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Samples of amorphous metal, with millimeter scale

An amorphous metal (also known as metallic glass, glassy metal, or shiny metal) is a solid metallic material, usually an alloy, with disordered atomic-scale structure. Most metals are crystalline in their solid state, which means they have a highly ordered arrangement of atoms. Amorphous metals are non-crystalline, and have a glass-like structure. But unlike common glasses, such as window glass, which are typically electrical insulators, amorphous metals have good electrical conductivity and can show metallic luster.

Amorphous metals can be produced in several ways, including extremely rapid cooling, physical vapor deposition, solid-state reaction, ion irradiation, and mechanical alloying.[1][2] Small batches of amorphous metals have been produced through a variety of quick-cooling methods, such as amorphous metal ribbons produced by sputtering molten metal onto a spinning metal disk (melt spinning). The rapid cooling (millions of degrees Celsius per second) comes too fast for crystals to form and the material is "locked" in a glassy state.[3] Alloys with cooling rates low enough to allow formation of amorphous structure in thick layers (i.e., over 1 millimetre or 0.039 inches) have been produced and are known as bulk metallic glasses. Batches of amorphous steel with three times the strength of conventional steel alloys have been produced. New techniques such as 3D printing, also characterised by high cooling rates, are an active research topic.[4]

History

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The first reported metallic glass was Au75Si25, produced at Caltech by Klement, Willens, and Duwez in 1960.[5] This and other early glass-forming alloys had to be rapidly cooled (on the order of one megakelvin per second, 106 K/s) to avoid crystallization. An important consequence of this was that metallic glasses could be produced in a few forms (typically ribbons, foils, or wires) in which one dimension was small so that heat could be extracted quickly enough to achieve the required cooling rate. As a result, metallic glass specimens (with a few exceptions) were limited to thicknesses of less than one hundred microns.

In 1969, an alloy of 77.5% palladium, 6% copper, and 16.5% silicon was found to have critical cooling rate between 100 and 1000 K/s.

In 1976, Liebermann and Graham developed a method of manufacturing thin ribbons of amorphous metal on a supercooled fast-spinning wheel.[6] This was an alloy of iron, nickel, and boron. The material, known as Metglas, was commercialized in the early 1980s and became used for low-loss power distribution transformers (amorphous metal transformer). Metglas-2605 is composed of 80% iron and 20% boron, has a Curie temperature of 646 K (373 °C; 703 °F) and a room temperature saturation magnetization of 1.56 teslas.[7]

In the early 1980s, glassy ingots with a diameter of 5 mm (0.20 in) were produced with an alloy of 55% palladium, 22.5% lead, and 22.5% antimony, by surface etching followed with heating-cooling cycles. Using boron oxide flux, the achievable thickness increased to one centimeter.[clarification needed]

In 1982, a study on amorphous metal structural relaxation indicated a relationship between the specific heat and temperature of (Fe0.5Ni0.5)83P17. As the material was heated, the two properties displayed a negative relationship starting at 375 K, due to the change in relaxed amorphous states. When the material was annealed for periods from 1 to 48 hours, the properties instead displayed a positive relationship starting at 475 K for all annealing periods, since the annealing induced structure disappears at that temperature.[8] In this study, amorphous alloys demonstrated glass transition and a super cooled liquid region. Between 1988 and 1992, more studies found more glass-type alloys with glass transition and a super cooled liquid region. From those studies, bulk glass alloys were made of La, Mg, and Zr, and these alloys demonstrated plasticity even with ribbon thickness from 20 μm to 50 μm. The plasticity was a stark difference to past amorphous metals that became brittle at those thicknesses.[8][9][10][11]

In 1988, alloys of lanthanum, aluminium, and copper ore were revealed to be glass-forming. Al-based metallic glasses containing scandium exhibited a record-type tensile mechanical strength of about 1,500 MPa (220 ksi).[12]

Bulk amorphous alloys of several millimeters in thickness were rare, although Pd-based amorphous alloys had been formed into rods with a 2 mm (0.079 in) diameter by quenching,[13] and spheres with a 10 mm (0.39 in) diameter were formed by repetition flux melting with B2O3 and quenching.[14]

New techniques were found in 1990, producing alloys that form glasses at cooling rates as low as one kelvin per second. These cooling rates can be achieved by simple casting into metallic molds. These alloys can be cast into parts several centimeters thick while retaining an amorphous structure. The best glass-forming alloys were based on zirconium and palladium, but alloys based on iron, titanium, copper, magnesium, and other metals are known. The process exploited a phenomenon called "confusion". Such alloys contain many elements (often four or more) such that upon cooling sufficiently quickly, constituent atoms cannot achieve an equilibrium crystalline state before their mobility is lost. In this way, the random disordered state of the atoms is "locked in".

In 1992, the commercial amorphous alloy, Vitreloy 1 (41.2% Zr, 13.8% Ti, 12.5% Cu, 10% Ni, and 22.5% Be), was developed at Caltech, as a part of Department of Energy and NASA research of new aerospace materials.[15]

By 2000, research in Tohoku University[16] and Caltech yielded multicomponent alloys based on lanthanum, magnesium, zirconium, palladium, iron, copper, and titanium, with critical cooling rate between 1 K/s and 100 K/s, comparable to oxide glasses.[clarification needed]

In 2004, bulk amorphous steel was successfully produced by a groups at Oak Ridge National Laboratory, which refers to their product as "glassy steel", and another at University of Virginia, named "DARVA-Glass 101".[17][18] The product is non-magnetic at room temperature and significantly stronger than conventional steel.[19][20]

In 2018, a team at SLAC National Accelerator Laboratory, the National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) and Northwestern University reported the use of artificial intelligence to predict and evaluate samples of 20,000 different likely metallic glass alloys in a year.[21][22]

Properties

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Amorphous metal is usually an alloy rather than a pure metal. The alloys contain atoms of significantly different sizes, leading to low free volume (and therefore up to orders of magnitude higher viscosity than other metals and alloys) in molten state. The viscosity prevents the atoms from moving enough to form an ordered lattice. The material displays low shrinkage during cooling, and resistance to plastic deformation. The absence of grain boundaries, the weak spots of crystalline materials, leads to better wear resistance[23] and less corrosion. Amorphous metals, while technically glasses, are much tougher and less brittle than oxide glasses and ceramics. Amorphous metals are either non-ferromagnetic, if they are composed of Ln, Mg, Zr, Ti, Pd, Ca, Cu, Pt and Au, or ferromagnetic, if they are composed of Fe, Co, and Ni.[24]

Thermal conductivity is lower than in crystalline metals. As formation of amorphous structure relies on fast cooling, this limits the thickness of amorphous structures. To form amorphous structure despite slower cooling, the alloy has to be made of three or more components, leading to complex crystal units with higher potential energy and lower odds of formation.[25] The atomic radius of the components has to be significantly different (over 12%), to achieve high packing density and low free volume. The combination of components should have negative mixing heat, inhibiting crystal nucleation and prolonging the time the molten metal stays in supercooled state.

As temperatures change, the electrical resistivity of amorphous metals behaves very different than that of regular metals. While resistivity in crystalline metals generally increases with temperature, following Matthiessen's rule, resistivity in many amorphous metals decreases with increasing temperature. This effect can be observed in amorphous metals of high resistivities between 150 and 300 microohm-centimeters.[26] In these metals, the scattering events causing the resistivity of the metal are not statistically independent, thus explaining the breakdown of Matthiessen's rule. The fact that the thermal change of the resistivity in amorphous metals can be negative over a large range of temperatures and correlated to their absolute resistivity values was identified by Mooij in 1973, becoming Mooijs-rule.[27][28]

Alloys of boron, silicon, phosphorus, and other glass formers with magnetic metals (iron, cobalt, nickel) have high magnetic susceptibility, with low coercivity and high electrical resistance. Usually the electrical conductivity of a metallic glass is of the same low order of magnitude as of a molten metal just above the melting point. The high resistance leads to low losses by eddy currents when subjected to alternating magnetic fields, a property useful for e.g. transformer magnetic cores. Their low coercivity also contributes to low loss.

Buckel and Hilsch discovered the superconductivity of amorphous metal thin films experimentally in the early 1950s.[29] For certain metallic elements the superconducting critical temperature Tc can be higher in the amorphous state (e.g. upon alloying) than in the crystalline state, and in several cases Tc increases upon increasing the structural disorder. This behavior can be explained by the effect of structural disorder on electron-phonon coupling.[30]

Amorphous metals have higher tensile yield strengths and higher elastic strain limits than polycrystalline metal alloys, but their ductilities and fatigue strengths are lower.[31]

Amorphous alloys have a variety of potentially useful properties. In particular, they tend to be stronger than crystalline alloys of similar chemical composition, and they can sustain larger reversible ("elastic") deformations than crystalline alloys. Amorphous metals derive their strength directly from their non-crystalline structure, which does not have defects (such as dislocations) that limit their strength. Vitreloy is an amorphous metal with a tensile strength almost double that of high-grade titanium. However, metallic glasses at room temperature are not ductile and tend to fail suddenly and surprisingly when loaded in tension, which limits applicability in reliability-critical applications. Metal matrix composites consisting of a ductile crystalline metal matrix containing dendritic particles or fibers of an amorphous glass metal are an alternative.

Perhaps the most useful property of bulk amorphous alloys is that they are true glasses, which means that they soften and flow upon heating. This allows for easy processing, such as by injection molding, in much the same way as polymers. As a result, amorphous alloys have been commercialized for use in sports equipment,[32] medical devices, and as cases for electronic equipment.[33]

Thin films of amorphous metals can be deposited as protective coatings via high velocity oxygen fuel.

Applications

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Commercial

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The most important application exploits the magnetic properties of some ferromagnetic metallic glasses. The low magnetization loss is used in high efficiency transformers at line frequency and in some higher frequency transformers. Amorphous steel is very brittle that makes it difficult to punch into motor laminations.[34] Electronic article surveillance (such as passive ID tags) often uses metallic glasses because of these magnetic properties.

Ti-based metallic glass, when made into thin pipes, have a high tensile strength of 2,100 MPa (300 ksi), elastic elongation of 2% and high corrosion resistance.[35] A Ti–Zr–Cu–Ni–Sn metallic glass was used to improve the sensitivity of a Coriolis flow meter. This flow meter is about 28-53 times more sensitive than conventional meters,[36] which can be applied in fossil-fuel, chemical, environmental, semiconductor and medical science industries.

Zr-Al-Ni-Cu based metallic glass can be shaped into 2.2 to 5 by 4 mm (0.087 to 0.197 by 0.157 in) pressure sensors for automobile and other industries. Such sensors are smaller, more sensitive, and possess greater pressure endurance than conventional stainless steel. Additionally, this alloy was used to make the world's smallest geared motor with diameter 1.5 and 9.9 mm (0.059 and 0.390 in) at the time.[37]

Potential

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Amorphous metals exhibit unique softening behavior above their glass transition and this softening has been increasingly explored for thermoplastic forming of metallic glasses.[38] Such low softening temperature supports simple methods for making nanoparticle composites (e.g. carbon nanotubes) and bulk metallic glasses. It has been shown that metallic glasses can be patterned on extremely length scales as small as 10 nm.[39] This may solve problems of nanoimprint lithography where expensive nano-molds made of silicon break easily. Nano-molds made from metallic glasses are easy to fabricate and more durable than silicon molds. The superior electronic, thermal and mechanical properties of bulk metallic glasses compared to polymers make them a good option for developing nanocomposites for electronic application such as field electron emission devices.[40]

Ti40Cu36Pd14Zr10 is believed to be noncarcinogenic, is about three times stronger than titanium, and its elastic modulus nearly matches bones. It has a high wear resistance and does not produce abrasion powder. The alloy does not undergo shrinkage on solidification. A surface structure can be generated that is biologically attachable by surface modification using laser pulses, allowing better joining with bone.[41]

Laser powder bed fusion (LPBF) has been used to process Zr-based bulk metallic glass (BMG)[42] for biomedical applications. Zr-based BMGs shows good biocompatibility, supporting osteoblastic cell growth similar to Ti-6Al-4V alloy.[43] The favorable response coupled with the ability to tailor surface properties through SLM highlights the promise of SLM Zr- based BMGs like AMLOY-ZR01 for orthopaedic implant applications. However, their degradation under inflammatory conditions requires further investigation.[citation needed]

Mg60Zn35Ca5 is under investigation as a biomaterial for implantation into bones as screws, pins, or plates, to fix fractures. Unlike traditional steel or titanium, this material dissolves in organisms at a rate of roughly 1 millimeter per month and is replaced with bone tissue. This speed can be adjusted by varying the zinc content.[44][45]

Bulk metallic glasses seem to exhibit superior properties. SAM2X5-630 is claimed to have the highest recorded plasticity for any steel alloy, essentially the highest threshold at which a material can withstand an impact without deforming permanently. The alloy can withstand pressure and stress of up to 12.5 GPa (123,000 atm) without permanent deformation. This is the highest impact resistance of any bulk metallic glass ever recorded as of 2016. This makes it as an attractive option for armour material and other applications that require high stress tolerance.[46][47][48]

Additive manufacturing

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One challenge when synthesising a metallic glass is that the techniques often only produce very small samples, due to the need for high cooling rates. 3D-printing methods have been suggested as a method to create larger bulk samples. Selective laser melting (SLM) is one example of an additive manufacturing method that has been used to make iron based metallic glasses.[49][50] Laser foil printing (LFP) is another method where foils of the amorphous metals are stacked and welded together, layer by layer.[51]

Modeling and theory

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Bulk metallic glasses have been modeled using atomic scale simulations (within the density functional theory framework) in a similar manner to high entropy alloys.[52][53] This has allowed predictions to be made about their behavior, stability and many more properties. As such, new bulk metallic glass systems can be tested and tailored for a specific purpose (e.g. bone replacement or aero-engine component) without as much empirical searching of the phase space or experimental trial and error. Ab-initio molecular dynamics (MD) simulation confirmed that the atomic surface structure of a Ni-Nb metallic glass observed by scanning tunneling microscopy is a kind of spectroscopy. At negative applied bias it visualizes only one sort of atoms (Ni) owing to the structure of electronic density of states calculated using ab-initio MD simulation.[54]

One common way to try and understand the electronic properties of amorphous metals is by comparing them to liquid metals, which are similarly disordered, and for which established theoretical frameworks exist. For simple amorphous metals, good estimations can be reached by semi-classical modelling of the movement of individual electrons using the Boltzmann equation and approximating the scattering potential as the superposition of the electronic potential of each nucleus in the surrounding metal. To simplify the calculations, the electronic potentials of the atomic nuclei can be truncated to give a muffin-tin pseudopotential. In this theory, there are two main effects that govern the change of resistivity with increasing temperatures. Both are based on the induction of vibrations of the atomic nuclei of the metal as temperatures increase. One is, that the atomic structure gets increasingly smeared out as the exact positions of the atomic nuclei get less and less well defined. The other is the introduction of phonons. While the smearing out generally decreases the resistivity of the metal, the introduction of phonons generally adds scattering sites and therefore increases resistivity. Together, they can explain the anomalous decrease of resistivity in amorphous metals, as the first part outweighs the second. In contrast to regular crystalline metals, the phonon contribution in an amorphous metal does not get frozen out at low temperatures. Due to the lack of a defined crystal structure, there are always some phonon wavelengths that can be excited.[55][56] While this semi-classical approach holds well for many amorphous metals, it generally breaks down under more extreme conditions. At very low temperatures, the quantum nature of the electrons leads to long range interference effects of the electrons with each other in what is called "weak localization effects".[26] In very strongly disordered metals, impurities in the atomic structure can induce bound electronic states in what is called "Anderson localization", effectively binding the electrons and inhibiting their movement.[57]

See also

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References

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Further reading

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Revisions and contributorsEdit on WikipediaRead on Wikipedia

Amorphous metal

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Amorphous metals, also known as metallic glasses, are a class of non-crystalline with a disordered atomic structure lacking long-range periodicity, formed by rapidly cooling a molten metal at rates typically exceeding 10^5 for thin forms, or as low as 1 for bulk metallic glasses (BMGs), to prevent the formation of a crystalline lattice. This random arrangement of atoms results in unique combinations of properties not found in conventional crystalline metals, including exceptional mechanical strength, elasticity, , and corrosion resistance, while eliminating defects like grain boundaries that weaken traditional . First discovered in the through experiments with gold-silicon (Au-Si) systems by Klement and colleagues, amorphous metals have evolved from thin ribbons produced via techniques like to bulk forms enabled by multicomponent following empirical rules such as Inoue's three empirical rules for glass formation. The structure of amorphous metals features short-range icosahedral ordering and medium-range solute avoidance, which contributes to their superior glass-forming ability (GFA), quantified by parameters like the reduced glass transition temperature (Trg=Tg/TmT_{rg} = T_g / T_m, where TgT_g is the glass transition temperature and TmT_m the melting temperature) and the parameter γ=Tx/(Tg+Tl)\gamma = T_x / (T_g + T_l) (with TxT_x as crystallization onset and TlT_l liquidus temperature). Mechanically, they offer yield strengths up to 5 GPa in certain compositions and exceeding 1.5 GPa in Zr-based alloys such as Zr65Al7.5Ni10Cu17.5\mathrm{Zr_{65}Al_{7.5}Ni_{10}Cu_{17.5}}, with elastic strains near 2%, surpassing many steels, though they can exhibit brittleness at room temperature due to localized shear banding; enhancements like composites or rejuvenation processing address this. Thermally stable up to their TgT_g (often 300–800°C depending on composition), they also demonstrate soft magnetic properties in Fe- or Co-based variants with low coercivity (<1 A/m), high electrical resistivity, and superior corrosion resistance, such as negligible weight loss in harsh environments like NaOH solutions for Cu-Zr-Ti-Nb alloys. Common fabrication methods include melt-based techniques like splat quenching for thin films, melt spinning for ribbons (e.g., Fe-Ni-P-B alloys), and casting for bulk metallic glasses (BMGs) using suction or centrifugal approaches with critical diameters up to centimeters in Zr-, Pd-, or Ti-based systems. Advanced microfabrication via sputtering or laser deposition enables nanoscale structures, while space-based processing in microgravity, as explored by , improves homogeneity in tungsten-reinforced BMGs like ZrNbCuNiAl. These materials find applications in high-wear components such as gears and bearings in aerospace and robotics, biomedical implants (e.g., Zr-Ti-Cu-Ni-Be for bone scaffolds), soft magnetic cores in transformers, precision tools like surgical knives sharper than steel, and consumer products including golf club heads introduced commercially in 1998. Despite challenges like size limitations and crystallization risks during processing, ongoing research into high-entropy and chemically complex compositions promises expanded utility in energy, electronics, and structural engineering. As of 2025, advances include amorphous noble-metal catalysts for electrocatalysis and two-dimensional amorphous structures.

Fundamentals

Definition and Atomic Structure

Amorphous metals, also known as metallic glasses, are non-crystalline metallic solids characterized by a disordered atomic structure lacking long-range periodicity. Unlike conventional crystalline metals, their atoms are arranged in a random fashion, resulting in an isotropic material without grain boundaries or dislocations. The atomic packing in amorphous metals is often modeled by the dense random packing (DRP) of hard spheres, which achieves a packing density of approximately 64%, higher than simple random packing but lower than crystalline structures. This model features short-range order, such as icosahedral coordination polyhedra around individual atoms, where each central atom is surrounded by 12 nearest neighbors in a locally efficient but globally disordered arrangement, without translational symmetry. The absence of long-range order leads to unique structural features, including excess free volume—regions of unoccupied space between atoms—that influences material behavior. Amorphous metals form when a metallic melt is rapidly cooled through the supercooled liquid region below the glass transition temperature TgT_g, suppressing atomic diffusion and preventing crystallization. This process involves structural relaxation, where the supercooled liquid evolves toward a more stable glassy state by annihilating free volume, though some excess persists in the final structure. Amorphous metals are classified into thin-film varieties, typically limited to micrometer thicknesses due to rapid quenching requirements, and bulk metallic glasses (BMGs), which can achieve critical casting thicknesses exceeding 1 mm through enhanced glass-forming compositions. Representative BMGs include Zr-based alloys like Vitreloy (e.g., Zr41.213.8Cu12.5Ni10Be22.5), valued for their ability to form large amorphous volumes. Glass-forming ability is quantified by the reduced glass transition temperature Trg=[Tg](/page/Glasstransition)[Tm](/page/Melting)T_{rg} = \frac{[T_g](/page/Glass_transition)}{[T_m](/page/Melting)}, where TmT_m is the temperature; values of Trg>0.5T_{rg} > 0.5 indicate superior amorphization potential by widening the supercooled .

Comparison to Crystalline Metals

Amorphous metals, also known as metallic glasses, differ fundamentally from crystalline metals in their atomic arrangement. Crystalline metals exhibit a highly ordered, periodic lattice structure, such as face-centered cubic (FCC) or body-centered cubic (BCC), which allows for the presence of dislocations and grain boundaries that enable plastic deformation through slip mechanisms. In contrast, amorphous metals lack this long-range atomic order, featuring a disordered, isotropic arrangement of atoms without distinct grain boundaries or dislocations, resulting in a more uniform microstructure. These structural distinctions lead to notable performance contrasts in mechanical behavior. In crystalline metals, plastic deformation primarily occurs via dislocation motion, limiting the elastic strain to approximately 0.2% before yielding. Amorphous metals, however, achieve higher elastic limits of up to 2% strain and near-theoretical strengths reaching 5 GPa, as deformation proceeds through the formation and propagation of localized shear bands rather than widespread slip. The absence of grain boundaries in amorphous metals also confers superior corrosion resistance compared to their crystalline counterparts. Grain boundaries in crystalline structures serve as preferential sites for and intergranular attack, whereas the homogeneous atomic distribution in amorphous metals reduces such vulnerabilities, minimizing localized degradation. Furthermore, amorphous metals exhibit isotropic mechanical and physical properties due to their lack of directional atomic ordering, ensuring behavior regardless of loading direction. Crystalline metals, by contrast, often display stemming from their lattice orientation, where properties like strength and elasticity vary along different crystallographic axes. Thermodynamically, amorphous metals represent a metastable state with higher internal stored energy relative to stable crystalline forms, arising from the rapid process that suppresses during solidification. This excess energy drives upon heating, transforming the amorphous structure into a crystalline one through and growth of crystalline phases.

Historical Development

Early Discovery

The pursuit of amorphous structures in metals drew inspiration from the well-established of oxide glasses and polymers, where sufficiently rapid cooling from the liquid state suppresses and preserves a disordered atomic arrangement. However, achieving significant undercooling in metallic melts proved challenging due to their high thermal conductivity, which enables rapid heat dissipation but also facilitates the quick and growth of crystalline phases during solidification. In 1960, a breakthrough occurred at the when William Klement Jr., R. H. Willens, and Pol Duwez successfully produced the first metallic glass by employing a splat-quenching technique on a molten Au75Si25 alloy, achieving cooling rates on the order of 106 K/s. This method involved ejecting the melt onto a cold metal surface to form a thin layer, thereby bypassing the equilibrium pathway. The resulting material exhibited a non-crystalline structure, confirmed through X-ray diffraction patterns displaying broad diffuse halos indicative of short-range atomic disorder rather than long-range periodicity. Early efforts to characterize these novel materials included the use of (DSC), which allowed measurement of the temperature (Tg)—marking the onset of viscous flow—and the temperature (Tx), revealing the thermal range over which the amorphous state remains stable. Despite this success, initial production was constrained to thin foils or due to the need for extreme cooling rates, and viable compositions were largely limited to alloys incorporating noble metals like Au and Pd, which offered suitable glass-forming tendencies but at high cost.

Key Advancements

The marked a pivotal era in amorphous metal development with the refinement of the melt-spinning technique, developed by researchers at Allied Chemical Corporation, which facilitated the creation of iron- and nickel-based alloys such as Metglas 2605 (Fe80B20). This innovation enabled the continuous production of thin ribbons at ultra-high cooling rates of 10^5 to 10^6 K/s, shifting amorphous metals toward industrial scalability by overcoming previous limitations in sample size and production efficiency. Building on this foundation, the and saw a transition to bulk metallic glasses (BMGs) through the engineering of multi-component alloys incorporating elements like , , and , which dramatically enhanced glass-forming ability (GFA). Akihisa Inoue established key empirical criteria for superior GFA, emphasizing multi-element systems (at least three principal components), negative heats of mixing to promote atomic affinity, and large atomic size ratios exceeding 12% among constituent elements to disrupt . These guidelines enabled the formation of larger, more stable amorphous structures at relatively modest cooling rates, expanding practical viability. Commercially, the 1980s brought widespread adoption when (now ) launched Fe-based amorphous alloys for cores, leveraging their low core losses to improve energy efficiency in power distribution systems. In the , and colleagues at Caltech introduced Vitreloy (Zr41.2Ti13.8Cu12.5Ni10Be22.5), the first commercially viable BMG capable of forming fully amorphous samples up to 10 mm thick at cooling rates below 10 K/s, paving the way for precision net-shape manufacturing. Advancements continued into the , with Pd-based BMGs like Pd-Cu-Ni-P variants achieving diameters over 100 mm through fluxing techniques that minimize heterogeneous . Addressing gaps in earlier compositions, 2020s research has focused on high-entropy amorphous alloys, which incorporate five or more principal elements in near-equiatomic ratios to boost configurational , thereby enhancing thermal stability and resistance to even under prolonged annealing.

Properties

Mechanical Properties

Amorphous metals, also known as metallic glasses, possess exceptional mechanical strength and elasticity due to their disordered atomic structure, which lacks the dislocations prevalent in crystalline metals. Yield strengths typically range from 1 to 5 GPa, while elastic moduli fall between 80 and 200 GPa, enabling large elastic strains up to 2% before yielding—values that approach theoretical limits for many systems. These properties arise from the structural and absence of weak points like boundaries or defects that facilitate slip in crystalline counterparts. Plastic deformation in amorphous metals occurs predominantly through localized shear bands, where atomic rearrangements concentrate strain in narrow regions of 10–100 nm width. At temperatures below the , deformation is inhomogeneous, leading to serrated flow in stress-strain curves characterized by sudden stress drops as shear bands propagate rapidly. In contrast, homogeneous flow predominates at elevated temperatures near the supercooled regime, allowing more uniform deformation without localization. This shear-band-dominated mechanism limits overall in many bulk metallic glasses (BMGs) to less than 1% plastic strain at . Fracture in amorphous metals often exhibits vein-like patterns on the surface, formed by and localized adiabatic heating during shear-band , which can induce . varies significantly across compositions; conventional BMGs tend to be brittle with around 10–20 MPa·m^{1/2}, but engineered ductile variants, such as Cu-Zr-based alloys, can achieve over 10% plasticity through mechanisms like shear-band multiplication and branching. These patterns and behaviors highlight the role of free-volume concentration in dictating crack paths. The and resistance of amorphous metals is notably high, stemming from their uniform structure that resists crack initiation and propagation under cyclic loading. Vickers values commonly reach up to 10 GPa, contributing to low rates in sliding contacts—often orders of magnitude better than crystalline steels of similar composition. endurance limits exceed 0.5 times the yield strength, with crack growth rates comparable to high-strength crystalline alloys. Plasticity in amorphous metals is theoretically described by the shear transformation zone (STZ) model, which posits that deformation proceeds via cooperative atomic rearrangements in localized zones activated by applied . A key parameter is rate sensitivity, defined as m=∂ln⁡γ˙∂ln⁡τ≈0.01−0.1,m = \frac{\partial \ln \dot{\gamma}}{\partial \ln \tau} \approx 0.01 - 0.1, which is much lower than in crystalline metals (m > 0.3), reflecting the athermal, thermally activated nature of STZ events and leading to pronounced rate dependence in flow behavior. Advancements in the 2020s have demonstrated that cryogenic thermal cycling can rejuvenate BMGs, increasing stored excess free volume and enhancing by promoting multiple shear bands and reducing serrations in flow curves. For instance, treatments at 77 have boosted plastic strain in Zr-based BMGs from near-zero to several percent at , without altering the amorphous structure.

Thermal, Electrical, and Magnetic Properties

Amorphous metals exhibit notably low thermal conductivity, typically ranging from 5 to 20 /m·, due to induced by atomic disorder, in contrast to crystalline metals where values often exceed 100 /m·. This property makes them advantageous for applications, such as in sensors or coatings. Near the temperature (Tg), which spans 300–800°C depending on composition, amorphous metals display elevated specific capacities, facilitating absorption during . The supercooled liquid region, defined as ΔT = Tx - Tg where Tx is the temperature, can reach 50–140 in well-designed alloys like Zr-based systems, enabling forming without . The thermal expansion coefficient (α) of amorphous metals is generally higher than that of their crystalline counterparts, with a mismatch Δα = α_amorphous - α_crystalline ≈ 10–20 ppm/°C, arising from the isotropic, defect-free structure that allows freer atomic vibrations. A 2025 study has demonstrated high thermoelectric figure-of-merit values ZT > 1 in SnSe-based phases with amorphous-like , achieved through disorder-engineered low thermal conductivity. Research as of 2025 explores high-entropy amorphous alloys for optimized thermal and electrical properties in thermoelectric applications. Electrically, amorphous metals demonstrate high resistivity, often 100–300 μΩ·cm, stemming from increased by the lack of long-range order, compared to 10–50 μΩ·cm in crystalline forms. This elevated resistivity supports applications in resistors and transformers. Their of resistance (TCR) is low, typically below 500 ppm/°C and approaching zero in some compositions, providing stable electrical behavior across temperature variations. Magnetically, Fe-based amorphous alloys are renowned for soft magnetic characteristics, featuring low (<1 A/m) and high permeability (>10^5), attributable to minimized and pinning in the disordered structure. Co-based variants exhibit near-zero , ideal for precision sensors where dimensional stability under magnetic fields is critical. Corrosion resistance in amorphous metals arises from the formation of uniform passive layers, such as TiO₂ and ZrO₂ in TiZrHf-based alloys, which lack grain boundaries that serve as preferential attack sites in crystalline materials. This confers superior performance in acidic environments, with rates 1–2 orders of magnitude lower than crystallized counterparts, as evidenced by current densities of 10^{-6}–10^{-7} A/cm² in 0.5 M H₂SO₄. For instance, Zr-based metallic glasses enhanced with elements like Ni, Ag, or Nb show improved resistance to general and local corrosion. Ni addition, in particular, leads to the formation of a dense, protective ZrO₂ passive film, which is highly resistant to pitting corrosion in chloride solutions.

Fabrication Methods

Conventional Techniques

Conventional techniques for producing amorphous metals primarily rely on rapid solidification processes to suppress and achieve the glassy state, typically requiring cooling rates on the order of 10^3 to 10^6 K/s depending on the alloy composition. These methods emerged in the mid-20th century and remain foundational for fabricating thin forms of amorphous alloys, such as ribbons and foils, from glass-forming alloys like Fe-based or Pd-based systems. The critical cooling rate, denoted as RcR_c, represents the minimum rate necessary to bypass the nose of the time-temperature-transformation (TTT) , where kinetics are fastest, ensuring the melt solidifies into an amorphous structure without intersecting the transformation curve. Melt spinning is the most widely adopted conventional technique, involving the ejection of molten through a onto the surface of a rapidly rotating wheel, which quenches the melt via conductive . This process produces continuous ribbons with thicknesses typically ranging from 20 to 50 μm, achieving cooling rates of 10^5 to 10^6 /s that are primarily controlled by wheel speed and melt ejection pressure. For instance, in producing Fe-B-Si amorphous alloys, wheel velocities of 30-50 m/s yield fully amorphous structures, as confirmed by showing temperatures around 500-600 . The method's simplicity and scalability have made it standard for soft magnetic amorphous ribbons used in transformers. Variations like splatting and planar flow casting extend melt spinning principles to produce thinner foils or wider strips suitable for specific applications. Splatting involves impacting small droplets of molten onto a substrate, achieving even higher localized cooling rates for isolated samples, though it is less suited for . Planar flow , in contrast, uses a slot to direct the melt in a planar sheet onto a moving , enabling the fabrication of wider amorphous ribbons up to several centimeters in breadth while maintaining thicknesses below 50 μm. This technique optimizes heat extraction through controlled gap distances between the and , typically 0.1-0.5 mm, to ensure uniform amorphization across the strip. Chemical reduction and electrodeposition offer alternative routes for synthesizing amorphous metals in geometries, bypassing the need for extreme thermal . Electroless , a form of chemical reduction, deposits amorphous Ni-P alloys by autocatalytic reduction of ions in the presence of hypophosphite, yielding films with 10-20 wt% that exhibit a glassy due to the incorporation of atoms disrupting . Electrodeposition achieves similar results through controlled cathodic deposition from aqueous baths containing salts and sources, producing amorphous Ni-P coatings up to several micrometers thick on substrates like . These electrochemical methods are particularly valuable for coatings with tailored content, which influences resistance and thermal stability. Despite their effectiveness, conventional techniques face significant limitations, including restriction to thin geometries typically under 100 μm due to the finite heat extraction capabilities of substrates like copper wheels. Compositional constraints also arise, as only s with high glass-forming ability (GFA)—often requiring multi-component systems with deep eutectics—can achieve amorphization at accessible cooling rates, limiting versatility. TTT diagrams guide selection by delineating the stability window against , with the nose temperature often around 0.6-0.8 times the . Recent refinements in the 2020s have incorporated centrifugal atomization to produce amorphous metal powders, adapting rapid solidification for particulate forms. This method centrifugally ejects molten from a rotating or , breaking it into droplets that solidify in flight or upon collection, achieving cooling rates sufficient for amorphization in Fe-Si-B systems. Advancements include hybrid designs combining with environments to minimize oxidation, enabling powders with particle sizes of 10-100 μm and fully amorphous structures verified by . These developments expand conventional techniques toward applications while adhering to high-speed principles.

Advanced Techniques

Advanced techniques in the fabrication of amorphous metals, particularly bulk metallic glasses (BMGs), have overcome the size limitations of earlier methods by enabling the production of larger, more complex while maintaining the amorphous . These innovations, developed primarily since the early , leverage precise control over cooling rates, thermal histories, and consolidation processes to achieve critical diameters up to several centimeters. Bulk casting methods represent a of these advancements, allowing for the formation of BMG components with diameters up to 100 mm. mold involves injecting molten into a water-cooled mold to achieve rapid solidification, producing cylindrical or plate-like forms with high geometric fidelity. Suction , a variant, draws the melt into a mold under to minimize inclusions and achieve uniform cooling, enabling BMG rods up to 10 mm in diameter for alloys like Pd-Cu-Si. Bridgman solidification further extends this capability by progressively solidifying the melt in a furnace, yielding homogeneous BMG rods suitable for structural applications, as demonstrated in Mg-based composites. Consolidation of amorphous powders via field-assisted sintering techniques has enabled the creation of dense BMG parts from gas-atomized precursors, bypassing direct melt processing. Spark plasma (SPS) applies pulsed electric current and uniaxial pressure to powders at temperatures below the onset, achieving near-full (>99%) while preserving amorphicity in alloys like Fe-based BMGs. (HIP) complements SPS by subjecting encapsulated powders to uniform high pressure (up to 200 MPa) and temperature (around 500–600°C) in an inert atmosphere, effectively eliminating and yielding consolidated BMGs with enhanced mechanical integrity. Additive manufacturing (AM) techniques, such as (SLM) and electron beam melting (EBM), have revolutionized the production of complex BMG geometries by layer-wise building from pre-alloyed powders. In SLM, a high-power scans the powder bed to melt and fuse layers, while EBM uses an electron beam in a to minimize oxidation; both methods achieve cooling rates exceeding 10^6 K/s to suppress . However, challenges arise from repeated thermal cycles that can induce partial , particularly in the heat-affected zones, leading to heterogeneous microstructures. These issues are addressed through the use of pre-alloyed amorphous powders with high glass-forming ability and optimized cooling controls, such as substrate preheating and scan strategy adjustments, to maintain amorphicity over build heights up to 50 mm. The thermal history in AM processes is critical for predicting amorphicity and is often modeled using the Rosenthal solution for the temperature field induced by a moving point heat source: T(r,t)=Q4πκtexp⁡(−r24αt)T(r,t) = \frac{Q}{4\pi \kappa t} \exp\left(-\frac{r^2}{4\alpha t}\right) where T(r,t)T(r,t) is the temperature at radial distance rr and time tt, QQ is the heat input, κ\kappa is thermal conductivity, and α\alpha is thermal diffusivity; this analytical model helps simulate melt pool dynamics and cooling trajectories to avoid exceeding the critical crystallization temperature in BMGs like Zr-Cu-Al-Nb. Thermoplastic forming exploits the supercooled liquid state of BMGs, where the material behaves like a viscous fluid between the glass transition temperature TgT_g and crystallization temperature TxT_x, enabling net-shape processing with minimal defects. In this regime, typically 20–100 K above TgT_g, the viscosity drops to 10^2–10^6 Pa·s, allowing techniques like hot embossing or blow molding to replicate intricate geometries with sub-micrometer precision, as seen in Pt- and Zr-based alloys. Recent advances in advanced laser beam shaping for laser powder bed fusion (LPBF), particularly from , have enabled the production of dense, nearly fully amorphous BMG parts by shaping the laser beam to create wide, shallow melt pools. This approach increases hatching distances, reduces thermal gradients, and improves control over thermal history, facilitating larger components with enhanced mechanical properties for high-performance sectors.

Applications

Commercial Uses

Amorphous metals, particularly in form, are widely used in the cores of distribution transformers due to their soft magnetic properties, which enable significant energy efficiency gains. For instance, Metglas amorphous cores reduce no-load core losses by up to 70% compared to conventional grain-oriented transformers, leading to lower operational costs and reduced environmental impact for utilities. These materials also exhibit potential in magnetic shielding applications due to their excellent soft magnetic properties, including low coercive force and high permeability, which facilitate effective electromagnetic interference reduction. In sporting goods, titanium-zirconium-based bulk metallic glasses (BMGs) from Liquidmetal Technologies have been commercialized since the early 2000s for high-resilience applications, exploiting their elastic recovery and strength-to-weight advantages. These materials are incorporated into heads to enhance energy transfer and ball distance, with Liquidmetal Golf producing die-cast heads via processes. Similarly, they feature in racquet frames for improved vibration damping and durability. Amorphous metals serve in electronics for precision components requiring high strength-to-weight ratios and elasticity, such as watch springs and microgears. Their amorphous structure allows for superior fatigue resistance in miniaturized parts like hairsprings in luxury timepieces and MEMS-based microgears in actuators, where they outperform crystalline alloys in elastic strain limits up to 2%. Their adoption in consumer electronics includes smartphone hinges for foldable devices, where liquid metal alloys provide deformation resistance and extended cycle life, as seen in models like Huawei's Mate X2 since 2021. In medical devices, amorphous metals are utilized for surgical tools and implants leveraging their corrosion resistance and . Fe-based BMGs, in particular, are applied in stents and orthopedic implants due to their high and resistance, enabling reliable performance in physiological environments without eliciting adverse reactions. Ongoing research at institutions such as the University of Utah is exploring high-temperature bulk metallic glasses (BMGs) for medical applications, focusing on their mechanical properties, microstructure, and enhanced corrosion resistance through compositional modifications. The global amorphous metal market supports these applications; in 2021, production volume was approximately 250,000 metric tons, projected to reach 342,000 tons by 2026 at a CAGR of 6.4%, driven by demand in and sectors. Key producers include Metals (now Proterial) and Qingdao Yunlu Advanced Materials, which dominate manufacturing through specialized rapid solidification processes.

Emerging Applications

In and defense sectors, bulk metallic glasses (BMGs) are emerging as candidates for components in hypersonic vehicles due to their superior high-temperature stability and mechanical properties under extreme conditions. Zr-based BMGs, for instance, have been investigated for potential use in leading edges, leveraging their ability to maintain structural integrity at elevated temperatures while offering high strength-to-weight ratios suitable for defense applications. Research at the University of Nevada Reno is investigating high-temperature BMGs for aerospace and military uses, emphasizing mechanical properties such as resistance to deformation and durability, along with corrosion resistance in challenging environments. Amorphous metals are gaining attention in as anodes for lithium-ion batteries, where their disordered structure enhances cycling stability and rate performance compared to crystalline counterparts. Certain Zr-based metallic thin films demonstrate reversible capacities around 300-500 mAh/g with high Coulombic (>99%) over hundreds of cycles, attributed to uniform diffusion and reduced volume expansion issues. In biomedical applications, biodegradable Mg-based amorphous alloys are being developed for bioabsorbable stents and systems, capitalizing on their controlled rates and . These alloys degrade safely in the body, releasing therapeutic agents while providing temporary mechanical support, with studies showing tunable degradation over 3-6 months without toxicity. Amorphous metals serve as efficient catalysts and sensors, particularly for the (HER), owing to their high surface area and abundant active sites from structural disorder. For example, IrNiTa metallic glass films exhibit low overpotentials of approximately 99 mV at 10 mA/cm² in acidic media, outperforming many crystalline catalysts in stability and activity. In , amorphous metal nanowires enable through their combination of metallic conductivity and elastic deformability. Zr- or Co-based metallic glass nanowires, with diameters below 200 nm, support stretchable interconnects and sensors, maintaining electrical performance under repeated bending up to 10% strain. Low-loss magnetic amorphous films, such as Fe- or Co-based alloys, are being explored for magnonic devices due to their soft magnetic properties, including reduced hysteretic losses and high permeability, which facilitate coherent propagation. As of 2025, amorphous metals are rumored to be used in the hinges of upcoming foldable smartphones, such as Apple's planned 2026 Fold, to enhance durability and reduce deformation. Additive manufacturing techniques are being enabling the fabrication of complex BMG shapes for these emerging uses, enhancing design flexibility without compromising amorphous structure.

Modeling and Theory

Structural Models

The dense random packing (DRP) model, introduced by John Desmond Bernal in 1959, conceptualizes the atomic structure of as a random assembly of hard spheres achieving a packing density of approximately 64%, significantly lower than the 74% of crystalline close-packed structures. This model emphasizes irregular local geometries without long-range periodicity, using to delineate polyhedral voids and coordination environments around each atomic site, such as distorted tetrahedra, octahedra, and icosahedra. Short-range order (SRO) describes the local atomic arrangements within the first few coordination shells, typically up to 0.5-1 nm. It is quantified by the (RDF), denoted as g(r)g(r), which represents the probability of finding an atom at a rr from a reference atom relative to an ideal random distribution. The RDF for amorphous metals features a sharp first peak at the nearest-neighbor interatomic (around 0.25-0.3 nm for transition metals), followed by broader, damped oscillatory peaks that fade beyond 1 nm, reflecting the absence of . The coordination number ZZ, indicating the number of nearest neighbors, is derived from the RDF via the Z=4πρ∫0rmin⁡g(r) r2 dr,Z = 4\pi \rho \int_0^{r_{\min}} g(r) \, r^2 \, dr, where ρ\rho is the and rmin⁡r_{\min} is the position of the first minimum in g(r)g(r). In metallic glasses, ZZ typically approximates 12, akin to close-packed crystals but with greater variability due to distorted bond angles and lengths. Medium-range order (MRO) encompasses structural correlations over 1-2 nm, involving interconnected clusters that bridge SRO and the overall disorder. In amorphous metals, MRO often manifests as , which are fivefold-symmetric arrangements incompatible with periodic crystals like body-centered cubic (bcc) or face-centered cubic (fcc) lattices. These icosahedra align with Frank-Kasper polyhedra, characterized by coordination numbers of 12 (), 14, 15, or 16, forming efficient local packings that stabilize the amorphous state. Unlike crystalline phases, MRO in amorphous metals lacks extended translational order, instead featuring a network of such polyhedra connected via shared faces or edges. Experimental techniques validate these models by probing atomic pair correlations. Aberration-corrected (TEM) enables angstrom-scale imaging of local structures, revealing icosahedral motifs and polyhedral distortions in thin samples. Neutron scattering, particularly total scattering methods yielding pair distribution functions, confirms the RDF profile and coordination environments across bulk samples, with damped oscillations matching DRP predictions. Recent studies, including a 2025 investigation using atom probe tomography (APT) and (TEM) with , have revealed nanoscale solute-rich clusters in Zr-based bulk metallic glasses (BMGs), where minority elements like Cu, Ni, Al, and Ti form clusters associated with medium-range order (MRO) and influencing .

Simulation Approaches

Simulation approaches for amorphous metals primarily involve computational techniques to model atomic-scale dynamics, structural evolution, and mechanical behavior, bridging the gap between experimental timescales and theoretical predictions. These methods enable the study of rapid quenching processes and deformation mechanisms that are challenging to observe directly, providing insights into glass-forming ability (GFA) and property optimization. Molecular dynamics (MD) simulations are widely used to replicate the melt-quenching process for generating amorphous structures, typically employing embedded atom method (EAM) potentials to describe interatomic interactions in metallic systems. EAM potentials account for many-body effects through an embedding function dependent on local , allowing accurate modeling of liquid-to-solid transitions in alloys like Cu-Zr and Ni-P. These simulations operate on timescales up to nanoseconds, capturing atomic rearrangements during cooling rates on the order of 10^12 K/s, which mimic experimental rapid solidification. In , the are integrated using the Verlet algorithm, which updates atomic positions via the velocity Verlet scheme for : r(t+Δt)=2r(t)−r(t−Δt)+FmΔt2\mathbf{r}(t + \Delta t) = 2\mathbf{r}(t) - \mathbf{r}(t - \Delta t) + \frac{\mathbf{F}}{m} \Delta t^2 where r\mathbf{r} is the position, F\mathbf{F} is the force, mm is the , and Δt\Delta t is the timestep, typically 1-5 fs to resolve vibrational motions. This method has been applied to study structural relaxation and in amorphous Fe-based alloys. Monte Carlo simulations complement MD by exploring equilibrium configurations and free energy landscapes in amorphous metals, particularly for assessing thermodynamic stability without time evolution constraints. These methods use Metropolis sampling to generate statistically representative structures, aiding in the prediction of phase stability for compositions like Cu-Al. By sampling configurational space, Monte Carlo approaches reveal minima in potential energy landscapes corresponding to glassy states, often integrated with ab initio data for higher fidelity. Finite element modeling (FEM) addresses macro-scale phenomena, such as shear band propagation during plastic deformation of amorphous metal components. FEM discretizes equations to simulate inhomogeneous flow, incorporating constitutive models like free-volume theory to capture strain localization. This approach has demonstrated how shear bands initiate and propagate in bulk metallic glasses under uniaxial loading, revealing critical thicknesses for multiple banding. Machine learning (ML) potentials, emerging in the 2020s, extend simulation scales to systems exceeding 10^6 atoms by training fields on quantum mechanical datasets. These potentials, such as graph s for Fe-Si alloys, achieve near-ab initio accuracy while enabling longer s than classical EAM, facilitating studies of large-scale amorphization and defect dynamics. Examples include moment tensor potentials for Al-based glasses, which outperform traditional methods in predicting elastic moduli. These techniques contribute to predicting GFA through metrics like the fragility index, which quantifies supercooled dynamics; and have shown that higher fragility correlates with reduced GFA in Zr-based alloys by analyzing viscosity-temperature profiles. In 2024, AI-driven frameworks using inverse design ML models discovered novel bulk metallic glass compositions, such as Zr-Cu-Ag-Al-Be-Ni systems, by optimizing latent spaces for enhanced thermal stability and processability.

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