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Grilled marron, ready to eat.

Marron is a name given to two closely related species of crayfish in Western Australia. Formerly considered a single species, it is since recognised as comprising two species, the critically endangered Cherax tenuimanus, and the species that is outcompeting it, C. cainii.[1][2]

Marron are considered a luxury product and are the subject of a developing aquaculture industry in Western Australia and other Australian states. Total Australian production of farmed marron was 30 tons in 1996. In Western Australia, recreational fishing for marron is tightly controlled, with a limited season, permits are required, and minimum sizes are enforced.

Marron have been introduced to Kangaroo Island in South Australia, where they have been commercially farmed, and have established feral populations in local waterways. In New Zealand, permits were formerly granted for commercial farming of marron until at least the early 1990s. Since then it has been illegal to import into or grow in New Zealand, and 500 specimens discovered growing in an illegal operation in South Kaipera were destroyed in 2005.[3]

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Marron

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Marron denotes two species of large-bodied freshwater crayfish endemic to the permanent rivers and streams of southwestern Western Australia: the more widespread smooth marron (Cherax cainii) and the rarer hairy marron (Cherax tenuimanus). These decapod crustaceans typically exhibit dark brown to black coloration, with the smooth marron capable of attaining lengths over 400 mm from rostrum to telson and weights exceeding 2 kg, positioning it among the world's largest freshwater crayfish species. Prized for their firm, sweet flesh, marron support recreational fisheries, aquaculture operations, and commercial harvest in Western Australia, though populations of the hairy marron have declined precipitously due to habitat degradation, overfishing, and competitive displacement by the more aggressive smooth marron, rendering the latter critically endangered. Conservation efforts, including protected status and captive breeding programs, aim to preserve genetic diversity amid ongoing threats from environmental changes and invasive interactions.

Taxonomy and Etymology

Species Identification

The term marron designates two distinct of freshwater (Cherax spp.) endemic to southwestern : the smooth marron (Cherax cainii Austin & Ryan, 2002) and the hairy marron (Cherax tenuimanus Smith, 1912). These were historically lumped under a single (C. tenuimanus), but molecular and morphological analyses in 2002 confirmed their separation, with C. cainii representing the more widespread form and C. tenuimanus the rarer variant restricted to specific drainages. Species identification relies on key morphological traits observable in adult specimens. The smooth marron (C. cainii) exhibits a glabrous (hairless) , lacking dense setae across the and appendages, with a rostrum typically featuring lateral spines but no pronounced keel. In contrast, the hairy marron (C. tenuimanus) is distinguished by profuse short setae covering the body, particularly on the chelae and , along with a prominent central on the rostrum and darker overall coloration. Genetic markers, such as allozyme or sequencing, provide confirmatory identification, especially for juveniles where setae may be less developed. The smooth marron predominates in commercial and recreational fisheries due to its larger size (up to 2 kg) and broader adaptability, while the hairy marron's traits render it vulnerable to hybridization and displacement.

Historical Classification and Name Origin

The marron crayfish were historically regarded as a single species, Cherax tenuimanus, formally described by George William Smith in 1912 from specimens collected in the Margaret River catchment of southwestern . This encompassed both smooth-shelled and hairy-shelled forms across their range from the Harvey River to Albany, reflecting limited early morphological differentiation noted in regional surveys. In 2002, detailed genetic and morphological studies by Christopher M. Austin and Michael A. Ryan distinguished two distinct species, elevating the smooth form to Cherax cainii while retaining C. tenuimanus for the hairy variant endemic to the Margaret River area. The specific epithet cainii honors contributions to its taxonomic elucidation, whereas tenuimanus describes the slender chelae characteristic of the hairy species. The common name "marron" emerged as the regional vernacular for these in , applied consistently in fisheries records and predating formal scientific description, though its precise linguistic origins—potentially linked to early settler adaptations of local terms or European descriptors—lack definitive primary documentation.

Physical Characteristics

Morphology and Variations Between Species

The marron crayfish, encompassing Cherax tenuimanus (hairy marron) and Cherax cainii (smooth marron), share a typical decapod morphology characterized by a hardened, calcified segmented into and , paired chelipeds for and defense, four pairs of pereiopods for locomotion, pleopods for and respiration, and a telson-uropod fan for propulsion and burrowing escape. Both species exhibit , with males possessing disproportionately larger and more robust chelipeds relative to body size compared to females, aiding in mate competition and territorial displays. ![Cooked marron specimen illustrating chelipeds and abdominal segmentation][float-right] Key morphological variations distinguish the two species, primarily in texture and features, enabling reliable field identification of pure C. tenuimanus individuals even amid hybridization risks. C. tenuimanus features dense tufts of setae—hair-like bristles—covering the , pereiopods, , and chelipeds, imparting a distinctly "hairy" texture; these setae are sparse or absent on C. cainii, resulting in a smooth, glossy . Additionally, the median carina (dorsal keel) on the C. tenuimanus extends posteriorly to the cervical groove, whereas in C. cainii it terminates anteriorly, providing another diagnostic ridge-based difference. Coloration varies between species, with C. tenuimanus typically displaying uniform dark brown to black hues dorsally, occasionally with reddish or purplish ventral patches in females, while C. cainii shows greater polymorphism, ranging from olive-green and brown to striking or morphs under selection, though wild specimens are often subdued brownish. Maximum adult size also differs, as C. tenuimanus attains lengths of 15–40 cm and weights up to 2 kg, whereas C. cainii commonly reaches 17–38.5 cm and can exceed 2 kg in optimal conditions, reflecting its faster growth and broader adaptability.
Morphological FeatureCherax tenuimanus (Hairy Marron)Cherax cainii (Smooth Marron)
Exoskeleton TextureDense setae on , limbs, and Smooth, lacking prominent setae
Median Carina LengthExtends to cervical grooveTerminates anterior to cervical groove
Typical ColorationDark to Variable (, , blue morphs)
Max. Size (Length/Weight)Up to 40 cm / 2 kgUp to 38.5 cm / >2 kg
Hybrids between the species exhibit intermediate traits, such as reduced setae density and variable carina extension, but lack the full suite of C. tenuimanus characteristics, underscoring the utility of these morphological markers for conservation monitoring.

Habitat and Ecology

Preferred Environments

Marron crayfish, encompassing species such as Cherax cainii (smooth marron) and Cherax tenuimanus (hairy marron), inhabit permanent freshwater systems in southwestern , favoring clean rivers, streams, and dams that maintain consistent water levels. These environments must provide high dissolved oxygen levels, as marron exhibit sensitivity to hypoxia, with optimal conditions typically exceeding 5-6 mg/L dissolved oxygen. Unlike many parastacid crayfish, marron are ineffective burrowers and cannot tolerate seasonal drying, restricting them to perennial water bodies where water permanence prevents desiccation mortality. Habitat structure plays a critical role, with preferences for substrates like sandy or gravelly bottoms interspersed with structural complexity for shelter and foraging. Rocks, submerged logs, aquatic vegetation, and debris offer refuge from predators and predation pressure, while also facilitating access to and accumulation. In lotic habitats, marron select slower-flowing reaches or pool-riffle sequences over high-velocity sections, with C. tenuimanus particularly associated with clear, tannin-stained waters in systems like the Margaret River, where soft, acidic conditions ( around 6-7) prevail alongside moderate flow. Lentic environments, such as reservoirs, see concentrations in littoral zones with marginal , though vertical distribution shifts with depth and oxygen gradients. Temperature tolerance limits further define suitability, with marron thriving in cooler regimes below 25°C and exhibiting stress or reduced activity above 28-30°C, aligning with their native oligotrophic, low-nutrient waters. Anthropogenic alterations, including and , degrade these preferences by reducing oxygen and shelter availability, underscoring the species' reliance on undisturbed, pristine freshwater ecosystems for persistence.

Diet and Behavior

Marron crayfish, including species such as Cherax cainii and Cherax tenuimanus, are omnivorous detritivores that primarily consume decaying vegetation, , and associated microorganisms or small in their freshwater habitats. This diet reflects their role in nutrient cycling within slow-flowing rivers and dams, where plant-based forms the bulk of available . Experimental feeding trials demonstrate that marron growth and survival improve with diets containing 20–30% protein, with animal-derived proteins yielding healthier outcomes and greater starvation tolerance than plant sources like lupin meal. Juveniles, in particular, benefit from or high-protein feeds, which enhance haemocyte counts, pigmentation, and overall development compared to pellet-based alternatives. occurs opportunistically, especially under crowded conditions or food scarcity, contributing to population regulation in dense aggregations. Behaviorally, marron exhibit nocturnal foraging patterns, actively searching stream bottoms at night using their walking legs to probe for food items before capturing them with chelae, which minimizes exposure to diurnal predators. During daylight, they seek shelter under rocks, logs, or undercut banks, displaying reduced shelter occupancy in simulated light conditions that increases predation vulnerability relative to more reclusive crayfish species. Territorial aggression is pronounced among conspecifics, particularly males and juveniles, often manifesting in agonistic displays or combat that can result in injury, though pairing mitigates such interactions in controlled settings. This aggression, combined with limited juvenile dispersal due to maternal brooding, leads to localized population distributions in natal waters.

Reproduction and Life Cycle

Breeding Patterns

Marron crayfish, encompassing species such as Cherax cainii (smooth marron) and Cherax tenuimanus (hairy marron), display gonochoristic reproduction with distinct male and female sexes, lacking hermaphroditism or common in some other crayfish taxa. is typically attained at 2–3 years of age, with larger individuals capable of reproduction thereafter. Mating occurs seasonally during cooler periods, primarily in autumn and winter for C. cainii, or extending into late winter through spring (July–October) for C. tenuimanus, aligning with lower water temperatures that enhance viability. During courtship, males grasp females with their chelae, often flipping them onto their backs or sides to facilitate transfer, depositing the sperm packets between the female's fifth pair of pereiopods near the gonopore. Females subsequently extrude eggs, which are fertilized externally by the stored spermatophores; the eggs are then cemented to the maternal pleopods (swimmerets) beneath the abdomen for brooding, a process known as berrying. sizes vary by female size and , ranging from 200–300 eggs in C. cainii to 200–400 or more in larger C. tenuimanus specimens, with hatching success yielding 150–250 juveniles per brood after accounting for natural losses. Incubation duration exhibits plasticity influenced by environmental factors like and , typically spanning 12–16 weeks in C. cainii but extending up to 6 months in C. tenuimanus, with juveniles emerging fully formed and independent in (late to early in ). Berried females exhibit reduced foraging and mobility to protect the clutch, ventilating eggs via pleopod fanning to maintain oxygenation and prevent . increases with female body length, as ovarian development—progressing through previtellogenic, vitellogenic, and mature stages—correlates positively with size, enabling annual or biennial breeding cycles in optimal conditions.

Growth and Development

Following from eggs attached to the female's pleopods, juveniles of the smooth marron (Cherax cainii) progress through two attached developmental stages, secured by recurved spines on the dactyls of their fourth and fifth pereopods. In the subsequent third stage, these spines straighten, preventing further attachment, and the juveniles detach as independent, free-swimming individuals resembling scaled-down adults, with the female then displaying aggressive behavior toward them. These initial post-hatching phases span roughly two months before full independence. Independent growth proceeds through ecdysis, or molting, where marron discard the old exoskeleton, rapidly uptake water to inflate body volume, and mineralize the new one with calcium for rigidity. Juveniles molt frequently—often multiple times per month under favorable conditions—while frequency declines in adults as size increases. Molting success and increment (size gain per molt) rise with temperatures of 22–25°C, yielding higher overall growth rates, though survival drops above 28°C; below 12°C, metabolic slowdown curtails activity and increment. Dietary strongly modulates juvenile growth, with sources like by-products enabling specific rates up to 0.31 g/day, alongside improved molt and reduced intermolt intervals. In , C. cainii attains marketable weight (175 g) in 24 months under semi-intensive management yielding 2–3 tons/ha annually, outpacing wild rates of 400–600 kg/ha. emerges at 18–30 months, contingent on accelerated growth from elevated temperatures or . Cherax tenuimanus exhibits comparable patterns but marginally slower overall growth.

Distribution and Introductions

Native Range

The marron, primarily comprising the species Cherax cainii (smooth marron) and Cherax tenuimanus (hairy marron), is endemic to the freshwater river systems of south-western . The original distribution prior to human-mediated translocations extended from the Harvey River in the north to the Kent River near in the south, encompassing permanent rivers, streams, and associated wetlands with suitable oxygenated, slow-flowing habitats. This range spans approximately 400 kilometers along the coastal plain, where marron occupy deeper pools with sandy or gravel substrates, often burrowing during dry periods. Cherax cainii historically occupied a broader portion of this region, from the Harvey River southward to around Albany, inhabiting a variety of lotic and lentic environments including the Warren, Donnelly, and Frankland rivers. In contrast, Cherax tenuimanus possesses a more restricted native distribution, confined to the River catchment and adjacent southwestern streams within the same biogeographic zone, reflecting its adaptation to localized karstic aquifers and perennial flows. These distributions are supported by historical records and pre-European settlement reconstructions, indicating no natural occurrence beyond this southwest corner of the continent, limited by aridity to the east and oceanic barriers elsewhere.

Introduced Populations and Invasiveness

Cherax tenuimanus, commonly known as the hairy marron, has been introduced outside its native southwestern Australian range primarily for trials. In 1976, the species was imported to by private sector interests to evaluate its potential in freshwater farming. There, it is regulated under the National Environmental Management: Act as a Category 2 since 2004, necessitating permits for possession, transport, or propagation, though no self-sustaining wild populations have been documented, with specimens largely confined to controlled facilities. Within , translocations of C. tenuimanus to farm dams beyond its restricted Margaret River catchment, such as in the Great Southern wheatbelt region near Boscabel, have supported small-scale but raised concerns over genetic dilution and displacement when overlapping with native distributions. These introductions have not led to widespread establishment, attributed to the species' specific preferences for clear, oxygen-rich perennial streams and its lower competitive adaptability compared to congeners like Cherax cainii. Globally, C. tenuimanus is viewed as having moderate invasive potential due to its capacity for rapid growth in suitable conditions and potential to outcompete or hybridize with local fauna, prompting prohibitions on live importation and sale in regions like , . No confirmed invasive impacts, such as or alteration, have been recorded from these limited introductions, contrasting with more aggressive Australian crayfish like the redclaw (). Risk assessments emphasize containment in to prevent escapes, given the species' in its native range to competitive exclusion by introduced smooth marron.

Conservation and Threats

The smooth marron (Cherax cainii), the primary species referred to as marron in , is classified as Least Concern on the , indicating no immediate threat to its overall survival across its native southwestern Australian range. However, localized populations have shown declines in distribution and density, driven by environmental stressors including secondary salinization of waterways, from land-use changes, and historical through . Management responses have included shortening the annual fishing season and imposing strict size and bag limits, reducing permitted harvests from roughly 500,000 individuals in the 1970s–1980s to about 50,000 by the early 2000s, which has helped stabilize catch per unit effort in monitored waters. The closely related hairy marron (Cherax tenuimanus), endemic to the Margaret River catchment, holds Critically Endangered status under both the and Western Australia's Wildlife Conservation Act 1950, with its extent of occurrence limited to less than 100 km² and ongoing severe fragmentation. Population trends for this species are sharply downward, with wild numbers reduced by over 90% since the mid-20th century primarily due to competitive displacement and hybridization following the introduction of smooth marron into its habitat around 1912. Recent surveys indicate fewer than 10,000 mature individuals remain in isolated refugia, prompting active interventions such as at , which achieved successful releases of juveniles into protected upstream sites as of September 2024.

Major Risks and Management Strategies

The primary threat to the hairy marron (Cherax tenuimanus), a critically endangered endemic to the Margaret River catchment in southwestern , is hybridization and competitive displacement by the more widespread smooth marron (Cherax cainii), which was illegally introduced to the region in the . has led to genetic swamping, with pure-strain hairy marron populations declining to fewer than 100 individuals in isolated refugia by 2015, exacerbating vulnerability to . Additional risks include habitat degradation from reduced streamflows—attributable to climate-driven droughts and upstream water extraction—which have contracted suitable oxygenated habitats, and sporadic illegal fishing despite protections under the Western Australian Wildlife Conservation Act 1950. For smooth marron (C. cainii), the dominant species in the commercial and recreational , overexploitation poses the chief risk, with historical catches peaking at over 100 tonnes annually in the before regulatory interventions stabilized populations. loss from riparian clearing, , and in perennial rivers and dams further compounds pressure, though the species exhibits resilience due to broad distribution and high . outbreaks, such as white spot syndrome virus, remain a latent concern in aquaculture-linked wild stocks, potentially amplified by warming waters. Management strategies for hairy marron emphasize control, including targeted trapping and removal of smooth marron from priority streams since 2010, coupled with genetic screening to preserve pure lineages in ex-situ breeding programs at facilities like the Department of Primary Industries and Regional Development (DPIRD). Habitat rehabilitation involves fencing to exclude livestock, revegetation of riparian zones, and flow augmentation trials, with ongoing monitoring via surveys to track population recovery. Strict translocation bans prevent further genetic pollution, and community-led initiatives promote awareness to curb illegal releases. Smooth marron populations are sustained through evidence-based by DPIRD, including a minimum size limit of 80 mm orbital length, seasonal closures from midnight December 1 to midnight January 31, and gear restrictions limiting recreational fishers to five pots per person. Stock assessments using catch-per-unit-effort inform adaptive quotas, with restocking from hatcheries contributing to recovery in depleted warrant brooks ( streams). measures, such as mandatory reporting of and prohibitions on live imports, mitigate risks, while into climate-resilient strains supports long-term adaptability.

Fishery and Aquaculture

Wild Harvesting Practices

Wild harvesting of marron (Cherax cainii), the largest Australian freshwater , occurs exclusively through in southwestern , where it is native to rivers, dams, and wetlands. This activity is tightly regulated by the Department of Primary Industries and Regional Development (DPIRD) to prevent , with no commercial wild harvest permitted; instead, the industry relies on for supply. A recreational marron fishing is mandatory, obtainable annually for a fee, and the open season runs from January 8 to February 5 each year, aligning with peak summer conditions when marron are most active and vulnerable to capture. Legal capture methods are limited to drop nets, scoop nets, and pole snares to minimize disturbance and . Drop nets, baited with fish or meat and deployed from riverbanks or boat edges, allow passive capture as marron investigate the ; they are set and checked periodically, often overnight in deeper pools. Scoop nets, used actively by wading or boating in shallower waters, involve sweeping submerged or areas where marron shelter during daylight. Pole snares, consisting of a 5-6 foot pole with a of plastic-coated wire, enable precise targeting by dangling the loop near detected marron and quickly contracting it around the ; this method is favored in clear, snag-heavy waters and is the only option in designated "snare-only" zones to reduce gear entanglement risks. Harvesters must measure each captured marron immediately using at the carapace length (minimum 80-90 mm depending on region), releasing undersized individuals, berried females, or soft-shelled specimens alive to protect breeding and juveniles. Daily bag limits typically range from 5-10 marron per person, varying by waterbody, with possession limits enforced during transport. These rules, enforced via compliance patrols, stem from assessments showing vulnerability to , as marron populations exhibit slow growth and low recruitment in some degraded habitats. Nocturnal activity peaks under low light, prompting most harvesting at or dawn, often using torches to spot eyeshine in shallow margins.

Farming Techniques and Sustainability

Marron aquaculture primarily employs semi-intensive or extensive pond systems in regions like southwestern and , , where earthen ponds or farm irrigation dams are constructed with compacted gravel bottoms, sloped banks for drainage, and protective measures such as bird netting and fencing to minimize predation. Ponds typically range from 250 for to 1,000 for growout, equipped with systems like venturi aerators or paddlewheels operated multiple times daily to maintain oxygen levels, alongside drain pipes and concrete bases for efficient harvesting. Stocking involves selecting healthy for breeding ponds, followed by nursery phases before transfer to growout ponds at of 2–15 individuals per , achieving rates averaging 80.5% regardless of ; growth is inversely related to , with predicted yields reaching 2,100 kg/ha after one year at lower densities or up to 3,175 kg/ha after two years. Feeding relies minimally on formulated pellets or plant-based materials like or to promote formation, applied judiciously to avoid oxygen depletion from overfeeding, while extensive operations often forgo supplemental feeds entirely, leveraging natural and vegetation. Harvesting occurs by partial draining via syphons overnight, removal of hides (150 per 1,000 ), and collection from drains, followed by transfer to aerated purging tanks for cleaning before market. Sustainability is enhanced by low-input practices, including the absence of chemicals, fertilizers, or marine-derived feeds, which reduces reliance on external resources and prevents ; is recycled for or other , producing minimal . Ponds support local by hosting such as birds, reptiles, fish, and amphibians, and non-lethal barriers manage wildlife interactions without broad controls. Australian production, totaling 111 tonnes in 2020/21, reflects operators' consensus on avoiding environmentally harmful methods, though challenges like droughts underscore the need for adaptive water management to maintain viability.

Economic and Cultural Significance

Commercial Value

Marron (Cherax tenuimanus) represents a high-value in Australian , primarily due to its large size, firm texture, and appeal in premium markets, with farm-gate prices historically ranging from $16 to $32 per , positioning it as the most valuable farmed freshwater species in the country. The species' commercial appeal stems from demand for live , particularly to Asian markets where it is prized for its flavor and presentation, with export prices for sizes of 130-160 grams reaching $52 per and 160-200 grams at $54 per as of recent trade listings. The industry's gross value of production stands at approximately $2 million annually, supported by a combination of pond-based farming in and for faster growth and larger yields, though production volumes remain modest compared to marine aquaculture sectors. Expansion efforts, including technology-enabled intensive systems and improved , aim to scale output to meet , with recent capital raises targeting high-value overseas markets. In , the Western Australian marron sector reported growth driven by elevated farm-gate prices from effective producer marketing, contributing to broader diversification amid stable overall fisheries values. Secondary markets include ornamental trade for blue marron variants, which can fetch up to $250 per individual due to their aesthetic appeal as low-maintenance pets, though this niche represents a smaller fraction of overall economic activity compared to food-grade production. Challenges to realizing full commercial potential include regulatory restrictions on wild harvest integration and the need for sustainable pond management to avoid overstocking risks, yet ongoing research underscores marron's viability for profitable, export-oriented farming.

Culinary Preparation and Consumption

Marron (Cherax tenuimanus) is esteemed in Australian cuisine for its sweet, delicate flavor, particularly in the claw meat, and firm, moist flesh that remains intact during cooking. The meat yields up to 42% of the total weight after shell removal, with a low oiliness that suits various preparations. Live marron are dispatched humanely by chilling in ice water for about 30 minutes prior to processing, followed by splitting lengthwise or direct cooking to preserve freshness. Primary methods include for 7-8 minutes until the shell turns orange-red, steaming, poaching, pan-frying, stir-frying, deep-frying, , , or barbecuing; undercooking slightly prevents toughness. After , tails are often halved, heads rinsed, and flesh extracted for use, with shells repurposed for or soups. Common dishes feature marron in stir-fries with vegetables and rice, pan-fried halves topped with avocado-lime salsa or walnut dressings in salads, or boiled segments drizzled with lemon-ginger sauces incorporating chili, , and . Grilled or barbecued preparations highlight the natural sweetness, often paired with or native spices. Consumption centers on , where marron serves as a premium in restaurants and homes, valued for its rich yet subtle taste akin to but milder. Nutritionally, marron aligns with profiles, offering approximately 77 kcal, 16 , and 1 g fat per 100 g serving, alongside omega-3 fatty acids that support health benefits similar to other .

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  58. https://www.frdc.com.au/sites/default/files/products/2000-215-DLD.pdf
  59. https://www.australianseafoodexports.com/marron.html
  60. https://agrifutures.com.au/product/a-proof-of-concept-for-technology-enabled-intensive-marron-farming/
  61. https://www.growag.com/highlights/article/ais-2m-capital-raise-to-scale-high-tech-marron-system
  62. https://aquaculturecouncilwa.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/08/ACWA-2024-Annual-Report-resized.pdf
  63. https://www.abc.net.au/news/rural/2020-10-29/blue-marron-demand-claws-to-record-high-prices/12822502
  64. https://library.dpird.wa.gov.au/fr_frcr/3/
  65. https://www.marron101.com.au/asfood.htm
  66. https://australianflavours.com.au/recipes/freshwater-marron-recipe/
  67. https://www.nutritionix.com/food/crayfish/100-g
  68. https://www.themarrontale.com/marron-facts
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