Features/Condition
Add. 23,599 (full text)Late 18th centuryCopied by female priests; poor handwriting, scribal errors; over 400 folios
Add. 23,600 (partial)Early 19th centuryAcquired via Taylor; orthographic variations
Add. 23,601 (partial)Early 19th centurySimilar to above; donated post-Taylor
Add. 23,602 (foll. 23–24)Magical compendium for amulets17th centuryProtective formulas; partial preservation
Add. 23,602 (foll. 26–28)Personal amulet scroll17th centuryFragmented, damaged edges; effaced text

Bibliothèque nationale de France Holdings

The (BnF) maintains a notable collection of over 15 Mandaic manuscripts, primarily acquired through French scholarly and archaeological missions to the in the 19th century, such as those documented in reports on Oriental expeditions. These holdings, cataloged under the Code Sabéen series and Fonds Arabe, encompass core Mandaean religious texts and reflect French contributions to early Mandaic studies. A cornerstone of the collection is Code Sabéen 1, an illuminated codex containing the , the central scriptural compilation of , dated to 1560 CE and recognized as the oldest extant copy of the . This manuscript, also known as MS Paris A, features the Right and Left Ginzas in Classical Mandaic script on , with colophons indicating its copying in by a . Another key item is Fonds Arabe 2661, a 19th-century copy of the Qulasta, the Mandaean liturgical prayerbook used in baptismal and priestly rites, acquired during missions to and Persia. The BnF's Mandaic holdings also include illustrated scrolls, such as those depicting cosmological and ritual scenes from texts like the Diwan Abatur, which blend textual and visual elements to illustrate Mandaean and soul ascent. Priestly texts, including commentaries on rituals (e.g., Šarḥ Traṣa ḏ-Taga) and manuals, form a significant portion, often bound in codices with marginal annotations by Mandaean scribes. Conservation efforts at the BnF have focused on stabilizing these fragile and paper artifacts through rebinding and environmental controls, preserving their readability for scholarly access. As of 2025, select items are available through the BnF's Gallica .

Other Institutional Holdings

Mandaic manuscripts are preserved in a variety of lesser-known institutional collections across , , and beyond, often as incidental acquisitions within broader Semitic or Oriental manuscript holdings. These repositories typically house smaller numbers of items compared to major centers like or , with many manuscripts consisting of scrolls, fragments, or codices that have not received comprehensive study. Such holdings contribute to understanding the dispersion of Mandaean texts through 19th- and 20th-century collecting efforts by scholars and missionaries. Access to these materials is generally restricted to researchers, requiring prior approval due to conservation concerns, though some have been digitized for limited online viewing. Recent transfers, such as those from private donors to public institutions in the mid-20th century, have bolstered these collections, but ongoing cataloguing efforts reveal previously overlooked items. Representative examples of these scattered holdings include the following:
  • John Rylands Library, : The library's Gaster collection, acquired in 1954, contains eight manuscripts tentatively identified as Mandaic (shelfmarks Gaster 1545, 1546, 2000, 2001, 2002, 2003, 2004, and 2038), primarily uncatalogued fragments or short texts awaiting detailed examination; access is by appointment only, with no available.
  • Biblioteca Apostolica Vaticana, Vatican City: This collection holds MS Borgiani Siriaci 175, an illustrated scroll of the Diwan Abatur (Progress through the Purgatories), a key Mandaean cosmological text dating to the 18th or 19th century; the manuscript was edited and translated in full, highlighting its role in eschatological descriptions, though physical access remains highly restricted for preservation reasons.
  • Bibliothèque nationale et universitaire de Strasbourg, France: MS 3.978 is a 19th-century copy of the Haran Gawaita (Great Revelation), a historical narrative on Mandaean origins, transcribed in 1853–1854 by scribe Yahia Bihram b. Adam Yuhana for scholar Julius Heinrich Petermann; it also includes an 18th-century Mandaean poem composed in 1788 CE, with access available to scholars but no full digitization.
  • Leiden University Library, Netherlands: The library possesses a unique multilingual glossary manuscript in Mandaic, Arabic, Latin, Turkish, and Persian, likely from the 19th century, attributed to a Mandaean scribe and used for linguistic study; it was recently reattributed through philological analysis, and access is permitted via the library's special collections with handling restrictions.
  • Uppsala University Library, Sweden (via Alvin Portal): Shelfmark O Hebr. 38 contains a late 18th- or early 19th-century copy of the Qolasta (Canonical Prayerbook), transcribed on transparent paper as a collection of Mandaean liturgical prayers; this stray item is digitized and openly accessible online, facilitating broader scholarly use without physical restrictions.
  • Australian institutional collections: At least two manuscripts of an unidentified Mandaean text are held, one copied in 1828–1829 CE in Suq eš-Šuyūḵ and the other in 1924–1925 CE in Qalʕat Ṣāle; these represent early modern copies brought to through expatriate networks, with access details varying by holding institution and limited reported.
Additional stray items, such as individual scrolls or bowl inscriptions, appear in university archives like those at Yale, Harvard, and the , often as uncatalogued additions from 20th-century acquisitions; for instance, fragments of protective texts have been noted in Sydney's holdings, transferred from field collections in the , though full inventories remain incomplete. These dispersed manuscripts underscore the challenges of preservation, with ongoing efforts to and restrict handling to prevent deterioration.

Private Collections

Drower Collection

The Drower Collection comprises 55 Mandaic manuscripts, cataloged as DC 1–55, assembled by Ethel Stefana Drower (1879–1972), a British anthropologist and leading scholar of . Collected primarily during her extended stays in from the through the , the manuscripts were acquired through direct interactions with Mandaean priests and community members in regions such as , Qal'at , and Litlata. Drower often purchased or received these texts as gifts after building trust over years, overcoming the community's initial secrecy and reluctance to share sacred writings; for instance, she obtained a copy of the Haran Gawaita only after persistent efforts with priests who viewed it as a closely guarded historical text. Many items are 20th-century copies, though some date to the or earlier, and the collection emphasizes unique priestly and esoteric materials, including ritual scrolls, incantations, and cosmological diagrams. Notable among the holdings is DC 22, a complete manuscript of the Ginza Rabba, the Mandaeans' central scriptural compilation, which Drower acquired during fieldwork in Iraq and used to compare variants against earlier European editions. Other key items include illustrated diwan scrolls such as DC 35 (The Baptism of Hibil Ziwa), depicting ritual scenes, and magical texts like those in DC 1–5, which feature incantations on lead amulets and protective rolls (parzūfa and zrazta). Acquisition stories highlight Drower's immersion in Mandaean life; in 1934, she witnessed a priest's purification ritual in Litlata and later obtained related texts from informant Hirmiz bar Anhar, a silversmith from a priestly family who shared both manuscripts and oral legends. These efforts yielded rare priestly works, including the Qulasta (prayer book) and Alf Trisar Šuialia (Seventeen Questions), often copied at her request despite taboos against revealing esoteric content. Drower extensively utilized the collection in her scholarly output, translating and analyzing texts for works such as The Canonical Prayerbook of the Mandaeans (1959), based on multiple Qulasta variants, and The Book of the Zodiac (1949), drawing from astrological manuscripts like the Sfar Malwasha. Her publications illuminated , rituals, and magic, with the collection providing primary evidence for unique variants not found elsewhere. In 1958, following her husband's death and amid political instability in , Drower bequeathed the bulk of the manuscripts (DC 1–53) to the at Oxford University, where they were integrated into its holdings to ensure their preservation and accessibility for future research. Subsequent additions (DC 54 in 1961 and DC 55 in 1986) completed the corpus, cementing its legacy as the most comprehensive private assemblage of Mandaic materials.

Rbai Rafid Collection

The Rbai Rafid Collection (RRC) represents the largest private archive of Mandaic manuscripts maintained within the Mandaean community, serving as a vital repository for the preservation of . Held by the Mandaean ganzibra (senior ) Rbai Rafid al-Sabti, a descendant of a long line of , the collection embodies ongoing family guardianship traditions central to Mandaean identity, where sacred texts are passed down through priestly lineages to ensure ritual continuity and doctrinal integrity. Comprising numerous manuscripts dating from the 17th century onward, the RRC features a rich array of unpublished texts, with a particular emphasis on magical incantations, ritual formulae, and priestly commentaries that provide fresh insights into Mandaean esoteric practices. These include spells and amulets documented in works such as ʿniania ḏ-maṣbuta and variants of Pašar Haršia, often preserved in handwritten copies from the 18th and 19th centuries. The collection's relocation to , , followed the al-Sabti family's exile from amid regional conflicts, safeguarding these artifacts from potential loss during the Mandaean in the late . Access to the RRC remains restricted, granted primarily to scholars through personal permissions from the custodian, reflecting Mandaean of protecting sacred knowledge from unauthorized use. Partial efforts, including high-resolution photography of select items conducted around 2013, have enabled limited scholarly reproductions while maintaining the collection's private status. This approach has facilitated key analyses, such as improved textual variants in works like Alma Rišaia Zuṭa, without compromising the family's custodial role.

Other Private Collections

In the United States, private collections of Mandaic manuscripts are primarily associated with 20th-century Mandaean immigrant priests who brought sacred texts from and to preserve their religious traditions. In , , scholar Jorunn Jacobsen Buckley documented two privately held copies of the , the central Mandaean scripture, owned by local Mandaean families; these manuscripts, dating to the mid-20th century, exemplify the community's efforts to maintain liturgical materials amid . Similarly, in Flushing, New York, the late Nasser Sobbi (1925–2019), a Mandaean and , assembled the largest known private collection of Mandaean manuscripts in , featuring around a dozen items including an original handwritten Book of John from 1910 and various prayer books and scrolls copied by traditional ganzibras (head priests). These U.S. holdings, typically numbering 10–20 items per collection, consist mainly of 19th- and 20th-century copies used for rituals, reflecting the priests' roles in sustaining Mandaean practices in exile. Scattered private ownership of Mandaic manuscripts exists in , often resulting from historical acquisitions by collectors or sales through Mandaean contacts, though many such items remain undocumented or have been lost to dispersal following auctions or estate sales. For instance, individual European owners have held isolated texts like incantation bowls and short scrolls, some of which surfaced in 20th-century sales but lack clear chains of custody due to the secretive nature of Mandaean scribal transmission. Verifying and authenticity in these private collections presents ongoing challenges, as many manuscripts feature colophons (scribal notes) that are either incomplete, forged, or ambiguous regarding origin, complicating scholarly access and risking the inclusion of modern reproductions as antiquities. Experts emphasize the need for paleographic analysis and comparison with institutional holdings to authenticate items, given the tradition of copying texts without formal dating or signatures. These issues mirror concerns in broader studies of religious artifacts, where private dispersal hinders comprehensive cataloging.

Scholarly Publications

Timeline of Key Editions

The publication history of Mandaic manuscripts began in the early with efforts to transcribe and translate key texts like the , the central scriptural compilation of , which consists of cosmological, theological, and ritual content divided into Right and Left Ginzas. These early editions relied on limited manuscript access, primarily from European institutional collections, and often involved transliterations into Syriac or Latin scripts due to the lack of standardized Mandaic typefaces. Subsequent works expanded to include liturgical, magical, and narrative texts, with translations into European languages facilitating scholarly analysis of and rituals. Later editions in the 20th and 21st centuries incorporated more manuscripts, improved philological accuracy, and produced accessible printed versions in original Mandaic script, significantly advancing comparative studies in Semitic religions and Gnostic traditions.
YearEditor/AuthorWorkScope, Language, and Scholarly Impact
1815–1816Matthias NorbergCodex Nasaraeus (also known as Liber Adami)Full transcription of the Ginza Rabba into Syriac script with Latin translation and dictionaries; based on a single manuscript (Paris BnF Sabéen 2); despite transcription errors, it was the first printed access to the text, enabling initial European engagement with Mandaean theology but criticized for inaccuracies.
1867Julius Heinrich PetermannGinza RabbaEdition of the Ginza Rabba in original Mandaic script using lithography; primarily based on Paris BnF MS CS 1 (dated 1560 CE); marked a milestone by providing a more reliable printed version than Norberg's, influencing subsequent philological studies despite some variant omissions.
1905Mark LidzbarskiDas Johannesbuch der Mandäer (Part I: Text)Mandaic text of the Mandaean Book of John (Draša d-Yahia), a narrative on John the Baptist and Mandaean origins; drawn from multiple manuscripts; established a critical baseline for this key hagiographical work, facilitating comparisons with early Christian texts.
1915Mark LidzbarskiDas Johannesbuch der Mandäer (Part II: Translation and Commentary)German translation and analysis of the Mandaean Book of John; highlighted parallels to Gnostic and baptismal traditions; this two-part work became foundational for understanding Mandaean soteriology and its anti-Pauline elements.
1920Mark LidzbarskiMandäische LiturgienEdition and German translation of the Qulasta (Canonical Prayerbook), containing over 100 baptismal and ritual prayers; based on British Library and other holdings; advanced liturgical studies by clarifying Mandaean sacramental practices like immersion rites.
1925Mark LidzbarskiGinzā: Der Schatz oder das Grosse Buch der MandäerGerman translation of the entire Ginza Rabba with introduction; synthesized earlier editions; remains a seminal reference for Mandaean cosmology, influencing 20th-century scholarship on ancient Near Eastern dualism.
1959E. S. DrowerThe Canonical Prayerbook of the MandaeansEnglish translation of the Qulasta with notes; utilized Drower's private collection of 20th-century copies; provided accessible insights into living Mandaean rituals, bridging textual and ethnographic research.
1998Majid Fandi Al-Mubaraki (with Brian Mubaraki)Ginza Rba: The Great TreasurePrinted edition of the Ginza Rabba in Mandaic script with Roman transliteration; compiled from priestly recensions like the Mhatam Zihrun; improved readability for modern scholars and Mandaean communities, supporting revival efforts.
2019Charles G. Häberl and James F. McGrathThe Mandaean Book of John: Critical Edition, Translation, and CommentaryCritical Mandaic text, English translation, and commentary of the Mandaean Book of John; based on over 20 manuscripts from institutional collections; offers philological rigor and contextualizes Mandaean identity in late antique Mesopotamia, enhancing interfaith dialogue studies.

Major Bibliographic Works

One of the earliest comprehensive catalogs of Mandaic manuscripts is William Wright's Catalogue of Syriac Manuscripts in the Acquired Since the Year 1838, published between 1870 and 1872, which documents over 1,200 Syriac items, including several Mandaic texts among the oriental holdings. This work provided initial identifications and physical descriptions but contained gaps, such as unrecognized Mandaic scrolls misclassified as Syriac fragments, limiting its utility for specialized Mandaean studies. Complementing Wright's efforts, Hermann Zotenberg's Catalogues des manuscrits syriaques et sabéens (mandaïtes) de la Bibliothèque nationale, issued in 1874, offered a more targeted inventory of 35 Mandaic manuscripts in the , with detailed notes on content, script, and provenance that advanced recognition of Sabian-Mandaic materials as distinct from Syriac. Zotenberg's catalog addressed some deficiencies in earlier European collections by emphasizing Mandaic's unique linguistic and religious features, though it overlooked interconnections with private holdings outside institutional libraries. Ethel Stefana Drower's The Mandaeans of Iraq and Iran: Their Cults, Customs, Magic, Legends and Folklore (1937) marked a pivotal shift by incorporating firsthand descriptions of over 50 Mandaean manuscripts she acquired during fieldwork, including ritual texts and priestly commentaries previously inaccessible to scholars. Drower's ethnographic approach highlighted gaps in institutional catalogs like Wright's, such as the absence of living oral traditions influencing textual variants, and her publications of facsimiles and translations established foundational benchmarks for Mandaeology. Building on Drower's legacy, Jorunn Jacobsen Buckley's The Mandaeans: Ancient Texts and Modern People (2002) synthesizes an updated bibliographic framework, cataloging key Mandaic corpora with references to the Drower Collection's 55 manuscripts and addressing interpretive gaps in 19th-century works through philological analysis. Buckley's integration of textual criticism and contemporary Mandaean contexts influenced subsequent Mandaeology by bridging historical catalogs with modern accessibility, revealing how earlier oversights, like incomplete provenance in Zotenberg, obscured manuscript transmission histories.

Modern Preservation

Digitization Efforts

Digitization efforts for Mandaic manuscripts have accelerated in the , driven by institutional and community-led initiatives to preserve and provide global access to these sacred texts. The Bodleian Libraries at the have played a key role through the Digital Bodleian platform, which includes high-resolution scans of manuscripts from the Drower Collection. For instance, items such as MS. Drower 6 (Alf Trisar Šuiali) and MS. Drower 8 (Diwan Abatur) were digitized and made publicly available online in 2022, with broader efforts on the collection commencing in the as part of ongoing preservation projects. Community-driven projects have also contributed significantly to making Mandaic texts digitally accessible. The Mandaean Network, an online resource dedicated to Mandaean knowledge, hosts texts including the Ginza Rba, Sidra d-Nishmatha, and Qulasta, rendered in both Mandaic script and English for ritual and scholarly use. These efforts span from the late 1990s into the 2020s, emphasizing while respecting religious contexts. Individual scholars within the Mandaean community have advanced through typeset reproductions that bridge traditional handwriting with modern encoding. Majid Fandi Al-Mubaraki, based in , has produced printed and digital versions of several core texts, such as typeset editions of the Ginza Rabba and Qulasta in 1998, enabling easier reproduction and study. His work, often in collaboration with others like Brian Mubaraki, focuses on accurate Mandaic to support community rituals. To address technical hurdles, the inclusion of the Mandaic script in the Unicode Standard (version 6.0, released in 2010) has been crucial, providing a standardized block (U+0840–U+085F) for digital encoding and rendering of the right-to-left, script. This development overcame prior limitations in software support for non-Latin scripts, facilitating OCR and online publication, though challenges persist with variations and historical orthographic inconsistencies. Despite these advances, faces ongoing obstacles, including restrictions on sacred materials and the need for consent to prevent unauthorized dissemination of ritual texts. For indigenous religious groups like the , ethical concerns emphasize collaborative approaches to ensure cultural control and avoid exploitation, as highlighted in broader discussions on heritage .

Recent Discoveries and Access

In recent years, scholarly access to Mandaic manuscripts has been significantly enhanced through collaborative projects focused on editing and digital dissemination. The – Die ‚Heilige Schrift‘ der Mandäer project, funded by the Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft and led by the (BBAW), has utilized manuscripts from the Rbai Rafid Collection in , including RRC 5L, to produce critical editions, translations, and commentaries of the Ginza's left tractates. This initiative, ongoing as of 2023, provides open digital access to these materials via an online platform, facilitating broader analysis of 3rd-century CE poetic sections on themes like soul journeys and cosmic dualism. Emerging scholarship has leveraged digitized collections to explore syncretic elements in Mandaic magical texts. A 2025 study examines spells against menstrual bleeding transcribed in Mandaic script, drawing from the Drower Collection and other sources to highlight interlinguistic adaptations in protective incantations. Similarly, analysis of an unpublished Syriac (B9002) containing Mandaic elements reveals protective rituals blending dialects, underscoring Mandaean influences in late antique magic. These works, published in 2024–2025, demonstrate how digitization efforts have enabled comparative studies that uncover syncretic links between Mandaean practices and neighboring traditions. Digitization has played a pivotal role in enabling such access, allowing researchers to analyze previously understudied variants without physical handling of fragile scrolls.

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  32. https://digital.bodleian.ox.ac.uk/objects/8fcb4bd3-9e6d-4a6f-8446-9044e82032ef/
  33. https://scholarship.libraries.rutgers.edu/view/pdfCoverPage?instCode=01RUT_INST&filePid=13643534100004646&download=true
  34. https://archive.org/details/manuscritsorient00pariuoft
  35. https://www.bnf.fr/en/archives-and-manuscripts-catalogue
  36. https://www.manchesterhive.com/downloadpdf/journals/bjrl/89/2/article-p107.pdf
  37. http://khazarzar.skeptik.net/books/mandaean/diwant.pdf
  38. https://poj.peeters-leuven.be/content.php?url=article&id=504471
  39. https://alvin-portal.org/alvin/view.jsf?pid=alvin-record:510862
  40. https://archiveshub.jisc.ac.uk/data/gb161-mss.drower1-5%2C6-21%28r%29%2C22%2C23-9%28r%29%2C30-1%2C32-7%28r%29%2C38%2C39-44%28r%29%2C45-6%2C47-52%28r%29%2C53%2C54%28r%29%2C55
  41. https://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/mandaeans-1
  42. https://www.jstor.org/stable/25222608
  43. https://mandaeanpriests.exeter.ac.uk/items/show/139
  44. https://www.journals.uchicago.edu/doi/10.1086/731529
  45. https://www.unicode.org/L2/L2020/20044-mandaic-0858.pdf
  46. https://poj.peeters-leuven.be/content.php?url=article&id=3284833
  47. https://www.academia.edu/38600586/Mandaic
  48. https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/international-journal-of-cultural-property/article/provenances-real-fake-and-questionable/3276442435797C059585742B75009F8B
  49. https://archive.org/details/MN41563ucmf_2
  50. http://www.gnosis.org/library/mand.htm
  51. https://www.degruyter.com/document/doi/10.1515/9783110486513/html
  52. https://archive.org/details/catalogueofsyria03brituoft
  53. https://digital.bodleian.ox.ac.uk/objects/11053737-8dad-43be-93f4-df09382aed89/
  54. http://www.mandaeannetwork.com/mandaean/en/index.html
  55. https://www.clir.org/pubs/reports/pub112/body/
  56. https://elischolar.library.yale.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1036&context=jcas
  57. https://www.bbaw.de/en/projects/ginza-die-heilige-schrift-der-mandaer
  58. https://www.bbaw.de/files-bbaw/publikationen/jahrbuch/bbaw-bericht-2023/BBAW-Bericht_2023_Web.pdf
  59. https://www.openbookpublishers.com/books/10.11647/obp.0463/chapters/10.11647/obp.0463.29
  60. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/396786279_An_Unpublished_Syriac_Bowl_B9002_with_a_Mandaic_Incantation
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