Hubbry Logo
Node (networking)Node (networking)Main
Open search
Node (networking)
Community hub
Node (networking)
logo
7 pages, 0 posts
0 subscribers
Be the first to start a discussion here.
Be the first to start a discussion here.
Contribute something
Node (networking)
Node (networking)
Node (networking)
View on Wikipedia
from Wikipedia

In networking, a node (Latin: nodus, 'knot') is either a redistribution point or a communication endpoint within telecommunication networks or computer networks.

A physical network node is an electronic device that is attached to a network, and is capable of creating, receiving, or transmitting information over a communication channel.[1] In data communication, a physical network node may either be data communication equipment (such as a modem, hub, bridge or switch) or data terminal equipment (such as a digital telephone handset, a printer or a host computer).

A passive distribution point such as a distribution frame or patch panel is not a node.

Computer networks

[edit]

In data communication, a physical network node may either be data communication equipment (DCE) such as a modem, hub, bridge or switch; or data terminal equipment (DTE) such as a digital telephone handset, a printer or a host computer.

If a network is a local area network (LAN) or wide area network (WAN), every LAN or WAN node that participates on the data link layer must have a network address, typically one for each network interface controller it possesses. Examples are computers, a DSL modem with Ethernet interface and wireless access point. Equipment, such as an Ethernet hub or modem with serial interface, that operates only below the data link layer does not require a network address.[2]

If the network in question is the Internet or an intranet, many physical network nodes are host computers, also known as Internet nodes, identified by an IP address, and all hosts are physical network nodes. However, some data-link-layer devices such as switches, bridges and wireless access points do not have an IP host address (except sometimes for administrative purposes), and are not considered to be Internet nodes or hosts, but are considered physical network nodes and LAN nodes.

Telecommunications

[edit]

In the fixed telephone network, a node may be a public or private telephone exchange, a remote concentrator or a computer providing some intelligent network service. In cellular communication, switching points and databases such as the base station controller, home location register, gateway GPRS Support Node (GGSN) and serving GPRS support node (SGSN) are examples of nodes. Cellular network base stations are not considered to be nodes in this context.

In cable television systems (CATV), this term has assumed a broader context and is generally associated with a fiber optic node. This can be defined as those homes or businesses within a specific geographic area that are served from a common fiber optic receiver. A fiber optic node is generally described in terms of the number of "homes passed" that are served by that specific fiber node.

Distributed systems

[edit]

In a distributed system network, the nodes are clients, servers or peers. A peer may sometimes serve as client, sometimes server. In a peer-to-peer or overlay network, nodes that actively route data for the other networked devices as well as themselves are called supernodes.

Distributed systems may sometimes use virtual nodes so that the system is not oblivious to the heterogeneity of the nodes. This issue is addressed with special algorithms, like consistent hashing, as it is the case in Amazon's Dynamo.[3]

Within a vast computer network, the individual computers on the periphery of the network, those that do not also connect other networks, and those that often connect transiently to one or more clouds are called end nodes. Typically, within the cloud computing construct, the individual user or customer computer that connects into one well-managed cloud is called an end node. Since these computers are a part of the network yet unmanaged by the cloud's host, they present significant risks to the entire cloud. This is called the end node problem.[4] There are several means to remedy this problem but all require instilling trust in the end node computer.[5]

See also

[edit]

References

[edit]
Revisions and contributorsEdit on WikipediaRead on Wikipedia

Node (networking)

View on Grokipedia
from Grokipedia
In computer networking, a node is a connection point or endpoint within a communications network that enables the sending, receiving, or forwarding of data packets along distributed routes. These nodes form the basic building blocks of networks, ranging from local area networks (LANs) to the global , where they facilitate data exchange between devices. Each node is typically assigned a , such as an for internet-layer communication or a for data-link layer operations, ensuring precise and identification in the network. Nodes are broadly classified into two main categories: end nodes (also known as host or endpoint devices) and intermediate nodes. End nodes, such as computers, smartphones, printers, and servers, primarily generate or consume data and connect directly to the network to access resources or services. In contrast, intermediate nodes like routers, switches, bridges, and hubs serve as redistribution points that process, store temporarily, and relay data to other nodes, optimizing and connectivity across larger topologies. This distinction is crucial in network design, as end nodes focus on user-facing tasks while intermediate nodes handle the core infrastructure for reliable transmission. Beyond these categories, nodes can be further differentiated by network type and function, influencing their role in specific environments. For instance, in networks, nodes may include base stations or controllers that manage cellular connections, whereas in setups, they encompass modems and access points for wired or links. Intermediate nodes perform key functions such as , where data is broken into smaller units for efficient routing; ; and support for protocols like to protect transmissions. In modern distributed systems, such as infrastructures, nodes often operate virtually, enabling scalable architectures with thousands of interconnected points that underpin various services.

Definitions and Fundamentals

Basic Definition

In networking, the term "node" derives from the Latin word nodus, meaning "knot," which symbolizes a point of binding or intersection, evolving in the to denote points of connection in scientific contexts such as astronomy. This aptly reflects its modern usage as a fundamental element in communication systems. A node is generally defined as a physical or virtual point within a network that serves as either a redistribution point—where is routed or relayed—or a , enabling the exchange of across connected systems. Nodes can be distinguished based on their implementation: physical nodes consist of tangible hardware devices, such as computers or networking equipment, that directly interface with transmission media to send, receive, or process data. In contrast, virtual nodes are software-based abstractions, often running on shared physical infrastructure like virtual machines or containers, which simulate network endpoints without dedicated hardware. This duality allows nodes to scale flexibly in both traditional and modern distributed environments. At their core, nodes facilitate transmission by creating, receiving, forwarding, or processing packets and messages, ensuring reliable communication between network participants. Endpoints generate or consume , while redistribution nodes direct traffic along optimal paths, underpinning the functionality of diverse networks from local area setups to global infrastructures. The concept of nodes as connection points traces its origins to early 19th-century telegraph systems, where stations spaced along lines acted as relay points for signal redistribution and endpoints for message delivery, laying the groundwork for structured communication networks. This evolved with networks in the late 1800s, incorporating central stations to manage call routing, influencing the design of subsequent wired and systems.

Key Characteristics

Network nodes require unique identifiers to enable communication within a network. At the (Layer 2 of the ), nodes use Media Access Control (MAC) addresses, which are 48-bit hardware identifiers assigned to network interface controllers for local network identification and frame delivery within the same . At the network layer (Layer 3), nodes employ (IP) addresses—such as 32-bit IPv4 or 128-bit —to facilitate global addressing, routing, and packet forwarding across interconnected networks. Nodes operate at different functionality levels, distinguished as (DTE) or (DCE). DTE refers to end-user devices that generate, store, or display data, such as computers or terminals, enabling direct user interaction with the network. In contrast, DCE encompasses equipment like modems that terminate the physical circuit and facilitate connectivity between DTE and the telecommunication infrastructure. Integration with the OSI model's layered architecture primarily occurs at Layers 1 through 3, where nodes handle fundamental communication tasks. The (Layer 1) manages the transmission of raw bit streams over physical media, such as cables or wireless signals, without addressing or error correction. The (Layer 2) organizes data into frames, performs node-to-node delivery using MAC addresses, and includes error detection and flow control mechanisms. The network layer (Layer 3) oversees logical addressing with IP, path determination, and between nodes on different networks. Key capabilities of nodes include sending and receiving data packets across layers, with Layer 1 enabling basic and higher layers adding structure and direction. Routing and switching occur primarily at Layer 3 and Layer 2, respectively, where routers select optimal paths for inter-network traffic and switches forward frames within local segments based on destination addresses. Error handling is managed at the through techniques like cyclic redundancy checks to detect and correct transmission issues at the node level. Regarding security and reliability, nodes are vulnerable to failures that can create single points of failure, particularly in topologies like star networks where a central node's outage disrupts connectivity for multiple devices. Basic trust models in network nodes, such as those in Neighbor Discovery, assume varying levels of node authenticity—ranging from no trust in open networks to full verification in secure environments—to mitigate threats like spoofing during address resolution. Reliability is enhanced through redundant mechanisms, but inherent node dependencies underscore the need for fault-tolerant designs to maintain overall network stability.

Nodes in Computer Networks

End Devices

End devices, also referred to as (DTE), are the endpoint nodes in computer networks that function as sources or destinations of data traffic, generating or consuming information rather than forwarding it. These devices primarily interact with users or applications, serving as the interfaces where data originates or terminates in local area networks (LANs), wide area networks (WANs), and the broader . Common examples include personal computers, printers, and smartphones, which connect to the network to send or receive data such as documents, web pages, or messages. For network addressing, end devices rely on media access control (MAC) addresses at the data link layer to identify themselves within a local network segment, enabling direct communication between nearby devices via Ethernet or Wi-Fi. When connecting to the Internet or wider networks, they use Internet Protocol (IP) addresses for logical, end-to-end identification, allowing data packets to be routed across multiple segments from source to destination. This dual addressing scheme ensures efficient local delivery while supporting global connectivity. In terms of functionality, end devices initiate network connections by sending requests through protocols like TCP, run user applications such as web browsers or email clients to process and exchange data, and manage operations based on user interactions. For instance, a might launch a browser to request a webpage, encapsulating the data into packets addressed to a remote server. Within the TCP/IP model, these devices operate as hosts, responsible for application-layer tasks and transport-layer reliability without involvement in lower-level . In client-server interactions within local networks, end devices typically act as clients that request services from dedicated server hosts, such as file access or printing, facilitating collaborative environments in offices or homes. However, end devices generally lack built-in capabilities, meaning they cannot forward traffic between networks and instead depend on intermediate devices like routers for achieving wide-area reachability. This design keeps them focused on user-centric tasks while offloading infrastructure responsibilities.

Intermediate Devices

Intermediate devices in computer networks are infrastructure components that enable communication between end devices by forwarding data packets across network segments or disparate networks, acting as bridges and routers in the overall topology. These devices primarily include switches, routers, bridges, and hubs, with the latter operating at a rudimentary level. Hubs function as multiport repeaters at the (Layer 1) of the , broadcasting incoming signals to all connected ports and creating a single . In contrast, bridges and switches operate at the (Layer 2), using MAC addresses to filter and forward between segments, thereby reducing unnecessary and improving . Routers, functioning at the network layer (Layer 3), determine optimal paths for packets based on IP addresses, connecting local area networks (LANs) to wide area networks (WANs) or different subnets. Core functions of intermediate devices encompass , address translation, , and collision avoidance within LANs. Switches and bridges forward Ethernet frames selectively to destination ports via MAC address tables, minimizing broadcast traffic compared to hubs. Routers perform by examining IP headers and selecting routes, while also handling (NAT) to map private internal IP addresses to public ones, allowing multiple devices to share a single external address for connectivity. involves techniques such as (QoS) mechanisms, where devices prioritize latency-sensitive data like voice or video through queuing, policing, and shaping to ensure reliable performance. In LANs, switches mitigate collisions—common in shared-media environments like those with hubs—by creating microsegments where each port operates as a dedicated , especially in full-duplex mode, thus enabling simultaneous bidirectional communication without interference. Specific examples illustrate their roles: Ethernet switches are commonly deployed in LANs to interconnect end devices like computers and servers, providing high-speed, low-latency forwarding within a building or . Routers, such as those in enterprise edge setups, link internal subnets to external WANs, managing inter-network traffic flows. Overall, intermediate devices operate predominantly at OSI Layers 2 and 3, focusing on and network functionalities to ensure seamless data movement. For path selection, routers leverage IP addressing schemes, akin to those used for device . The evolution of these devices traces from early bridges, which segmented networks to curb in 1980s Ethernet LANs, to modern multilayer switches that integrate Layer 2 switching with Layer 3 capabilities. Bridges initially filtered frames using simple MAC learning to connect multiple LAN segments without loops, employing algorithms like the . This progressed to switches in the , where each port became a virtual bridge, offering dedicated full-duplex bandwidth and scalability for growing networks. Contemporary multilayer switches, such as Cisco's Catalyst series, incorporate advanced QoS features—including hierarchical queuing and (WRED)—to classify and prioritize traffic classes, supporting diverse applications in high-demand environments.

Nodes in Telecommunications

Fixed Line Networks

In fixed line networks, nodes primarily consist of telephone exchanges and central offices, which function as central hubs connecting subscriber lines to the (PSTN) for voice and data services. These nodes aggregate multiple local lines, such as copper twisted-pair cables, and route them to higher-level transmission systems. Fiber optic nodes, often deployed in fiber-to-the-node (FTTN) architectures, serve as redistribution points where high-capacity optical fibers terminate and interface with local copper or coaxial distribution lines to serve neighborhoods. The core functionality of these nodes revolves around circuit-switched operations in , including call setup, where switches within the exchange interpret dialed numbers and establish dedicated end-to-end paths between callers. Telephone exchanges perform by dynamically allocating physical paths for voice traffic, ensuring reliable transmission without packet fragmentation. In optic and lines, nodes also handle signal amplification and regeneration; for , boost analog or digital signals to counter over distance, while nodes regenerate optical signals using erbium-doped amplifiers (EDFAs) to maintain integrity across long spans. Performance metrics for fiber optic nodes emphasize coverage and capacity, often measured by "homes passed," which indicates the number of residences or premises reachable from a single node—typically ranging from 100 to 450 in (HFC) deployments, or 50 to 128 in deeper fiber architectures to support gigabit speeds. Bandwidth capacity at these nodes can reach tens of Gbps downstream via passive optical networks (), enabling scalable delivery while the total capacity of local public switching exchanges represents the maximum connectable fixed lines, including both active and provisioned circuits. Historically, fixed line nodes evolved from manual switchboards in the 1870s, where operators physically connected calls using plugs and cords, to electromechanical systems like the in 1891 for automated routing, and finally to digital exchanges in the 1970s that employed stored-program control for efficient, computer-based processing in the PSTN. This progression enabled the integration of digital signaling and , transforming exchanges from labor-intensive setups to automated facilities supporting millions of lines. In hybrid networks combining voice and , DSL modems operate as edge nodes at the subscriber premises, modulating digital signals over existing copper telephone lines to connect to the central office's (DSLAM), thereby enabling access without disrupting traditional . This role allows fixed line infrastructure to support (ADSL) or very-high-bit-rate DSL () services, bridging legacy copper with emerging demands up to 100 Mbps in short-loop scenarios.

Mobile and Wireless Networks

In mobile and wireless networks, nodes play a critical role in managing connectivity for mobile devices, particularly in cellular systems where mobility introduces unique demands compared to fixed infrastructures. Key core nodes include the Base Station Controller (BSC) in networks, which controls multiple Base Transceiver Stations (BTS) and handles radio , such as assigning channels and power levels to prevent interference. The Mobile Switching Center (MSC) serves as the primary switching node, performing call routing, signaling, and interfacing with the to support voice and circuit-switched services. In , the Serving GPRS Support Node (SGSN) manages packet-switched mobility, including session control and tunneling of user data via the GPRS (GTP), while the Gateway GPRS Support Node (GGSN) acts as the gateway to external packet data networks, performing allocation and routing. In LTE, these roles are fulfilled by the Mobility Management Entity (MME) for control-plane , the Serving Gateway (SGW) for user-plane tunneling, and the Packet Data Network Gateway (PGW) for external connectivity and IP allocation. In and networks, the Home Location Register (HLR) functions as a node storing subscriber profiles, authentication keys, and service permissions, enabling seamless access across networks; in LTE, the Home Subscriber Server (HSS) provides these functions with enhanced capabilities for IP-based services. These nodes contrast with endpoints like base stations (e.g., in or eNodeB in ), which handle direct radio transmission but lack the broader control functions. A primary functionality of these nodes is handover management, which ensures uninterrupted service as devices move between cells; for instance, the BSC or its 3G equivalent, the Radio Network Controller (RNC), coordinates intra-controller s by reallocating radio resources and synchronizing signals to minimize disruption. Location tracking is facilitated through interactions between the MSC, SGSN, and HLR, where the Location Register (VLR)—often integrated with the MSC—temporarily stores updated position data to route calls or packets efficiently. In 4G LTE, these tracking functions are integrated into the MME and HSS. Radio resource at nodes like the BSC involves dynamic assignment of frequency bands and time slots to optimize throughput, with the SGSN enforcing quality-of-service policies for data sessions in 3G systems. In 4G LTE, QoS is managed by the and Charging Rules Function (PCRF) and MME. In Wi-Fi extensions to cellular networks, wireless access points function similarly as edge nodes for local and resource sharing, often integrating with core gateways for hybrid connectivity. For subscriber , HLR nodes query cellular databases to verify credentials during registration, preventing unauthorized access. In 4G, this is handled by the HSS. Challenges in these nodes arise from the wireless medium's variability, particularly , where limited frequency bands must be shared among users without causing ; BSC and RNC nodes mitigate this through adaptive allocation algorithms that monitor signal quality and adjust power dynamically. Interference handling is exacerbated by mobility, requiring nodes like the MSC and SGSN to predict and resolve conflicts during handovers, often using techniques such as frequency hopping in systems. In LTE, similar challenges are addressed by the MME and eNodeBs. These issues are compounded in dense urban deployments, where backhaul connections—sometimes via for high-capacity links—must support real-time node coordination without introducing latency.

Nodes in Distributed Systems

Peer-to-Peer and Client-Server Architectures

In (P2P) architectures, nodes function as equals, each acting as both client and server to share resources directly without centralized intermediaries. This decentralized model enables end hosts, or peers, to connect , contributing bandwidth, storage, and computing power to distribute content such as files or streams. For instance, in file-sharing systems, peers exchange data chunks autonomously, as seen in early implementations like where nodes query neighbors for content location. In contrast, client-server architectures impose a hierarchical structure where client nodes request services from dedicated server nodes that manage and deliver resources. Clients initiate unidirectional communication, such as querying for data, while servers process and respond, ensuring controlled access and scalability through centralized management. A prominent example is the (DNS), where client devices query authoritative nameservers—acting as nodes in a hierarchical —to resolve domain names to IP addresses, with primary and secondary servers handling zone data. Both architectures leverage node cooperation for key functionalities: resource sharing distributes workloads across participants, load balancing prevents bottlenecks by allocating tasks dynamically (e.g., limiting peer connections in P2P to manage traffic), and arises from redundancy, where multiple nodes replicate data or reroute requests upon failures. In P2P systems like , peers form swarms to upload and download file pieces simultaneously, using algorithms such as tit-for-tat to incentivize reciprocation and enhance resilience against node churn. To address scalability in unstructured P2P networks, supernodes—high-capacity peers with extensive connections (e.g., up to 100 neighbors)—emerge as semi-centralized hubs that route queries or index content for nodes with limited resources. These supernodes reduce search diameters from logarithmic to near-constant scales, as in hybrids, by clustering ordinary nodes and optimizing paths without full restructuring. A notable risk in these distributed setups is the end node problem, where peripheral nodes are untrusted and potentially malicious, enabling attacks like man-in-the-middle interceptions during direct peer communications. Mitigation requires verification mechanisms, such as cryptographic protocols, to ensure across untrusted endpoints.

Virtual and Cloud-Based Nodes

Virtual nodes represent an in distributed systems, where a single physical machine is partitioned into multiple logical nodes to enhance , load balancing, and . This allows for fine-grained distribution of workload across heterogeneous hardware without requiring uniform physical resources. A prominent example is Amazon's key-value store, which employs virtual nodes in conjunction with to map data partitions onto a virtual ring, enabling efficient data placement and retrieval across a cluster. In terms of functionality, virtual nodes facilitate handling of node failures through replication mechanisms, where is duplicated across multiple virtual positions to ensure even if physical nodes fail. For instance, Dynamo's replicates each item on N successor nodes (typically N=3) in the hash ring, using techniques like hinted handoff to temporarily store replicas on nearby healthy nodes during outages, which are later reconciled. This approach mitigates the impact of failures by distributing load evenly and allowing quick recovery without full reconfiguration. Additionally, virtual nodes address hardware heterogeneity in clusters by assigning a variable number of virtual positions proportional to a node's capacity, such as CPU or storage, thereby optimizing resource utilization in diverse environments. In cloud computing contexts, virtual nodes are commonly implemented as virtual machines (VMs) in Infrastructure-as-a-Service (IaaS) platforms or containers in Platform-as-a-Service (PaaS) environments, serving as the building blocks for scalable distributed applications. For example, AWS EC2 instances act as virtual nodes hosting services like DynamoDB, while orchestrates containerized nodes for . However, end nodes in cloud perimeters introduce security risks, such as collocation attacks where malicious VMs share hardware with victim instances, exploiting side-channel vulnerabilities like cache timing to leak data. A key technique underpinning virtual nodes is , which maps keys and virtual node identifiers to points on a fixed circular hash space (ring) using a , typically or , to determine ownership: a key is assigned to the first virtual node whose position follows it clockwise on the ring. To support replication for , each key is stored on the next N-1 successors after the primary virtual node, forming a preference list that prioritizes distinct physical nodes to avoid single points of failure. This method minimizes data movement during node additions or removals, as only adjacent segments are affected, contrasting with traditional hashing that requires global remapping. Beyond Dynamo, virtual nodes appear in distributed file systems like Apache Hadoop's HDFS, where NameNodes and DataNodes can be deployed on VMs in infrastructures to manage large-scale storage across clusters, leveraging for elastic scaling and isolation. In overlays, the concept of supernodes—originally powerful peers in networks—has evolved into virtualized, -hosted coordinators that manage and resource discovery in hybrid distributed setups, reducing reliance on client-side computation while maintaining overlay resilience.

Modern and Emerging Applications

Internet of Things (IoT)

In the context of the Internet of Things (IoT), nodes refer to interconnected physical devices that form the foundational elements of vast device meshes, enabling data collection, processing, and actuation in real-world environments. These nodes typically include sensors for detecting environmental conditions such as temperature, humidity, or motion; actuators for performing actions like adjusting valves or motors; and gateways that serve as edge nodes bridging local networks to broader systems. For instance, in smart agriculture, sensor nodes monitor soil moisture while actuator nodes control irrigation, with gateways aggregating data from these edge devices to optimize resource use. IoT nodes operate under constrained conditions, prioritizing lightweight communication protocols to manage limited bandwidth and power resources. The MQTT protocol, for example, facilitates efficient publish-subscribe messaging, allowing nodes to exchange without constant connections, which is crucial for battery-powered devices. Energy efficiency is achieved through techniques like duty cycling, where nodes enter low-power sleep modes, and at gateways, which filters redundant information before transmission to reduce overall network load and extend device lifespan. Gateways play a pivotal by preprocessing locally, minimizing the energy demands on upstream sensors and actuators. IoT architectures often employ a hierarchical structure, where low-level sensor and actuator nodes communicate via short-range protocols like Zigbee for mesh networking or CoAP for UDP-based, resource-constrained interactions, escalating data through intermediate gateways to cloud platforms for analysis. This layered approach—from edge devices to fog layers and finally the cloud—supports scalable data flow while enabling real-time decisions at lower tiers. However, managing scalability poses significant challenges as networks expand to billions of nodes, leading to issues like congestion and latency from overwhelming data volumes. Security in these resource-limited environments is equally critical, with vulnerabilities arising from weak encryption and insufficient processing power, necessitating lightweight cryptographic methods to protect against unauthorized access. As of 2025, there are approximately 21 billion connected IoT devices worldwide, with integration of enhancing low-latency processing by distributing computation closer to these nodes, reducing reliance on distant resources.

Blockchain and 5G Networks

In networks, nodes serve as the foundational elements that maintain the distributed 's integrity through validation and storage processes. Full nodes fully validate transactions and blocks while storing the complete , ensuring and by independently verifying all data. Light nodes, in contrast, perform limited functions such as querying the without storing the entire , relying on full nodes for validation to reduce resource demands. In proof-of-work (PoW) systems like , mining nodes specialize in solving complex computational puzzles to propose new blocks, competing to add them to the chain and earning rewards, though this process consumes significant —estimated at over 100 terawatt-hours annually, comparable to the use of some mid-sized countries. Ethereum exemplifies blockchain nodes' role in advanced applications, where full nodes execute and validate smart contracts—self-enforcing code that automates agreements on the , enabling and other programmable features. To address challenges, Ethereum is advancing sharding through upgrades like proto-danksharding, which improves data availability for layer 2 rollups, enabling the network to scale to thousands of while preserving security. In networks, nodes are integral to delivering high-speed, low-latency connectivity, with gNB (next-generation ) serving as the primary base stations that manage radio access for , supporting enhanced and massive machine-type communications. Edge nodes, deployed closer to end-users, facilitate ultra-reliable low-latency communication (URLLC) by processing data at the network periphery, achieving latencies under 1 millisecond for mission-critical applications like autonomous vehicles. Network slicing enables the creation of virtualized, isolated sub-networks on shared infrastructure, with (SDN) and (NFV) allowing dynamic orchestration of node resources to tailor performance for diverse services. Multi-access edge computing (MEC) nodes further enhance by offloading computation from centralized clouds to the edge, reducing end-to-end latency by up to 50-100 milliseconds compared to traditional core networks and enabling real-time applications. Post-2020 deployments have continued to accelerate globally, with over 5 million base stations (gNBs) operational worldwide as of 2025, supporting widespread adoption and integration with emerging paradigms like for secure, decentralized 5G services.

References

  1. https://www.techtarget.com/searchnetworking/definition/node
  2. https://www.solarwinds.com/resources/it-glossary/network-node
  3. https://www.etymonline.com/word/node
  4. https://tailscale.com/learn/what-are-nodes
  5. https://www.ericsson.com/en/about-us/history/communication/early-developments/the-triumph-of-the-telegraph
  6. https://www.britannica.com/technology/telephone
  7. https://www.techtarget.com/searchnetworking/answer/What-is-the-difference-between-an-IP-address-and-a-physical-address
  8. https://aws.amazon.com/what-is/osi-model/
  9. https://www.ibm.com/docs/en/aix/7.1.0?topic=mc-data-terminating-equipment-data-circuit-terminating-equipment-speeds
  10. https://phoenixnap.com/kb/network-node
  11. https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/rfc3756/
  12. https://learningnetwork.cisco.com/s/question/0D53i00000Kt1fpCAB/dte-vs-dce
  13. https://www.cisco.com/site/us/en/learn/topics/security/what-is-endpoint-protection.html
  14. https://www.cisco.com/c/en/us/td/docs/ios-xml/ios/ipaddr_arp/configuration/xe-16/arp-xe-16-book/arp-config-arp.html
  15. https://www.cisco.com/E-Learning/bulk/public/tac/cim/cib/using_cisco_ios_software/linked/tcpip.htm
  16. https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc1180
  17. https://www.cisco.com/site/us/en/learn/topics/networking/what-is-a-lan-local-area-network.html
  18. https://www.cisco.com/c/en/us/support/docs/lan-switching/ethernet/12006-chapter22.html
  19. https://www.cisco.com/c/dam/global/fi_fi/assets/docs/SMB_University_120307_Networking_Fundamentals.pdf
  20. https://www.cisco.com/site/us/en/learn/topics/networking/what-is-network-address-translation-nat.html
  21. https://www.cisco.com/c/en/us/products/collateral/switches/catalyst-9000/white-paper-c11-742388.html
  22. https://learningnetwork.cisco.com/s/question/0D53i00000Kt4OjCAJ/collision-domain-confused-plz-help
  23. https://ewh.ieee.org/r6/oeb/comsoc/Past_Presentations/EthernetHistory_NetWorkshop_Mar04.pdf
  24. https://www.techtarget.com/searchnetworking/definition/PSTN
  25. https://www.commscope.com/knowledge/what-is-a-central-office/
  26. https://www.thefoa.org/tech/ref/appln/FTTHarch.html
  27. https://www.itu.int/en/ITU-D/Statistics/Documents/events/eghegti2019/EGTI%20ppt/6b.%20Handbook%20Fixed.pdf
  28. https://www.cablelabs.com/insights/driving-gigabit-speeds-from-lab-to-consumer
  29. https://www.apwip.com/the-evolution-of-telephone-exchanges/
  30. https://www.ringcentral.com/us/en/blog/what-is-dsl/
  31. https://www.3gpp.org/ftp/tsg_sa/tsg_sa/tsgs_06/docs/PDF/SP-99537.pdf
  32. https://www.3gpp.org/ftp/tsg_sa/tsg_sa/tsgs_06/docs/PDF/SP-99545.PDF
  33. https://atisorg.s3.amazonaws.com/archive/3gpp-documents/Rel99-14/ATIS.3GPP.23.0026100-2006.pdf
  34. https://mobilepacketcore.com/lte-4g-network-architecture/
  35. https://www.itu.int/rec/dologin_pub.asp?lang=e&id=T-REC-Q.1003-198811-W%21%21PDF-E&type=items
  36. https://www.itu.int/ITU-D/tech/NGN/Manual/ManualAddReferences/A_3_2_5.pdf
  37. https://ieeexplore.ieee.org/document/5547915
  38. https://ieeexplore.ieee.org/document/9405679
  39. http://medianetlab.ee.ucla.edu/papers/chapter_P2P_hpark.pdf
  40. https://cs.gmu.edu/~setia/cs707/slides/p2p.pdf
  41. https://cs.uwaterloo.ca/~m2nagapp/courses/CS446/1195/Arch_Design_Activity/ClientServer.pdf
  42. https://www.cisco.com/c/en/us/td/docs/net_mgmt/prime/network_registrar/11-1/dns/guide/DNS_Guide/DNS_Guide_chapter_00.pdf
  43. https://web.cs.ucla.edu/classes/cs217/05BitTorrent.pdf
  44. https://www.kevinregan.com/files/proj_supernode_paper.pdf
  45. https://ccng.uwaterloo.ca/~pasward/Publications/mitm.pdf
  46. https://dl.acm.org/doi/10.1145/1294261.1294281
  47. https://cacm.acm.org/research/new-approaches-to-security-and-availability-for-cloud-data/
  48. https://cwiki.apache.org/confluence/display/HADOOP2/Virtual%2BHadoop
  49. https://airccse.org/ijp2p/papers/8317ijp2p04.pdf
  50. https://www.techtarget.com/iotagenda/definition/Internet-of-Things-IoT
  51. https://www.monolithicpower.com/en/learning/mpscholar/sensors/advanced-topics-in-sensing/iot-and-sensors
  52. https://www.netburner.com/learn/architectural-frameworks-in-the-iot-civilization/
  53. https://www.emqx.com/en/blog/iot-protocols-mqtt-coap-lwm2m
  54. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC12527105/
  55. https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1155/2022/8765335
  56. https://www.supermicro.com/en/glossary/iot-gateway
  57. https://www.cavliwireless.com/blog/nerdiest-of-things/communication-protocols-in-iot
  58. https://onomondo.com/blog/iot-networking-protocols-overview-and-advantages/
  59. https://www.losant.com/blog/hierarchical-edge-computing-a-practical-edge-architecture-for-iiot
  60. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S2210537925001465
  61. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S1574013725001157
  62. https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-025-09885-0
  63. https://iot-analytics.com/number-connected-iot-devices/
  64. https://www.synaptics.com/company/blog/iot-edge-computing-ml
  65. https://bitcoin.org/en/full-node
  66. https://arxiv.org/pdf/2505.08652
  67. https://www.investopedia.com/terms/p/proof-work.asp
  68. https://ethereum.org/developers/docs/smart-contracts/
  69. https://ethereum.org/roadmap/danksharding/
  70. https://www.3gpp.org/technologies/5g-system-overview
  71. https://ieeexplore.ieee.org/document/9613603
  72. https://ieeexplore.ieee.org/iel7/6287639/6514899/09317860.pdf
  73. https://www.etsi.org/technologies/multi-access-edge-computing
  74. https://patentpc.com/blog/5g-base-station-growth-how-many-are-active
Add your contribution
Related Hubs
Contribute something
User Avatar
No comments yet.