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Ordos Plateau
Chinese name
Traditional Chinese鄂爾多斯
Simplified Chinese鄂尔多斯
Transcriptions
Standard Mandarin
Hanyu PinyinÈěrduōsī
Wade–GilesÊ4-êrh3-to1-ssŭ1
Mongolian name
Mongolian Cyrillicᠣᠷᠳᠣᠰ
Ordos
Provincial boundaries. The Loess Plateau is shaded. The Yellow River is colored blue. The yellow area is Inner Mongolia and Ningxia.

The Ordos Plateau, also known as the Ordos Basin, the Ordos, or the Shaan-Gan-Ning Basin, is a highland sedimentary basin in parts of northernmost China with an elevation of 1,000–1,600 m (3,300–5,200 ft), and consisting mostly of land enclosed by the "Ordos Loop", a northerly rectangular bend of the Yellow River. It is China's second largest sedimentary basin (after the Tarim Basin) with a total area of 370,000 km2 (140,000 sq mi). The Ordos includes territories from five provinces: Shaanxi, Gansu, Ningxia, Inner Mongolia, and a thin fringe of Shanxi (western border counties of Xinzhou, Lüliang and Linfen), but is demographically dominated by the former three, hence the area is sometimes also called the "Shaan-Gan-Ning Basin". The basin is bounded in the east by the Lüliang Mountains, north by the Yin Mountains, west by the Helan Mountains, and south by the Huanglong Mountains, Meridian Ridge and Liupan Mountains.

The name "Ordos" (Mongolian: ᠣᠷᠳᠤᠰ) comes from the orda,[1] which originally means "palaces" or "court" in Old Turkic.[2][3][4] The seventh largest prefecture of Inner Mongolia, Ordos City, is similarly named due to its location within the Ordos Loop.

The Ming Great Wall cuts southwesternly across the center of the Ordos region, roughly separating the sparsely populated north (or "upper Ordos", which is actually lower in elevation than the "lower Ordos" south) — considered the Ordos proper — from the agricultural south (or "lower Ordos", i.e. northern part of the Loess Plateau). The north Ordos consists mainly of the arid Ordos Desert (subdivided into the Mu Us and Kubuqi deserts), which is administered by Inner Mongolia's Ordos City, but the floodplains along the banks of Ordos Loop's northern bends are fertile grasslands historically known as the Hetao Plains ("river loop" plains), which is subdivided into the "west loop" (within Ningxia) and "east loop" (within Inner Mongolia, further divided into "front loop" and "back loop") sections. The Inner Mongolian cities of Hohhot (provincial capital), Baotou, Bayannur and Wuhai (its third, fourth, eighth and eleventh most populous prefectures respectively), and all of Ningxia's cities except Guyuan, are all located on these riverside plains along the Hetao region. Throughout Chinese history, the Hetao region was of major strategic importance and therefore hotly contested against various Eurasian nomads such as Di and Rong (Shang and Zhou dynasties), Xiongnu (Qin and Han dynasty), Rouran (Northern Wei), Eastern Göktürk (Sui and Tang dynasty) and Mongols (Ming dynasty).

The more populous south Ordos is traversed by the upper reaches of Wei River's two largest tributaries, the Jing and Luo Rivers, whose valleys cut through the mountain ranges east of Tianshui and south of Pingliang, Qingyang and Yan'an to drain into the crescentic Guanzhong Plain on the other side. The south Ordos and the Guanzhong Plain together were one of the cradles of Chinese civilization and remains densely populated throughout history. The largest city in the Guanzhong region, Xi'an, is the 10th largest Chinese city[5] and the most populous settlement in the entire Northwest China, and had long served as the capital of China in more than a dozen ancient dynasties.

The area is of high archaeological interest. Skeletal remains and artifacts show the Ordosian culture occupied the area in the Upper Paleolithic. The late Neolithic saw the development or introduction of the Zhukaigou culture, which was followed by the iron-wielding Ordos culture.

Geography

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The Yellow River flows from its source in the Sanjiangyuan National Nature Reserve on the Tibetan Plateau in a roughly eastern course before turning northwest after its confluence with the Bai He ("White River") in Maqu County, Gansu. After reversing course back towards the east, it begins the massive Ordos Loop by turning northwards at Zhongning County in Ningxia. It runs northwards about 640 kilometers (398 mi), leaving the Loess Plateau—whose eroded silt produces the river's yellow color—for the Ordos proper before turning east in Inner Mongolia. It continues this course for about 320 kilometers (199 mi) before Shaanxi's Lüliang Mountains force it sharply southwards. The eastern side of the loop runs about 600 kilometers (373 mi), re-entering the Loess Plateau before reaching its confluence with the Wei River at Tongguan in Shaanxi and again turning sharply eastward. It then flows through Henan's Hangu Pass to enter the North China Plain.

The Wei River largely forms a southern side of the imperfect rectangle formed by these curves of the Yellow River, flowing about 560 kilometers (348 mi) through the Loess Plateau from a source not far from its southwestern corner to a confluence at the southeastern corner. The Qin Mountains—including the famous Mount Hua—separate its watershed from that of the Han River, which flows south to a confluence with the Yangtze at Wuhan.

Underlying the loess plateau is one of the largest coal beds in China.

Climate

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Rainfall and therefore population decreases rapidly as one moves north. The Wei River valley on the south is densely populated and is one of the ancient centers of Chinese civilization. The north is grassland and desert (Ordos desert) and is part of Inner Mongolia. Because of its low and variable rainfall the region was once notorious for drought and famine.

Along the two rivers

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At the southwest corner near where the Yellow River emerges from the Tibetan Plateau is Lanzhou, the westernmost large city in north China and the capital of Gansu. To the west of Lanzhou is Xining from whence caravans (and now the railway) started for Lhasa. North of Xining the Gansu or Hexi Corridor runs along the northern edge of the Tibetan Plateau. This corridor and the Wei River valley became the main silk road route from China proper to the Tarim basin and westward. Downriver (north) from Lanzhou is a gorge through Gaolan County and Baiyin. The river emerges from the mountains and enters Ningxia near Zhongwei. It runs east with the Tengger Desert in Inner Mongolia to the north and hills to the south. It turns north through dry country to past the Qingtongxia dam to the irrigated area around Wuzhong City. It continues north past Yinchuan, the capital of Ningxia. To the west are the Helan Mountains. The river leaves the northern tip of Ningxia south of Wuhai, flows through desert and enters a large irrigated area at Dengkou. At the northwest corner the Lang Shan mountains force the river to turn east near Linhe. Here there is an irrigated area between the mountains and river and desert to the southeast. Near the center of the northern stretch is the large town and irrigated area of Baotou. The main road south runs from Baotou to Xi'an. About 70 miles northeast of the northeast bend is Hohot, the capital of Inner Mongolia. The river turns south, enters the loess plateau and forms a gorge at least 200 feet below the surrounding hills. There are no large towns in this region. There is a dam apparently called Wanjia and another further south and then the Hukou Waterfall of the Yellow River, the second highest in China. The river leaves the gorge near Hancheng, receives the Fen River from the east and the Wei River from the west. At its juncture with the Wei the Yellow River turns east toward the North China Plain. One can go upstream on the Wei with the Qin Mountains with Mount Hua on the south past Weinan to Xi'an, a former capital of China and now a large city. West of Xi'an is Xianyang, the Qin dynasty capital. The river exits the mountains west of Baoji. There is a dam, the river narrows and becomes yellow and the railroad needs many bridges and tunnels all the way to Tianshui. Upstream various tributaries extend in the direction of Lanzhou.

History

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Approximate area of Chinese civilization during the Spring and Autumn period. Note the extension up the Wei valley

Although this rectangular area is obvious on a map, the north and south of the area are so different that the region cannot be said to have a common history.

The south and east of the plateau belong historically and culturally to China, for which see Prehistory and History of China.

The north and west, the grassland and desert, belongs historically and culturally to nomads. The region had been occupied by humans since at least Upper Paleolithic, when the culture may be known as the Ordosian culture.[6] The Ordosian culture, also sometimes called the Ordos culture,[7] is documented from the Upper Palaeolithic. The points and sides of their tools indicate a "Moustero-Levalloisian" element. They seemed to have a masterful knowledge of Upper Palaeolithic technology, producing blades as much as fifteen centimeters long.[8]

By about 1000 BC Chinese civilization was centered on the west side of the North China Plain with an extension up the Wei valley and a northern extension up the Fen River. The lower Wei valley is still one of the most densely populated areas in China. Rulers based in the Wei valley had an advantage since the mountains to the east made a natural fortification and war horses were readily available from the northern grasslands. The Zhou dynasty and the Qin dynasty started in the Wei valley. Xi'an on the lower Wei was several times the capital of China. By the Tang dynasty the economic center of China had shifted to the Yangzi valley and the Wei region became partly dependent of food imported up the Grand Canal.

The Ordosian culture was followed by the Zhukaigou culture of the late Neolithic and early Bronze Age. While the Zhukaigou culture population appears to have been exclusively Mongoloid, as known from their skeletal remains and artifacts,[9] the Ordos culture is thought to have been the most eastern extension of Eurasian nomads, and at least partly of Europoid peoples.[10] Under the Qin and Han dynasties the area came under at least loose Chinese control. The Zhukaigou culture is one of the Neolithic cultures at Ordos, dated between 2200 and 1500 BC. It is associated with about 327 burials, with recent maternal genetic evidence showing that they were related to the remains from Yinniugou, as well as modern populations like Daurs and Evenks.[11] The archaeological finds at the site are similar to those of the lower Xiajiadian culture. These finds are important as they are associated with the development of snake pattern designs on the decoration of weapon and animal-depicting artifacts which later would become a characteristic style of the Ordos.[12] The skeletal remains at Taohongbala (桃紅巴拉) tomb dated to between the 7th and 6th centuries BC are generally identified as belonging to the Xiongnu bronze culture and show strong Mongoloid features.[13][14] A similar type of burial at Hulusitai around Bayannur, uncovered in 1979 and dated to between the 5th and 4th centuries BCE, is considered the only Xiongnu site along the northern slope of Yinshan. The site consisted of mainly bronze artifacts and pottery and 27 horse skeletal remains.[15] Further excavation in 1983 at Guoxianyaozi uncovered a total of 31 burials dated to the 6th to 5th century BC revealing strong north Mongoloid features. These generally decreased towards the south, and skeletal remains of east and north Mongoloid type can be seen from finds in Maoqinggou and Yinniugou dated to around the 7th century BC, amounting to a total of 117 burials.[16] Many bronze weapons of these cultures are similar to those of Chinese style.[17] Depictions of the Ordos people tend to show straight hair. This is especially true of archaeological finds from Baotou (M63:22, M63:23, M84:5), Etuoke (M1, M6), Xihaokou (M3), lower Woertuhao (M3:1), and Mengjialiang.[18]

Horse nomads occupied the area of the Ordos Plateau previously settled by the Zhukaigou culture from the 6th to the 2nd century BC, creating the Ordos culture, before being driven away by the Xiongnu. The Ordos Plateau contained the best pasture lands on the Asian steppe.[19]

Bronze statuette of a man, Ordos, 3-1st century BC. British Museum. Otto J. Maenchen-Helfen notes that the statuette displays clear Europoid features.[20]

The Ordos are mainly known from their skeletal remains and artifacts. The Ordos culture of about 500 BC to AD 100 is known for its "Ordos bronzes", blade weapons, finials for tent-poles, horse gear, and small plaques and fittings for clothes and horse harness, using animal style decoration with relationships both with the Scythian art of regions much further west, and also Chinese art. Its relationship with the Xiongnu is controversial; for some scholars they are the same, and for others different.[21] Many buried metal artefacts have emerged on the surface of the land as a result of the progressive desertification of the region.[22] According to Iaroslav Lebedynsky, they are thought to be the easternmost people of Scythian affinity to have settled here, just to the east of the better-known Yuezhi.[23] Because the people represented in archaeological finds tend to display Europoid features, also earlier noted by Otto J. Maenchen-Helfen,[24] Lededynsky suggests the Ordos to be of Scythian affinity.[25] The weapons, found in tombs throughout the steppes of the Ordos, are very close to those of the Scythians, known on the Asian Steppe as Sakas.[26]

The Ordos were in contact and often at war with the pre-Han and Han populations of the period. Their former territory is now located just north of the Great Wall of China, and on the south bank of the northernmost hook of the Yellow River. The western neighbours of Ordos may have been identical with the Yuezhi who, after being vanquished by the Xiongnu, migrated to southern Asia to form the Kushan Empire. They were also culturally related to another nomadic tribe to the east, the Eastern Hu (東胡; Donghu), who shared a similar "art of the steppes," but appear to have been Mongoloids.[27] They may also have been related to the Di people of Chinese annals.

In Chinese accounts, the Xiongnu first appear at Ordos in the Yizhoushu and Shanhaijing during the Warring States period before it was occupied by Qin and Zhao. It is generally thought to be their homeland, however when exactly they came to occupy the region is unclear, and it might have been much earlier than traditionally thought, as suggested by archaeological finds.[28] As the Xiongnu expanded southward into Yuezhi territory around 160 BC under their leader Modun, the Yuezhi in turn defeated the Sakas (Scythians) and pushed them away at the Issyk Kul. It is thought the Xiongnu also occupied the Ordos area during the same period, when they came in direct contact with the Chinese. From there, the Xiongnu conducted numerous devastating raids into Chinese territory (167, 158, 142, 129 BC).[29] The Han dynasty started to fight the Xiongnu in the 2nd century BC under emperor Han Wudi, and colonized the area of the Ordos under Shuofang commandery in 127 BC. Prior to the campaign, there were already commanderies established earlier by Qin and Zhao until they were overrun by the Xiongnu in 209 BC.[30]

See also

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References

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Revisions and contributorsEdit on WikipediaRead on Wikipedia

Ordos Plateau

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from Grokipedia
The Ordos Plateau is a semi-arid highland region in northern , primarily situated in the southwest of the Autonomous Region, with extensions into adjacent parts of and provinces, spanning coordinates 37°41′–40°51′ N and 106°42′–111°31′ E. Covering an area of approximately 86,882 square kilometers at elevations ranging from 1,000 to 1,500 meters above sea level, it forms a distinctive enclosed within the great bend of the . The plateau's landscape features a mix of grasslands, dunes, and deposits, including the northern Hobq Desert with mobile sand dunes up to 15 meters high and the southern Mu Us transitioning to shrub . Its is marked by low annual of 150–450 millimeters, mostly concentrated in summer, cold winters influenced by Siberian winds, and mean annual temperatures of 5.3–8.7 °C, creating an east-to-west gradient of increasing aridity. Ecologically, the Ordos Plateau supports diverse but fragile habitats, including Stipa-dominated grasslands in the east, desert steppes in the central areas, and arid shrublands with species like Caragana and Artemisia toward the west, where vegetation density and soil water content decline sharply. Biodiversity includes vulnerable species such as the relict gull, alongside historically present but now extirpated mammals like Przewalski's horse, Asiatic wild ass, and wild Bactrian camel; the region also hosts Ramsar-listed wetlands like the Bojiang Lake Basin. Human activities, including centuries of agriculture, overgrazing, and recent afforestation efforts, have driven desertification and habitat loss, though conservation initiatives like the Ordos Relict Gull National Nature Reserve aim to protect about 7% of the area. Historically, the Ordos Plateau has been a cradle of since the Neolithic Age, with archaeological sites revealing phased fluctuations in population distribution influenced by climate, topography, and socio-political factors. From the 8th to 3rd centuries BCE, it served as a cultural crossroads for nomadic groups, including early inhabitants who produced distinctive Ordos bronzes featuring zoomorphic motifs like tigers and herbivores, reflecting interactions between local traditions and influences from the . By the 3rd century BCE, the confederacy established a southern headquarters in the region, using it as a strategic base for raids and trade until campaigns in the 2nd and 1st centuries BCE expelled them, leading to the construction of frontier defenses like sections of the Great Wall. These sites, such as Maoqinggou and Xigoupan, showcase stratified burials, advanced metalwork, and evidence of cultural exchanges with Chinese and western nomadic societies, underscoring the plateau's role in shaping ancient steppe civilizations.

Geography

Location and Extent

The Ordos Plateau is a semi-arid highland region in north-central , covering an area of approximately 87,000 km². It overlies part of the larger Ordos Basin, China's second-largest at 370,000 km² after the . This expansive plateau serves as a significant geographical feature, characterized by its relatively flat to undulating terrain shaped over millions of years by sedimentary deposition. It spans coordinates 37°41′–40°51′ N and 106°42′–111°31′ E. The plateau is primarily enclosed by the Ordos Loop of the , which forms its western, northern, and eastern boundaries, with the river deviating approximately 600 km northward, 300 km eastward, and 700 km southward around the region. To the south, it is delimited by the Great Wall, while surrounding mountain ranges further define its limits: the Lüliang and to the east, the Yin and Mountains to the north, the Helan and Liupan Mountains to the west, and the Mountains to the south. These natural barriers contribute to the plateau's isolation and distinct environmental profile. Administratively, the Ordos Plateau spans the southwest of the Autonomous Region, with extensions into northern Province and eastern Hui Autonomous Region. Within its boundaries, the plateau incorporates the arid , which includes the Kubuqi Desert in the north and the Mu Us Desert in the southeast, alongside fringes of the fertile Hetao Plains to the northwest. This combination of desert expanses and transitional plains underscores the plateau's role as a bridge between more humid eastern lowlands and the expansive western arid zones.

Topography and Geology

The Ordos Plateau is a relatively flat highland with elevations ranging from approximately 1,000 to 1,500 meters above , featuring a gentle eastward slope and minimal topographic relief across much of its extent. The surface is characterized by broad, undulating plateaus covered in deposits, interspersed with areas of fixed and semi-fixed sand dunes, particularly in the northern and western desert margins, and transitional landscapes in the east. This flat profile results from prolonged erosion and deposition processes, creating a stable platform that contrasts with the surrounding steeper terrains of the to the south and the to the north. Geologically, the plateau overlies a cratonic basin filled with thick sedimentary sequences, primarily continental clastic deposits from the to periods, which form the foundation of its structure. These sediments, accumulated in a subsiding intracratonic basin, host extensive reserves of and , with the coal-bearing strata alone exceeding 100 billion tons in proven resources, making the Ordos one of China's basins. The basin's evolution involved multiple phases of , initiated in the under the influence of regional from the closure of the Paleo-Asian Ocean and later intensified during the . The geological history of the Ordos Plateau is closely linked to broader tectonic events, including the far-field effects of the Himalayan orogeny during the , which triggered peripheral uplift and subsidence around the stable cratonic core. This orogeny, stemming from the India-Asia collision, contributed to the basin's transformation from a depositional low to an elevated plateau by the late Miocene-Pliocene, through isostatic rebound and erosion of overlying sediments.

Hydrology

The (Huang He) serves as the primary waterway defining the hydrology of the Ordos Plateau, originating in the on the and tracing a meandering path northeastward through arid and semi-arid landscapes before forming a distinctive 1,500 km Ordos Loop that partially encloses the plateau. It flows through key cities including in Province, in Hui Autonomous Region, and in Autonomous Region, where the river's course supports limited riparian ecosystems amid surrounding deserts like the Kubuqi and Mu Us. This loop, spanning roughly 650 km north-south and 350 km east-west, isolates the plateau's interior drainage while channeling external water inputs that sustain its hydrological balance. A significant , the , extends approximately 818 km as the largest branch of the , originating in the Niaoshu Mountains of Province, traversing the , and converging with the main stem at Tongguan in Shaanxi Province. This river contributes to the plateau's southern hydrological boundary, delivering seasonal flows influenced by upstream precipitation and facilitating sediment transfer into the broader system. Due to the region's , with annual ranging from 150 to 450 mm and rates of 1,000 to 3,500 mm, resources are severely limited, relying heavily on episodic inflows rather than consistent local runoff. from multi-layered aquifers, including systems in Cambrian-Ordovician carbonates, clastics, and formations, provides the primary , with annual recharge estimated at 1.05 × 10¹⁰ m³ primarily from distant meteoric sources like the via fault conduits. These aquifers support scattered oases and vegetation, discharging into springs and minor streams that feed the and sustain human settlements in otherwise dry interiors. Historically, the Yellow River has played a pivotal role in irrigation across the Ordos Plateau's fringes, enabling agriculture in the Loess Plateau margins through canal systems that harnessed its flows for fertile alluvial plains. Its immense sediment load, derived largely from loess erosion—historically exceeding 1 Gt annually in the mid-20th century—has deposited nutrient-rich silts that enhance soil fertility, forming the basis for the region's loess-derived landscapes and supporting long-term agricultural productivity. This deposition, peaking during flood events, has built up thick loess layers over millennia, contributing to the plateau's characteristic yellowish soils and ecological resilience. In modern times, large-scale dams such as Longyangxia and Liujiaxia on the upper , along with the Xiaolangdi downstream, have transformed flow regimes by increasing storage capacity to 682 × 10⁸ m³ and reducing peak discharges, which has curtailed flooding but also diminished delivery by over 90% since the 1950s. Water diversion projects, including the South-North Water Transfer initiative's eastern and central routes that intersect the basin, supplement arid zones like Ordos with inter-basin transfers, while local efforts such as the Energy Base Water Project in Subei Lake basin mitigate overexploitation by balancing surface and withdrawals. These interventions have stabilized annual at around 175 × 10⁸ m³ but intensified challenges in management and sustainability.

Climate and Environment

Climate Patterns

The Ordos Plateau features a semi-arid to arid characterized by low , significant temperature fluctuations, and high evaporative demand. Annual ranges from 150 to 450 mm, with a pronounced gradient decreasing northward from approximately 420 mm in the southeast near the valley to under 200 mm in the northwest, influenced by the region's position in the rain shadow of the East Asian summer monsoon blocked by surrounding mountain ranges such as the Mountains. This limited moisture input results in potential evaporation rates of 2,000 to 3,200 mm per year, far exceeding rainfall and contributing to the arid conditions. Seasonal variations are marked by cold, dry winters and hot summers, with low humidity throughout the year exacerbating aridity. Winter temperatures (December to ) average around -4.6°C in , with extremes dropping to -20°C, driven by pressure systems that bring clear skies and . Summers (June to August) see mean temperatures of 20.7°C in July, with highs reaching up to 35°C, accompanied by relatively low humidity levels often below 50% and frequent high winds exceeding 10 m/s. is concentrated in the summer months, with 60-80% falling between July and September due to sporadic incursions from the southeast, though these are weakened by topographic barriers. Meteorological data from , a representative station in the northern part of the plateau, record an average annual of approximately 180 mm, underscoring the overall dryness. Climate variability on the plateau is high, leading to frequent droughts and storms that have historically triggered famines through agricultural failures. Interannual fluctuations in and temperature, amplified by phenomena like El Niño-Southern Oscillation, result in multi-year dry spells, with storms often occurring in spring under strong westerly winds that mobilize loose sediments. These events, peaking in frequency during periods of increased aridity, transport fine particles across northern and beyond, highlighting the plateau's role as a key source region. River valleys, such as the Wuding, provide minor local moderation through slightly higher humidity, but do not alter the dominant arid patterns.

Ecological Diversity

The Ordos Plateau exhibits distinct ecological zonation, transitioning from semi-humid steppes and forested areas in the southern and eastern regions to arid deserts and grasslands in the northern and western parts, driven by gradients ranging from 400 mm in the east to 150 mm in the west. This progression includes eastern steppes dominated by grasses like Stipa , middle desert-steppes with mixed shrubs, and western steppe-deserts featuring sparse, drought-tolerant vegetation. The plateau's total comprises approximately 790 across 87 families and 346 genera, with herbaceous accounting for 77% and shrubs for about 145 , reflecting a temperate and East Asian floral composition enriched by desert elements. Key ecosystems highlight this diversity, including the Mu Us Desert in the southeast, characterized by mobile sand dunes and transitional steppe vegetation with species such as Artemisia ordosica and Caragana korshinskii, and the Kubuqi (Hobq) Desert in the north, featuring high sand dunes (10–15 m) and psammophytes like Reaumuria soongorica and Tamarix species adapted to extreme aridity through stem photosynthesis and deep root systems. Transitional grasslands in the central areas support nomadic grazing with shrub islands of Caragana tibetica and C. stenophylla, where plant cover decreases westward along moisture gradients, and diversity is influenced more by overgrazing than precipitation alone. Biodiversity hotspots are prominent in the western Ordos, recognized as a center for relic shrubs, hosting 54 shrub species across 16 families and 31 genera, including 5 relic species and 10 local endemics such as Tetraena mongolica and , which are endangered and exhibit adaptations like for survival in arid conditions. The plateau hosts 41 species endemic to the Alashan-Ordos region and nine genera unique to , underscoring its status as one of eight hotspots in East Asia's arid zones. Fauna includes Mongolian gazelles (Procapra gutturosa) thriving in the flat steppes and dry grasslands, gray wolves () as apex predators, and diverse birds such as the vulnerable relict gull (), with 25% of its global population in wetland areas like Bojiang Lake.

Desertification and Restoration Efforts

The Ordos Plateau has experienced severe since the 1990s, with human activities such as and exacerbating the arid climate, leading to across a substantial portion of the region—estimated at over 80% of the land area by the early 2000s. This degradation manifested in expanding sandy lands and reduced vegetation, particularly in the Mu Us Desert, where severe desertification covered more than 60% of the area around 2000. To combat this, launched the Grain for Green Program in the late 1990s, converting marginal farmlands on steep slopes into forests and grasslands across the , including Ordos, to curb and restore ecosystems. Complementing this, Ordos implemented eco-migration initiatives, relocating populations from heavily degraded areas to less affected zones, thereby reducing pressure on vulnerable lands and facilitating natural recovery. Notable successes have occurred in the Mu Us Desert through efforts, where cover increased from around 10% in the to over 50% by the , driven by techniques such as aerial seeding of native grasses and shrubs, alongside the construction of check dams to retain water and sediment. As of 2025, approximately 85% of the Mu Us Sandy Land has been rehabilitated, with a target of 100% by 2030, and 50% of the Kubuqi Desert rehabilitated, aiming for full coverage by 2030. These measures have treated nearly 666,000 hectares of desertified land, transforming mobile dunes into stable grasslands. Recent innovations include rice-crab polyculture systems adapted to desertified salt flats in Ordos, where saline lands are converted into productive wetlands; crabs control pests and enrich through their waste, enabling cultivation in previously barren areas. Restoration efforts have yielded measurable environmental gains, including significant reductions in , with total soil loss decreasing by 66.7% from 2016 to 2021 and substantial declines in over 40% of areas, through enhanced vegetation and water retention structures, alongside recovery in shrub-dominated centers, where has boosted microbial diversity and supported relic .

History

Prehistoric Settlements

The Ordos Plateau exhibits evidence of early human habitation dating back to the period, associated with the Ordosian culture, which spanned approximately 40,000 to 10,000 BC. This culture is characterized by societies that utilized stone tools, including blades, scrapers, and core-and-flake implements crafted from local materials such as siliceous and , reflecting adaptations to the arid fringes. Sites from this era are often linked to ephemeral streams and gallery forests, indicating seasonal mobility in response to fluctuating water availability. A notable concentration of sites has been identified across the plateau, including 99 newly discovered in 2022, underscoring its role as a persistent locus of early human activity. The Shuidonggou site complex, located at the western edge of the Ordos Plateau, provides critical insights into this period, with (IUP)-like assemblages dated to 43,000–28,000 cal BP through Bayesian modeling of radiocarbon dates. Artifacts from localities 1 and 2 include Levallois-like cores and blade technologies, alongside ornamental items such as ostrich eggshell beads, suggesting technological influences from northern during Marine Isotope Stage 3 (MIS 3). These findings point to modern human migrations into the region, facilitated by climatic warming phases that expanded habitable zones. Environmental shifts, including alternating lacustrine and terrestrial phases, likely drove population movements, with hunter-gatherers dispersing northward as aridity decreased during interstadials. Transitioning to the , the Zhukaigou culture (circa 2200–1500 BC) marks a shift toward semi-sedentary lifestyles, evidenced by village remains including houses, ash pits, and tombs at the in Ejin Horo Banner. This culture featured distinctive such as tripod jars and basins, alongside stone tools like axes, indicating settled communities engaged in mixed subsistence strategies. Millet farming, primarily foxtail (Setaria italica) and common (Panicum miliaceum) varieties, emerged around 4000–3700 cal BP, supported by and seed analyses, complementing early with domestic sheep, goats, cattle, and pigs. Spatial patterns of Neolithic settlements clustered predominantly in the southern and eastern portions of the plateau, near riverine environments that provided reliable water sources for and . This agglomeration reflects a distribution influenced by natural and reduced encroachment in these areas. As conditions ameliorated post-3000 BC, with decreased , settlements began dispersing northward, adapting to expanded grasslands and facilitating the intensification of agro-pastoral practices. Tombs at Zhukaigou reveal precursors to domestication, with the introduction of equids around 1200 BC at the culture's terminus, evidenced by faunal remains and northern-style artifacts that suggest emerging equestrian influences from interactions. These burial practices, including prone interments and animal inclusions, highlight social complexity and environmental adaptations that bridged farming with later mobility. Overall, late environmental variability, including cooling and drying trends, prompted migratory responses that prefigured the more stable occupations tied to hydrological features.

Ancient and Imperial Eras

The Ordos Plateau entered a phase of significant cultural and political development during the with the emergence of the , spanning approximately 500 BC to AD 100. This culture is renowned for its bronze artifacts, including weapons, horse fittings, and ornaments featuring intricate Scythian-style animal motifs such as deer, horses, and mythical creatures, which reflect influences from steppe nomadic traditions. These artifacts, often unearthed in burial sites across the plateau, indicate a semi-nomadic society skilled in and , with strong affiliations to the broader cultural sphere through shared stylistic elements and material exchanges. The Empire, flourishing from the to the AD, exerted control over the northern Ordos Plateau as a strategic base for nomads, leveraging its grasslands for and resources. This dominance positioned the region at the forefront of recurrent clashes with the expanding , including raids and territorial disputes that disrupted trade routes and agricultural settlements along the plateau's southern edges. The 's hierarchical confederation, centered on mobile camps, used the Ordos as a buffer against Han incursions, fostering a dynamic of warfare and uneasy that shaped Eurasian frontier interactions. In response to Xiongnu threats, the initiated colonization efforts in 127 BC under Emperor Wu, dispatching General to reclaim the Hetao Plains within the Ordos region, which were irrigated by the and vital for agriculture. This campaign led to the establishment of military farms, known as tuntian, where soldiers and settlers cultivated crops to sustain garrisons and reduce reliance on central supplies, thereby securing the frontier against nomadic incursions. Concurrently, the Han extended segments of the Great Wall northward into the Ordos Plateau, fortifying passes and watchtowers to demarcate imperial boundaries and facilitate control over the reclaimed territories. Subsequent dynasties maintained a presence in the Ordos through sporadic outposts and pastoral utilization. During the (7th–9th centuries AD), the plateau served as a resettlement area for Turkic families and hosted military garrisons in the Hetao region to monitor nomadic movements and protect corridors, though control was intermittent amid regional instabilities. The Mongol-led (13th century) integrated the Ordos more deeply into its pastoral heartland, employing the plateau's expansive grasslands for large-scale herding of horses and sheep essential to the empire's mobile warfare and economy, building on earlier nomadic foundations. The name "Ordos" derives from the Mongolian term "orda," signifying a palace, court, or royal encampment, a nomenclature linked to the relocation of 's portable mausoleums—symbolized by eight white yurts—to the region after the Yuan dynasty's fall, underscoring its enduring association with Mongol imperial legacy.

Modern Historical Developments

During the Republican era (1912–1949), the Ordos Plateau experienced significant turmoil amid broader conflicts in . The northern parts of the region fell under Japanese influence following the occupation of nearby in 1937, as part of the expanding puppet state of established by Imperial Japan during the Second Sino-Japanese War. Japanese forces attempted to coerce local Mongol princes and relocate sacred relics, such as the eight white yurts of , to assert control over the area. In contrast, the southern portions of Ordos saw active , primarily led by Chinese Communist forces operating from bases in adjacent and provinces, who conducted sabotage and hit-and-run operations against both Japanese and Nationalist troops. These activities contributed to the weakening of Japanese hold in western by 1945. Following the end of , the Ordos Plateau was integrated into the newly formed in 1949. The establishment of the Inner Mongolia Autonomous Region in 1947 by the laid the groundwork for this incorporation, initially covering eastern areas before expanding westward to include former Province territories like Ordos in 1954. Ordos emerged as a key administrative prefecture within the autonomous region, serving as a strategic hub for and ethnic policy implementation. This integration marked a shift from fragmented and control to centralized socialist governance, with land reforms redistributing pastures from Mongol nobility to collective farms. The Cultural Revolution (1966–1976) profoundly impacted the Ordos Plateau, exacerbating ethnic tensions through widespread suppression of Mongol traditions. In , including Ordos, the campaign targeted perceived "nationalist" elements, leading to of over 790,000 people accused of belonging to an alleged "Inner Mongolian People's Revolutionary Party" restoration plot; , executions, and forced labor affected hundreds of thousands, eroding cultural practices such as traditional herding rituals and education. Local Mongol intellectuals and officials in Ordos faced denunciation and imprisonment, fostering a climate of fear that disrupted community structures and accelerated migration into the region. In the 2000s, eco-migration projects addressed on the Ordos Plateau by relocating over 100,000 residents from vulnerable desert fringes to more sustainable settlements. Initiated around as part of national environmental policies, these efforts in Ordos involved resettling impoverished herders into planned villages with improved and job opportunities, raising average daily incomes from approximately 0.2 USD to 3.51 USD by while reducing pressure on degraded lands. The initiatives, supported by subsidies, transformed barren areas into restored grasslands, though challenges like cultural dislocation persisted among relocated Mongol communities. Ordos City underwent rapid from the to the , fueled by a boom that positioned it as one of China's wealthiest locales. Economic reforms in the late unlocked vast reserves—estimated at one-sixth of the nation's total—driving from under 20,000 in the old city to over 2 million by 2010, with massive investments creating new . This expansion led to the construction of the Kangbashi New District in the early , intended for 1 million residents but initially standing largely empty, earning it the label of a "ghost city" by the mid- due to overbuilding amid fluctuating coal prices. Adjustments followed, including shifts toward diversified industries and incentives for , gradually increasing occupancy to around 100,000 by the late and reaching approximately 130,000 by 2024. In the , Ordos has served as a node in China's , particularly within the China-Mongolia-Russia , facilitating cross-border trade in energy and logistics through upgraded rail and road links. Concurrently, has evolved into an eco-city model, emphasizing green architecture, integration, and to combat , with projects like solar-powered infrastructure and urban parks enhancing environmental sustainability; by 2025, its population neared 150,000 amid continued expansion. These developments underscore Ordos's transition from resource-dependent growth to balanced, ecologically focused .

Economy and Society

Natural Resources and Industry

The Ordos Plateau, situated within the Ordos Basin, holds substantial natural resources that position it as a key hub in . Proven reserves in the region stand at approximately 201.7 billion tonnes, accounting for about one-sixth of the nation's total reserves. The basin also contains vast resources, including major fields like Sulige, which support significant extraction operations. Additionally, the northern Ordos Basin exhibits potential for -hosted deposits, contributing to 's broader mineral resource base. These endowments have earned the plateau the designation of "'s base," driving through resource extraction. Mining activities on the Ordos Plateau experienced a rapid boom beginning in the late , fueled by economic reforms and surging national demand for to power industrialization. production escalated dramatically, reaching 433 million tonnes in and peaking at over 1 billion tonnes annually by the mid-2010s, primarily from surface and underground operations that supplied a substantial portion of China's needs. and extraction in the Ordos Basin complemented this, with proven fields yielding millions of tonnes of crude and billions of cubic meters of gas yearly, enhancing the region's role in national fuel supplies. In parallel, developments have emerged in the northern steppes, leveraging the plateau's vast open landscapes; installed capacity has grown beyond 3 gigawatts as of 2024, integrating into the resource mix, with recent projects like a 1.7 GW -solar-hydrogen initiative advancing green transitions. Industrial hubs in have capitalized on these resources, with major facilities focused on production and coal-derived chemicals. mills utilize local for , while chemical plants convert into , olefins, and other derivatives, forming clusters like the Dalad Zone that process hundreds of millions of tonnes of feedstock annually. However, these extractive industries have imposed significant environmental costs, particularly water depletion; operations consume vast volumes in this arid region, leading to annual declines in storage of up to 1,700 millimeters in affected areas and exacerbating scarcity for local ecosystems. Following national regulations introduced in 2015 to curb overcapacity and , output in Ordos faced reductions, with production cuts of approximately 20% in subsequent years as part of broader capacity eliminations totaling 500 million tonnes nationwide. While these measures aimed to promote , production has stabilized at high levels, with nearly 900 million tonnes annually in recent years; however, in 2025, authorities halted 15 mines in Ordos for exceeding approved capacities by over 10%, transitioning toward cleaner sources like wind, gas, and projects.

Agriculture and Sustainable Practices

The Ordos Plateau's agricultural landscape has long been dominated by traditional , with sheep and herding prevalent on its expansive grasslands, supporting local livelihoods through , , and production. In the southern irrigated valleys, cultivation of millet and has been practiced for , adapting to the semi-arid conditions and providing staple grains for communities. These systems reflect a historical agro-pastoral balance, where predominates in the arid north and farming is concentrated in more fertile southern areas near water sources. Modern agriculture relies heavily on from the , which sustains approximately 5% of the plateau's land as arable, enabling expanded grain and vegetable production amid terrain that has seen significant reversal, with severe and extremely severe areas reduced to about 12.67% by 2023. However, this has led to challenges such as soil salinization, exacerbated by rising levels and , prompting the adoption of salt-controlled techniques to mitigate loss in affected farmlands. Overall, these efforts contributed to food self-sufficiency rates exceeding 200% for key staples like and mutton from 2000 to 2020, with ongoing sustainable practices enhancing output. Sustainable innovations include desert polyculture systems, such as rice-crab farming introduced in the Mu Us Sandy Land during the 2010s, where crabs naturally control pests and weeds while their waste fertilizes paddies, restoring saline soils. In Zhungeer Banner, this model spans over 1,800 mu (about 120 hectares) and yields more than 500,000 kilograms of annually as of 2025, demonstrating viable production on previously barren . Complementary advancements feature solar-powered greenhouses and the "photovoltaic + desert control + " approach, integrating with forage cultivation to enhance efficiency in arid zones. Government initiatives bolster these practices through the Three-North Shelterbelt Program, which has promoted in Ordos since the 1970s, fostering by combining tree belts with grazing lands to combat and improve . Organic herding certifications, such as those held by local cooperatives like Ordos City Knight Kubuqi Herding Co., Ltd., encourage eco-friendly livestock management, emphasizing and reduced chemical inputs. Agriculturally, these developments generate substantial annual output, forming a key component of the rural and integrating with eco-tourism via attractions like rice-paddy landscapes and sustainable farm experiences in areas such as the rice and eco-tourism park.

Culture and Demographics

The Ordos Plateau is home to a population of over 2.2 million people as of 2025, with the majority residing in the administrative area of , which encompasses much of the plateau's Inner Mongolian portion. The demographic makeup is diverse, featuring a predominant population of around 88%, a significant Mongol minority comprising about 11%, and smaller groups such as the Manchu (0.21%), Hui (0.14%), and Tibetans (0.07%). This ethnic composition reflects historical Han migration into the region since the , alongside indigenous Mongol communities concentrated in northern pastoral zones. Mongolian culture remains a vital aspect of social life on the plateau, particularly in rural and pastoral areas where traditions like the festival—featuring wrestling, , and —are annually celebrated to honor nomadic heritage. Throat singing, known as khoomei, a UNESCO-recognized , produces multiple tones simultaneously and echoes the vast steppes, often performed during cultural gatherings in . Yurt-dwelling practices persist among some Mongol herders in the north, symbolizing mobility and communal living, though these are increasingly integrated with modern lifestyles. A stark urban-rural divide shapes daily life, with emerging as a modern hub boasting luxury developments in the , including grand public plazas, museums, and high-end residential complexes designed for over a million residents. Once dubbed a "ghost city" due to initial under-occupancy, the built-up area of Ejin Horo Banner and had a of 366,779 as of 2020, with estimated at around 130,000 in 2024 and projected to reach 200,000 by the end of 2025, driven by resource wealth and infrastructure investments. In contrast, rural nomadism is declining amid and environmental policies, leading to a shift from traditional to settled communities. Modern Mongol identity on the plateau draws strong ties to archaeological heritage, including burial sites recognized by as ancestral to contemporary , and the in Ejin Horo Banner, a sacred site for rituals and cultural commemoration despite not housing the leader's actual remains. These landmarks foster a sense of historical continuity for Mongol communities. Social dynamics are evolving through eco-migration initiatives, which relocate rural residents—often from degraded pastoral lands—to urban settlements, fostering blended communities of migrants and indigenous groups. This process, aimed at combating , has promoted integration while challenging traditional lifestyles. Education access has improved markedly, with literacy rates in reaching about 96% in the early 2020s, supported by bilingual programs in ethnic schools that enhance opportunities for youth across urban and rural divides.

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