Hubbry Logo
ChewingChewingMain
Open search
Chewing
Community hub
Chewing
logo
8 pages, 0 posts
0 subscribers
Be the first to start a discussion here.
Be the first to start a discussion here.
Chewing
Chewing
Chewing
View on Wikipedia
from Wikipedia
A stump-tailed macaque using mastication to process tough plant matter

Chewing or mastication is the process by which food is crushed and ground by the teeth. It is the first step in the process of digestion, allowing a greater surface area for digestive enzymes and bile to break down the foods.

During the mastication process, the food is positioned by the cheek and tongue between the teeth for grinding. The muscles of mastication move the jaws to bring the teeth into intermittent contact, repeatedly occluding and opening. As chewing continues, the food is made softer and warmer, and the enzymes in saliva (especially amylase and lingual lipase) begin to break down carbohydrates and other nutrients in the food. After chewing, the food (now called a bolus) is swallowed. It enters the esophagus and via peristalsis continues on to the stomach, where the next step of digestion occurs.[1] Increasing the number of chews per bite stimulates the production of digestive enzymes and peptides and has been shown to increase diet-induced thermogenesis (DIT) by activating the sympathetic nervous system.[2][3][4] Studies suggest that thorough chewing may facilitate digestion and nutrient absorption, improve cephalic insulin release and glucose excursions, and decrease food intake and levels of self-reported hunger.[2][4] More thorough chewing of foods that are high in protein or difficult to digest such as nuts, seeds, and meat, may help to release more of the nutrients contained in them,[5][6] whereas taking fewer chews of starchy foods such as bread, rice, and pasta may actually help slow the rate of rise in postprandial glycemia by delaying gastric emptying and intestinal glucose absorption.[7][8] However, slower rates of eating facilitated by more thorough chewing may benefit postprandial glucose excursions by enhancing insulin production and help to curb overeating by promoting satiety and GLP-1 secretion.[9] Chewing gum has been around for many centuries; there is evidence that northern Europeans chewed birch bark tar 9,000 years ago.

Mastication, as it requires specialized teeth, is mostly a mammalian adaptation that appeared in early Synapsids, although some later herbivorous dinosaurs, now extinct, also developed chewing, too. Today only modern mammals chew in the strictest sense of the word, but some fish species exhibit a somewhat similar behavior. By contrast, mastication is not found in any living birds, amphibians, or reptiles.

Premastication is sometimes performed by human parents for infants who are unable to do so for themselves. The food is masticated in the mouth of the parent into a bolus and then transferred to the infant for consumption[10] (some other animals also premasticate).

Cattle and some other animals, called ruminants, chew food more than once to extract more nutrients. After the first round of chewing, this food is called cud.

A piece of chewing gum after being trodden on.

Chewing motor program

[edit]
A water buffalo chewing cud

Chewing is primarily an unconscious (semi-autonomic) act, but can be mediated by higher conscious input. The motor program for mastication is a hypothesized central nervous system function by which the complex patterns governing mastication are created and controlled.

It is thought that feedback from proprioceptive nerves in teeth and the temporomandibular joints govern the creation of neural pathways, which in turn determine duration and force of individual muscle activation (and in some cases muscle fiber groups as in the masseter and temporalis).

This motor program continuously adapts to changes in food type or occlusion.[11] This adaptation is a learned skill that may sometimes require relearning to adapt to loss of teeth or to dental appliances such as dentures.

It is thought that conscious mediation is important in the limitation of parafunctional habits as most commonly, the motor program can be excessively engaged during periods of sleep and times of stress. It is also theorized that excessive input to the motor program from myofascial pain or occlusal imbalance can contribute to parafunctional habits.

Muscles

[edit]
Main article: Muscles of mastication

Nutrition and health

[edit]

Chewing stimulates saliva production and increases sensory perception of the food being eaten, controlling when the food is swallowed.[12] Evidence from one study suggests that chewing almonds 25-40 times kept people fuller while also allowing them to get more nutrients out of the almonds. The researchers also suggest that this is likely to be the case in other foods.[13] A 2015 systemic review found evidence that chewing can decrease self-reported hunger and therefore food intake.[14] Eating food which does not require chewing, by choice or for medical reasons as tooth loss, is known as a soft diet. Such a diet may lead to inadequate nutrition due to a reduction in fruit and vegetable intake.[15]

Chewing also stimulates the hippocampus and is necessary to maintain its normal function.[16] Chewing stimulates hippocampal neurogenesis in both humans and mice.[17]

In other animals

[edit]

Chewing is largely an adaptation for mammalian herbivory to help break down food faster. Carnivores generally chew very little or swallow their food whole or in chunks.[18] This act of gulping food (or medicine pills) without chewing has inspired the English idiom "wolfing it down".[19]

Other animals such as cows chew their food for long periods to allow for proper digestion in a process known as rumination. Rumination in cows has been shown by researchers to intensify during the night. They concluded that cows chewed more intently in the night time compared to the morning.[20]

Ornithopods, a group of dinosaurs including the Hadrosaurids ("duck-bills"), developed teeth analogous to mammalian molars and incisors during the Cretaceous period; this advanced, cow-like dentition allowed the creatures to obtain more nutrients from the tough plant life. This may have given them the advantage needed to compete with the formidable sauropods, who depended on their massive gastrointestinal tracts to digest food without grinding it.[21]

In machinery

[edit]
Masticator on the Zaca Fire

The process of chewing has, by analogy, been applied to machinery. The U.S. Forest Service uses a machine called a masticator (also called a forestry mulching machine) to "chew" through brush and timber in order to clear firelines in advance of a wildfire.[22]

See also

[edit]

Notes

[edit]
[edit]
Revisions and contributorsEdit on WikipediaRead on Wikipedia

Chewing

View on Grokipedia
from Grokipedia
Chewing, also known as mastication, is a rhythmic, sensory-motor that mechanically breaks down in the oral cavity using the teeth, jaws, and associated muscles to form a cohesive bolus suitable for and subsequent . This initial stage of reduces food particle size, mixes it with to initiate enzymatic breakdown, and enhances absorption by increasing surface area for gastric processing. In humans, chewing involves coordinated cycles of jaw opening and closing, typically occurring at a of 0.8 to 1.2 Hz, which evolve from simple vertical movements in infancy to more complex rotary and lateral motions in adulthood. The anatomy of chewing centers on the (lower jaw) articulating with the (upper jaw) at the temporomandibular joints, supported by four primary muscles: the masseter, temporalis, medial pterygoid, and lateral pterygoid, all innervated by the mandibular branch of the (cranial nerve V). These muscles enable , depression, protrusion, retraction, and lateral deviation of the , with the masseter providing powerful closing force and the pterygoids facilitating grinding motions. The teeth—incisors for cutting, canines for tearing, and molars for grinding—play a crucial role in fragmenting food, while accessory structures like the and buccinator muscle position and contain the bolus within the oral cavity. Physiologically, chewing is centrally controlled by pattern generators in the , modulated by sensory feedback from periodontal ligaments, muscle spindles, and to adjust force and rhythm based on texture and hardness. Salivary glands secrete enzymes like during mastication, which begins digestion, while the process also promotes gut release that influences and . Beyond digestion, efficient chewing supports oral health, prevents , and in , its development influences dietary habits and orofacial growth, maturing variably from 8 months to over 6 years.

Anatomy of Chewing

Oral Structures

Human adults possess 32 , arranged in two arches of 16 each, which are essential for the mechanical breakdown of during mastication. These teeth are categorized into four types based on their , position, and function: incisors, canines, premolars, and molars. Incisors, numbering eight and located at the anterior of each arch, are chisel-shaped for cutting and incising into manageable pieces. Canines, four in total and positioned laterally to the incisors, feature pointed cusps suited for tearing and piercing fibrous or tough materials. Premolars, also called bicuspids and totaling eight, possess broader surfaces with two cusps each to crush and grind semi-solid foods. Molars, the largest group with 12 teeth at the posterior arches, have multiple cusps for extensive grinding and pulverizing of into a bolus suitable for . Collectively, these teeth enable the cutting, mixing, and grinding actions central to mastication. The (TMJ) functions as the pivotal synovial hinge linking the to the cranium, facilitating the range of motions required for chewing. Anatomically, it consists of the mandibular condyle articulating with the temporal bone's mandibular fossa and articular eminence, enclosed by a fibrous capsule, an articular disc, and supported by ligaments, with enabling smooth gliding. This structure permits hinge-like rotation for and depression, as well as translational sliding for protrusion, retraction, and lateral excursions, allowing precise alignment of teeth during the grinding process. These movements position the occlusal surfaces of the teeth to effectively process food without excessive strain on surrounding tissues. Soft tissues within the oral cavity, including the , , and cheeks, actively manage during chewing to enhance efficiency and containment. The , a muscular hydrostat, manipulates and repositions boluses between the teeth for optimal occlusion, while also mixing it with to form a cohesive . The seal the anterior oral opening to prevent escape during initial bites, and the cheeks provide lateral containment, using their buccinator muscle tone to keep material centered for grinding. Together, these structures ensure remains in the occlusal contact zone, maximizing mechanical breakdown and minimizing loss. Salivary glands support chewing by secreting that lubricates the oral environment and begins chemical . The three major pairs—parotid, submandibular, and sublingual—produce approximately 1-1.5 liters of daily, which moistens food to reduce friction against teeth and mucosa during mastication. Notably, contains alpha-amylase, an enzyme secreted primarily by the parotid glands, that hydrolyzes starches into and dextrins, initiating breakdown even before . This dual lubrication and enzymatic action eases bolus formation and protects enamel from abrasive wear. These oral structures are mobilized by the to coordinate the overall process of food .

Muscles of Mastication

The consist of four primary pairs of skeletal muscles responsible for the movements of the during chewing in humans. These include the , , medial pterygoid, and lateral pterygoid muscles, which collectively enable elevation, depression, protrusion, retraction, and lateral excursions of the . The , a powerful superficial quadrangular muscle, originates from the inferior border and medial surface of the and inserts along the lateral surface of the mandibular ramus and the coronoid process of the . Its primary action is to elevate the to approximate the teeth, with superficial fibers contributing to protrusion and deeper fibers aiding retraction. The masseter is innervated by the masseteric nerve, a branch of the mandibular division of the (cranial nerve V3). The , a fan-shaped muscle, arises from the and the inferior temporal line and inserts into the coronoid process and the anterior border of the via its tendon. The anterior and middle fibers elevate the , while the posterior fibers retract it. Innervation is provided by the deep temporal nerves, also from the mandibular division of the (V3). The , located medially in the , has a superficial head originating from the pyramidal process of the and the tuberosity of the , and a deep head from the medial surface of the lateral pterygoid plate; it inserts into the medial surface of the and . It elevates and protrudes the and assists in lateral movements toward the opposite side. Like the others, it is innervated by the medial pterygoid nerve from the mandibular division of the (V3). The , the primary muscle for depression, has an upper head originating from the infratemporal surface of the greater of the and a lower head from the lateral surface of the lateral pterygoid plate; it inserts into the pterygoid fovea of the condylar process, the articular disc, and the capsule. It depresses and protrudes the and facilitates side-to-side grinding movements. Innervation comes from the lateral pterygoid nerve, derived from the mandibular division of the (V3). All four pairs of muscles are innervated by branches of the (V3), which exits the through the ovale, ensuring coordinated activation for mastication. Biomechanically, these muscles generate significant forces during chewing; for instance, the masseter can produce up to 200-250 N of force, contributing to the overall average human maximum bite force of 500-700 N at the molars. Their coordinated contraction enables rhythmic cycles of jaw opening and closing, with synergistic actions balancing forces across the .

Physiology of Chewing

Motor Program

The motor program of chewing, or mastication, refers to the coordinated sequence of movements that facilitate the breakdown and preparation of for in humans. This program is executed through rhythmic cycles involving specific phases that ensure efficient and bolus formation. The process is primarily driven by a (CPG) located in the , which produces the basic rhythmic output for jaw opening and closing without requiring continuous external input. The chewing cycle consists of three main stages: the opening phase, the closing phase, and the power . During the opening phase, the depresses to allow repositioning of the food bolus by the , typically involving a downward and slightly posterior movement. The closing phase follows, where the elevates to bring the teeth into initial contact with the food, initiating grinding and lateral shifts for shearing. The power , embedded within the closing phase, applies maximum force to crush and fragment the food, primarily through occlusal contacts between molars and premolars. Chewing patterns can be divided into four main types: alternating bilateral, simultaneous bilateral, preferential unilateral, and chronic unilateral. Simultaneous bilateral chewing involves distributing food across both sides of the mouth and chewing using both left and right sides at the same time, such as mashing food centrally. Alternating bilateral chewing is generally considered the most beneficial and physiological pattern, as it helps maintain symmetry, prevents overuse injuries, supports oral health, and is widely recommended by dentists and TMJ specialists. Chewing occurs at a rhythmic of approximately 0.8-1.5 Hz, with each cycle lasting about 0.67-1.25 seconds, enabling efficient processing without . A typical sequence involves 20-40 cycles to form a swallowable bolus from a standard portion, though this varies with bolus size and individual factors. The , such as the masseter and temporalis, activate in a patterned manner across these phases to generate the necessary force and velocity. Central to bolus formation is the process, where particles are reduced in size through repeated crushing and grinding until they reach a of less than 2 mm, allowing cohesion with for safe . This particle size reduction ensures the bolus is sufficiently fragmented and lubricated, typically achieved after the aforementioned cycles. The CPG coordinates this rhythm, but the program adapts to properties; for instance, harder textures prolong cycle duration by 10-20% to accommodate increased resistance and enhance breakdown efficiency.

Neural and Sensory Control

The neural control of chewing is primarily orchestrated by structures in the , including the and , which house the (CPG) responsible for generating the rhythmic motor patterns of mastication. The trigeminal motor nucleus, located in the , serves as the key output center, containing motoneurons that innervate the jaw-closing and jaw-opening muscles to coordinate the alternating phases of the chewing cycle. Voluntary initiation of chewing involves higher cortical areas, such as the and , which provide descending inputs to the brainstem CPG to modulate the onset and intensity of the movement. Sensory inputs play a crucial role in regulating and adapting the chewing through feedback mechanisms. Mechanoreceptors in the periodontal ligaments detect bite forces and tooth positions, providing that enhances jaw-closing muscle activity during the slow closing phase of mastication. Muscle spindles in the jaw-closing muscles, such as the masseter and temporalis, contribute proprioceptive information about muscle length and tension, helping to fine-tune jaw movements and maintain rhythm. Receptors in the (TMJ), including Ruffini-like endings and free nerve endings, sense joint position and loading, integrating with other orofacial afferents to modulate the CPG output and prevent excessive strain. Reflex pathways ensure protective and adaptive responses during chewing. The jaw-opening reflex, a disynaptic inhibitory response mediated by trigeminal sensory afferents, rapidly inhibits jaw-closing muscles in response to sudden noxious or mechanical stimuli, such as unexpectedly hard , thereby protecting the oral structures from . The chewing adapts to food consistency via sensory feedback; for instance, harder textures elicit stronger periodontal and inputs, prolonging the jaw-closing phase and increasing cycle duration, while softer foods result in shorter, less forceful cycles. The trigeminal sensory nucleus, comprising the principal sensory nucleus and in the , processes these diverse sensory inputs from the orofacial region, relaying them to the CPG and higher centers for integration. Higher brain structures, including the , contribute to the learning and refinement of chewing patterns, facilitating the acquisition of efficient motor sequences through reinforcement of rhythmic behaviors. Disruptions in these pathways, as seen in , impair chewing rhythm, leading to slower mastication speeds and reduced coordination due to deficits in the .

Health and Nutrition

Nutritional Role

Chewing plays a crucial role in the initial stages of by mechanically breaking down food into smaller particles, which increases the surface area available for enzymatic action and enhances the efficiency of subsequent gastric processing. This process, known as mastication, reduces particle size, allowing for better mixing with digestive juices and preventing large boluses that could impede . Some studies suggest that increased chewing cycles can result in faster gastric emptying and smaller particle sizes, potentially improving nutrient absorption. During chewing, saliva integrates with the food bolus, where enzymes such as α-amylase initiate the of into simpler sugars like , beginning in the oral cavity. This enzymatic activity can achieve considerable breakdown within seconds of mastication, contributing up to 50% of total before the bolus reaches the . Additionally, salivary mucins provide lubrication, facilitating safe and protecting the esophageal lining while aiding the formation of a cohesive bolus for efficient transit. Beyond basic digestion, chewing enhances nutrient bioavailability by disrupting plant cell walls, which releases compounds like carotenoids from vegetables such as carrots and mangoes, making them more accessible for absorption in the intestines. For instance, extended mastication increases the bioaccessibility of β-carotene from mango tissue by promoting greater cellular rupture during oral processing. Chewing also promotes satiety through prolonged oral exposure, which signals fullness via neural and hormonal pathways, linking it to weight management; randomized trials show that increasing chews per bite—such as from 15 to 40—can reduce subsequent energy intake by approximately 12%. Some health experts recommend chewing each bite 30-40 times for optimal nutrient release and digestive comfort, particularly for fibrous foods.

Disorders and Health Effects

Temporomandibular joint disorder (TMD) is a common condition affecting the and surrounding muscles, characterized by , limited movement, and clicking sounds during chewing. It impacts approximately 5-12% of the population, with symptoms including in the temporal muscle (prevalent in 92% of cases) and during mouth opening (89%). TMD is more prevalent in women, with a female-to-male ratio of about 2:1, potentially due to hormonal and biomechanical factors. Habitual unilateral chewing, or preferring one side of the mouth for mastication, contributes to TMD and other issues. It leads to muscle imbalances from uneven masticatory muscle use, uneven tooth wear due to excessive loading on the preferred side, plaque buildup on the unused side from reduced mechanical cleansing, facial asymmetry resulting from differential jaw and facial development, and an increased risk of temporomandibular joint (TMJ) disorders through asymmetric joint loading and overloading. In contrast, alternating bilateral chewing is generally considered the most beneficial and physiological pattern, promoting balanced muscle activity, maintaining facial symmetry, preventing overuse injuries, and supporting overall oral health; it is widely recommended by dentists and TMJ specialists. , involving involuntary teeth grinding or clenching, particularly nocturnal grinding, affects 5-8% of adults and leads to significant wear, headaches, and muscle fatigue. Excessive chewing forces contribute to , a mechanical wear of surfaces from prolonged tooth-to-tooth contact, distinct from chemical erosion but often exacerbated by habits like gum chewing. Poor chewing efficiency can result in inadequate bolus formation, increasing risks of and aspiration, especially in individuals with neuromuscular impairments or the elderly. Inadequate mastication may also delay gastric emptying, promoting (GERD) by allowing undigested food to reflux into the esophagus. While can reduce stress and anxiety by lowering levels and improving alertness, excessive use may worsen TMD symptoms through overuse of muscles. Interventions for these disorders include occlusal splints, which protect teeth from grinding and reduce TMD pain in many cases. Orthodontic treatments address malocclusions contributing to TMD, while behavioral therapies like help manage stress-related clenching. For elderly patients with chewing difficulties, nutritional recommendations emphasize soft diets, such as pureed foods and smoothies, to prevent and risks while maintaining adequate intake.

Chewing in Animals

Variations by Species

Chewing mechanisms exhibit significant variations across animal species, reflecting adaptations to diverse diets and ecological niches. In mammals, dentition and jaw morphology are primary determinants of masticatory efficiency. Carnivorous mammals, such as dogs and wolves, possess specialized teeth—typically the fourth upper and first lower molar—that function as shearing blades, slicing through flesh and with scissor-like action during jaw closure. This allows for rapid processing of without extensive grinding, prioritizing penetration and tearing over pulverization. Herbivorous mammals, exemplified by , feature molars with high crowns that continuously erupt to compensate for wear from abrasive plant material. These molars facilitate lateral grinding motions, where the occlusal surfaces with enamel ridges and infoldings triturate fibrous vegetation into smaller particles for . In contrast, omnivorous mammals like pigs exhibit with low, rounded cusps and thick enamel, enabling versatile chewing of both plant and animal matter through combined crushing and shearing actions. Non-mammalian species display even more divergent strategies, often compensating for the absence of true mastication with alternative anatomical features. Birds lack teeth entirely and rely on the muscular —a thickened portion of the stomach—to grind ingested food, aided by ingested grit that acts as an abrasive medium to break down seeds, , and other items. Reptiles such as alligators employ minimal chewing, using conical teeth and powerful jaws primarily for grasping and crushing prey through puncture and compression rather than cyclic mastication. This results in whole or partially fragmented , with gastric acids handling further breakdown. Certain adaptations further diversify chewing across species. Ruminants, including and sheep, possess a four-chambered stomach that enables rumination, where partially digested boluses of are regurgitated for re-chewing to enhance microbial of cellulose-rich . , adapted for gnawing on hard seeds and wood, have continuously growing incisors with open roots and self-sharpening chisel edges, maintained by constant abrasion to prevent overgrowth. Specific examples highlight these variations' extremes. sequentially replace their molars up to six times over a lifetime, with each successive set larger to accommodate increasing volumes of abrasive browse, the final set emerging around age 30 and enduring for decades. Koalas, specialized folivores, have sharp, ridged molars optimized for shearing and grinding tough, fibrous leaves, which comprise their exclusive diet and require efficient for nutrient extraction.

Evolutionary Aspects

Chewing, or mastication, first emerged as a defining feature in the evolution of jawed vertebrates, known as gnathostomes, approximately 420-400 million years ago during the Silurian-Devonian transition. Prior to this, early arthropods such as trilobites, which dominated marine ecosystems from the early Cambrian period onward (around 521 million years ago), lacked true jaws and relied on simple grinding mouthparts like the hypostome for processing food. The development of jaws in placoderms, the earliest gnathostomes, marked a pivotal innovation, enabling more efficient biting and initial forms of intraoral food processing through rudimentary dentitions structured in whorl-like patterns. This adaptation arose from the repurposing of pharyngeal gill arches into a hinged mandibular mechanism, allowing gnathostomes to dominate aquatic niches by facilitating predation and resource partitioning. The transition from aquatic to terrestrial environments during the period (about 375 million years ago) further complexified chewing mechanics as early tetrapods evolved. Stem tetrapods, such as those in the lineage, exhibited cranial reorganizations that increased the complexity of bone-to-bone contacts and joint articulations, enhancing bite force and intraoral manipulation compared to their fish-like ancestors. These changes supported the processing of tougher, more abrasive terrestrial foods, laying the groundwork for advanced mastication. In mammalian evolution, a major development occurred with the refinement of heterodont dentition—characterized by differentiated incisors, canines, premolars, and molars—originating in synapsid reptiles during the late but achieving greater diversity post- around 66 million years ago. This heterodonty enabled specialized chewing functions, from shearing to grinding, and proliferated in the era among ungulates adapting to herbivory. ungulates, such as and ruminants, evolved high-crowned () molars with complex occlusal surfaces to withstand abrasive grasses in expanding savannas, correlating with dietary shifts driven by climate-induced changes. In and , chewing adaptations intertwined with cognitive advancements. Early hominins like (appearing around 1.9 million years ago) possessed enlarged molars and robust jaws suited for processing tough, unprocessed plant materials and gritty foods, reflecting a diet that demanded high masticatory forces. However, a key genetic mutation in the MYH16 gene, dated to approximately 2.4 million years ago, weakened jaw-closing muscles, reducing masticatory demands and allowing cranial space for accelerated brain expansion—a observed across where diminished chewing efficiency freed metabolic resources for larger brains. This shift coincided with the control of fire and cooking around 1.8 million years ago, which softened foods and further contributed to reduced jaw size and tooth robusticity in modern Homo sapiens, enabling encephalization without compromising nutritional intake.

Chewing in Technology

Mechanical Models

Mechanical models of chewing encompass engineering simulations and physical devices engineered to replicate the biomechanical aspects of mastication for research purposes. These models include in vitro physical simulators, such as artificial mouths equipped with actuators that mimic movements, and computational approaches like finite element analysis (FEA) used to predict stress distributions in teeth and the (TMJ). In vitro models typically feature robotic jaws driven by servomotors or stepper motors to simulate muscle forces and mandibular motion in three dimensions, often incorporating multi-station setups for parallel testing. Soft tissues, such as and gingiva, are represented using compliant materials like to approximate biomechanical properties and enable realistic interactions during simulated chewing cycles. These components allow for controlled replication of vertical, lateral, and protrusive movements, with early commercial examples like the Willytec simulator emerging in the late 1990s to standardize preclinical evaluations. Finite element analysis models treat the system as a deformable structure, incorporating detailed geometries of bones, teeth, and TMJ derived from CT or MRI data to compute strain and stress under applied loads. These simulations often integrate muscle force vectors and between occlusal surfaces, providing insights into load transmission without physical prototypes. Seminal FEA applications have focused on dynamic biting scenarios, validating results against experimental data to refine model accuracy. In research, these models facilitate the evaluation of texture breakdown under simulated mastication, quantifying reduction and bolus formation to inform . They also assess the of dental prosthetics, such as crowns and implants, by subjecting specimens to repeated loading that mimics long-term wear. Modern simulators replicate typical chewing forces of 150-200 and cycle frequencies of 1-2 Hz, aligning with physiological parameters to enhance predictive reliability for clinical outcomes.

Industrial and Biomedical Applications

In the , chewing simulators are employed to analyze food texture during product development, particularly for items like gums and snacks, by replicating mastication to assess breakdown and sensory attributes. Robotic systems equipped with artificial teeth and tongues estimate texture parameters such as and cohesiveness, enabling precise evaluation of how products like roasted or model foods change during simulated chewing cycles. These tools provide multimodal sensory feedback on appearance, sound, texture, smell, and , aiding manufacturers in optimizing formulations for consumer appeal. In biomedical applications, chewing simulators test the durability and performance of dental prosthetics, such as and crowns, by subjecting them to repeated chew cycles that mimic oral forces. For instance, simulations of mastication on 5Y-TZP ceramic crowns demonstrate their structural stability under conditions replicating up to 1.2 million cycles, informing prosthetic design to withstand long-term use. Such devices ensure reliability in by evaluating material wear and fracture resistance, with studies confirming their consistency across preclinical tests. Additionally, rehabilitation devices like the TheraBite Jaw Motion Rehabilitation System support temporomandibular disorder (TMD) by facilitating controlled exercises to restore motion and alleviate through passive . Chewing gum manufacturing relies on a gum base composed of resins, waxes, and elastomers to provide chewiness and elasticity, which is melted and mixed with sweeteners, flavors, and softeners in a heated process to form the final product. Flavor release is engineered through timed diffusion during mastication, where hydrophobic components interact with the base to extend sensory duration, as detailed in formulations using menthol or mint particulates. The global chewing gum market reached approximately $29 billion annually as of 2025, driven by innovations in base ingredients and delivery systems. The U.S. (FDA) incorporates chewing models in evaluating drug release from tablets, particularly for abuse-deterrent formulations of opioids, using simulations to predict release under mastication conditions. These methods involve mechanical chewing apparatuses to assess how crushing or chewing affects extended-release profiles, ensuring safety in pharmaceutical development. In processing, machinery such as extruders simulates chewing-like actions to produce chewable foods from raw ingredients, applying heat and pressure to create textured products that enhance and . Building on mechanical models of chewing, these systems optimize feed formulations for and by controlling and consistency.

References

  1. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK541027/
  2. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC3927374/
  3. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16897322/
  4. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/26188140/
  5. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK570590/
  6. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK557543/
  7. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK538475/
  8. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK538486/
  9. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK279407/
  10. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK542251/
  11. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC6825871/
  12. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC7476206/
  13. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S188319581200062X
  14. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/22342735/
  15. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/B9780702033674000025
  16. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/B9781455726981000083
  17. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10708825/
  18. https://www.scielo.cl/article_plus.php?pid=S0718-381X2021000400873&tlng=en&lng=es
  19. https://www.scielo.cl/pdf/ijodontos/v15n4/0718-381X-ijodontos-15-04-873.pdf
  20. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0950329307000201
  21. https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s00784-020-03425-y
  22. https://journals.physiology.org/doi/10.1152/physrev.2001.81.2.929
  23. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC4100695/
  24. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/3655872/
  25. https://www.iosrjournals.org/iosr-jdms/papers/Vol21-issue8/Ser-5/I2108056376.pdf
  26. https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/medicine-and-dentistry/jaw-opening-reflex
  27. https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-019-42422-4
  28. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC11508441/
  29. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC3545687/
  30. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC9780282/
  31. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK544242/
  32. https://pressbooks.library.vcu.edu/biol217vcu/chapter/3c-digestive-system/
  33. https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s00421-024-05521-3
  34. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK557738/
  35. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK54127/
  36. https://pressbooks.calstate.edu/nutritionandfitness/chapter/digestion/
  37. https://www.intechopen.com/chapters/88910
  38. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/269729068_Mastication_effects_on_carotenoid_bioaccessibility_from_mango_fruit_tissue
  39. https://ajcn.nutrition.org/article/S0002-9165%2823%2902453-X/fulltext
  40. https://www.goodrx.com/well-being/diet-nutrition/how-many-times-chew-food
  41. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC3444974/
  42. https://www.nidcr.nih.gov/health-info/tmd
  43. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16933456/
  44. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC3620406/
  45. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC3443888/
  46. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC3276876/
  47. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC11423695/
  48. https://www.sleepfoundation.org/bruxism
  49. http://www.nhc.ed.ac.uk/index.php?page=493.172
  50. https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/veterinary-science-and-veterinary-medicine/carnassial
  51. https://vivo.colostate.edu/hbooks/pathphys/digestion/pregastric/horsepage.html
  52. https://www.allaboutbirds.org/news/do-birds-have-teeth/
  53. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/2810373/
  54. https://www.iucncsg.org/pages/The-Crocodilian-Body.html
  55. https://extension.umn.edu/dairy-nutrition/ruminant-digestive-system
  56. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC7128658/
  57. https://www.sanparks.org/conservation/parks/kruger/letaba-elephant-hall/learn-more/how-to-age-an-elephant
  58. https://savethekoala.com/about-koalas/koalas-diet-digestion/
  59. https://elifesciences.org/articles/84118
  60. https://www.nhm.ac.uk/discover/how-trilobites-conquered-prehistoric-oceans.html
  61. https://www.naturalsciences.be/en/science/news/a-400-million-year-old-placoderm-reveals-how-the-first-dentitions-were-structured
  62. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8299565/
  63. https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/sciadv.adc8875
  64. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC11259600/
  65. https://www.annualreviews.org/content/journals/10.1146/annurev.ecolsys.31.1.33
  66. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/14278562_Molar_Tooth_Diversity_Disparity_and_Ecology_in_Cenozoic_Ungulate_Radiations
  67. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16226788/
  68. https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/food-for-thought-was-cooking-a-pivotal-step-in-human-evolution/
  69. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC7700780/
  70. https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/physiology/articles/10.3389/fphys.2019.01156/full
  71. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0109564108002522
  72. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/335958436_Architecture_and_design_of_a_robotic_mastication_simulator_for_interactive_load_testing_of_dental_implants_and_the_mandible
  73. https://digitalcommons.library.uab.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=3026&context=etd-collection
  74. https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/10.1098/rstb.2022.0549
  75. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S1751616116303083
  76. https://www.researchgate.net/figure/Mean-chewing-frequencies-for-each-individual-investigated-Error-bars-indicate-1-SD_fig3_51541619
  77. https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/nutrition/articles/10.3389/fnut.2021.634410/full
  78. https://sensors.myu-group.co.jp/sm_pdf/SM1939.pdf
  79. https://license.umn.edu/product/chewing-simulator-provides-sensory-information/print
  80. https://link.springer.com/10.1007/978-3-032-05610-8_38
  81. https://www.mdpi.com/1996-1944/16/3/1171
  82. https://www.extrica.com/article/23270
  83. https://www.atosmedical.com/wp-content/uploads/sites/2/2023/06/MC3028-ThEN_202306-TheraBite-LitReview.pdf
  84. https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/agricultural-and-biological-sciences/chewing-gum
  85. https://pubs.acs.org/doi/abs/10.1021/bk-2022-1433.ch012
  86. https://www.towardsfnb.com/insights/chewing-gum-market
  87. https://www.fda.gov/media/130627/download
  88. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0378517319301954
  89. https://cnsunlit.en.made-in-china.com/product/peiQasoDhCRH/China-Pet-Chewing-Food-Processing-Machinery-LT80-.html
Add your contribution
Related Hubs
User Avatar
No comments yet.