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Sackcloth
Sackcloth
Sackcloth
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Hezekiah, clothed in śaq, spreads open the letter before the Lord. (2 Kings 19)

Sackcloth (Hebrew: שַׂק śaq) is a coarsely woven fabric, usually made of goat's hair. The term in English often connotes the biblical usage, where the Hastings' Dictionary of the Bible remarks that haircloth would be a more appropriate rendering of the Hebrew meaning.[1]

In some Christian traditions (notably Catholicism), the wearing of hairshirts continues as a self-imposed means of mortifying the flesh that is often practiced during the Christian penitential season of Lent, especially on Ash Wednesday, Good Friday, and other Fridays of the Lenten season.[2][3]

As fabric

[edit]

Hessian sackcloth or burlap is not the intended biblical meaning, according to a number of scholarly sources: but the identification represents a common misconception based on phonetic association. "Sackcloth, usually made of black goat hair, was used by the Israelites and their neighbors in times of mourning or social protest."[4] Burlap, another term used in English translation, is also generally understood as goat haircloth.[5] Stiff camel hair was also used.[6]

As garment

[edit]
Further information: cilice

Sackcloth came to mean a garment, too, made from such cloth, which was worn as a token of mourning by the Israelites. It was also a sign of submission (1 Kings 20:31–32), or of grief and self-humiliation (2 Kings 19:1),[7] and was occasionally worn by the Prophets.[8] It is often associated with ashes.[9]

The 1906 Jewish Encyclopedia says the Old Testament gives no exact description of the garment. According to Adolf Kamphausen, the sacḳ was like a corn-bag with an opening for the head, and another for each arm, an opening being made in the garment from top to bottom. Karl Grüneisen[10] thought it resembled a hairy mantle used by the Bedouins. Friedrich Schwally[11] concluded otherwise that it originally was simply the loin-cloth. Schwally based his opinion on the fact that the word "ḥagar" חָגַר (to gird)[12] is used in describing the putting on of the garment (see Joshua 1:8; Isaiah 3:24, 15:8, 22:12; Jeremiah 6:26, 49:3). One fastens it around the hips ("sim be-motnayim", Genesis 37:34; "he'elah 'al motnayim", Amos 8:10), while, in describing taking it offing of the sacḳ, the words "pitteaḥ me-'al motnayim" are used (Isaiah 20:2). According to 1 Kings 21:27 and 2 Kings 6:30, it was worn next to the skin.

In later times it came to be worn for religious purposes only, on extraordinary occasions, or at mourning ceremonies. Isaiah wore nothing else, and was commanded by God to don it (Isaiah 20:2). The Jewish Encyclopedia suggests that "old traditions about to die out easily assume a holy character".[13] Thus Schwally points to the circumstance that the Muslim pilgrim, as soon as he puts his foot on Ḥaram, the holy soil, takes off all the clothes he is wearing, and dons the iḥram.

See also

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References

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Revisions and contributorsEdit on WikipediaRead on Wikipedia

Sackcloth

View on Grokipedia
from Grokipedia
Sackcloth is a coarse, rough fabric typically woven from goat's or , or sometimes coarse plant fibers like or , historically used for making sacks or as well as for garments symbolizing , , or . The term originates from late 13th-century English, combining "sack" (referring to a coarse ) and "cloth," reflecting its practical beginnings as a utilitarian material before its adoption in ritual contexts. In ancient Near Eastern and biblical traditions, sackcloth was donned during times of distress to express or petition divine mercy, often accompanied by practices like or sitting in ashes, as evidenced in Mesopotamian texts and Hebrew scriptures. Notable biblical examples include the people of covering themselves in sackcloth upon Jonah's prophecy to avert destruction, and King David wearing it after his child's death, underscoring its role in communal and personal atonement rituals. This symbolism persisted into post-biblical Jewish and Christian practices, though its literal use declined with changing cultural norms, evolving into metaphorical expressions of sorrow in modern religious language.

Etymology and Definition

Linguistic Origins

The term "sackcloth" originates from the ancient Semitic root word saq (שַׂק in Hebrew), denoting a coarse fabric or sack used for practical and ritual purposes. This term first emerges in Semitic languages, with cognates appearing in Akkadian as saqqu, referring to a sack or coarse cloth, and in Ugaritic as saq, both evidenced in inscriptions from the Late Bronze Age. Earliest textual references to sack-like fabrics for ritual use date to Ugaritic tablets from approximately 1400–1200 BCE at the site of Ugarit in modern-day Syria, where saq denotes a rough material akin to mourning garb, predating its prominent Hebrew usage around 1000 BCE in biblical contexts. In the , the Hebrew saq was translated into Greek as sakkos (σάκκος) in the , the Greek version of the completed by the 2nd century BCE, preserving the connotation of a coarse, hair-based cloth for . This Greek form directly influenced Latin saccus, which entered via trade and cultural exchanges in the Mediterranean, emphasizing the fabric's utilitarian and symbolic roles. The adoption into facilitated its transmission to English, where "sackcloth" as a compound term appears by the late , derived through sac (attested around the ), blending the sense of a bag-like coarse weave with penitential attire. Linguistic variations across highlight phonetic and semantic evolutions, such as in khaysh (خَيْش), a term for coarse sacking material often associated with or , reflecting shifts from practical containment to debasement over . These adaptations underscore how the core concept of a rough, unrefined cloth persisted, adapting to cultural contexts while retaining ties to ancient Semitic prototypes.

Core Characteristics

Sackcloth is a coarsely , typically made from goat's , resulting in a rough texture that prioritizes over comfort. This undyed material, often dark due to the natural color of the hair, was designed for practical use in sacks before adaptation as clothing, emphasizing its utilitarian nature. In garment form, sackcloth appears as a loose or cloak-like covering that reaches the knees, frequently girded at the with a for security. Worn directly against the skin, it lacks any ornamentation, offering minimal insulation and prone to causing from its weave. These attributes highlight its intentional discomfort, aligning with a focused on rather than or ease. Sackcloth differs from similar coarse fabrics such as burlap, which features a relatively finer weave derived from plant fibers, and haircloth, based on for added rigidity in or stiffening. Its hallmark remains the extreme coarseness stemming from sack-making origins, setting it apart in texture and purpose.

Materials and Production

Traditional Fibers and Sources

Sackcloth was primarily crafted from coarse hair sourced from indigenous breeds in the , such as those herded by pastoral communities in the and , which provided a rough, wiry texture ideal for durable, unrefined fabric. These goats, including varieties like the Syrian or Angora types, were sheared annually, yielding long, dark fibers that were abundant and required minimal processing before spinning. Regional variations in fiber selection reflected environmental adaptations; in arid zones like the , coarser from nomadic herds supplemented hair, providing comparable roughness and resistance. The economic accessibility of these materials stemmed from their local abundance— and from widespread economies—ensuring low production costs and broad availability across social classes in the .

Historical Manufacturing Techniques

The production of sackcloth in ancient times relied on basic techniques using simple looms, primarily vertical warp-weighted models prevalent in the Bronze and Iron Ages of the . These looms consisted of a supported by upright poles, from which warp threads hung freely under tension maintained by clay or stone weights at the bottom, allowing weavers to interlace weft threads manually from the top downward. Undyed yarns were employed to preserve the fabric's coarse, austere appearance, distinguishing sackcloth from finer textiles. The manufacturing process began with hand-spinning fibers, such as goat hair, into thick, uneven threads using drop spindles, followed by a on the where weft threads were passed through the warp without refinement to retain roughness. After weaving, minimal finishing—often just cutting and minimal —was applied to avoid softening the texture, ensuring the fabric's intended discomfort. Archaeological evidence from sites like Tel Moza and Kadesh Barnea confirms these steps through weights and spindle whorls dating to the . Early tools included bone or wooden spindles for spinning, as evidenced by finds in the , where wooden implements were common but perishable, supplemented by surviving whorls. By the medieval period, techniques evolved to include foot-treadle horizontal looms for efficiency, though sackcloth production retained simplicity with plain weaves and basic shuttles to prioritize austerity over complexity. Regional variations reflected mobility and scale: nomadic groups in the used portable ground or backstrap looms for hand-insertion of wefts, producing smaller quantities of coarse cloth, while urban centers like ancient Tyre supported larger-scale on fixed warp-weighted setups, integrating influences from Egyptian and Syrian methods for consistent output.

Historical Contexts

Ancient Near East and Mediterranean

In ancient , the practice of donning special mourning garments during rituals is attested in literary texts that preserve traditions from Sumerian times. tablets from the third millennium BCE describe ritual lamentations for deceased kings and gods, where participants adopted simple or coarse attire to symbolize grief and humility, as seen in the ongoing cultic mourning for the god , which involved public displays of sorrow potentially dating back to around 2500 BCE. This custom is vividly illustrated in the later Akkadian Myth of (c. 14th century BCE, reflecting earlier Sumerian elements), where the sage appears before the god "clad in a mourning garment" upon learning of the disappearance of the gods and Gishzida, underscoring the garment's role in expressing cosmic distress and ritual supplication. In Egyptian contexts during the Protodynastic and Early Dynastic periods (c. 3500–2686 BCE), funerary rites emphasized linen-based garments for mourners and the deceased, differing from the coarser, hair-derived fabrics common in neighboring Mesopotamian and Levantine traditions. reliefs and texts depict professional mourners in processions wearing lightweight tunics or sheaths, often disheveled to convey sorrow, while the body was wrapped in fine bandages symbolizing purity and rebirth. This focus is evidenced by archaeological discoveries like the , a plain-woven garment from c. 3482–3102 BCE found in a funerary context at , highlighting the material's significance in death ceremonies without the abrasive quality of external sack-like cloths. Greek adoption of similar mourning customs appears in Homeric epics, where prompts the wearing of dark or unkempt to signal personal and communal loss, a practice echoed in scenes of lamentation among warriors and women. Roman culture integrated these Near Eastern-influenced elements into public and private rituals, with historians documenting collective lamentations where participants donned somber, coarse fabrics during state funerals or calamities; for instance, accounts of imperial describe crowds in dark, simple garb to express in , adapting the tradition for civic displays. Archaeological evidence supports these textual descriptions through textile remnants recovered from key sites. At (c. 3000–2000 BCE), fragments of coarse and weaves were found in domestic and contexts. Similarly, excavations at (c. 1400–1200 BCE) yielded remnants of goat-hair and flax-based fabrics with irregular patterns. These finds underscore sackcloth's precursors as accessible, low-status materials integral to pre-monotheistic expressions of vulnerability across the region.

Biblical and Early Religious References

Sackcloth appears over 40 times in the , primarily as a coarse garment worn during periods of mourning, repentance, or distress. These references span various books, illustrating its role in personal and communal responses to crisis or . For instance, in the narrative of , dated to an 8th-century BCE context, the people of don sackcloth upon hearing the prophet's warning, from the king to the lowliest citizens, as an act of collective repentance that averts destruction (Jonah 3:5-6). Similarly, during the Aramean siege of , the king of wears sackcloth beneath his robes, symbolizing profound grief amid famine and suffering (2 Kings 6:30). Often, sackcloth is depicted alongside and ashes to intensify expressions of and . In the , tears his clothes, dons sackcloth with ashes, and leads the Jewish community in to do the same upon learning of Haman's plot, marking a widespread response that includes wailing and (Esther 4:1-3). This combination underscores sackcloth's function not merely as attire but as a visible emblem of inner before . In the , direct references to sackcloth are limited, but allusions evoke its Old Testament significance. implies its use in a hypothetical scenario, stating that the cities of Tyre and would have repented in sackcloth and ashes had they witnessed his miracles, contrasting their potential with Chorazin and Bethsaida's unbelief (Matthew 11:21). Early Christian adoption appears in apocryphal texts, such as the Protoevangelium of James (c. CE), where wears sackcloth in mourning, and in patristic writings like Tertullian's De Paenitentia (c. 203 CE), which prescribes sackcloth and ashes for penitents as a visible sign of sorrow and reform, drawing on biblical precedents. Early Jewish texts around 200 CE, such as the Mishnah, describe sackcloth in the context of repentance and fast observances, emphasizing that divine favor stems from changed deeds rather than mere external signs like those of the Ninevites. In Tractate Ta'anit 2:1, rabbis interpret Jonah's account to highlight that God regarded the Ninevites' turning from evil over their sackcloth and fasting, a passage read during Yom Kippur services to reinforce themes of atonement. This reflects sackcloth's enduring role in rabbinic discussions of communal humility on the Day of Atonement.

Symbolic and Ritual Uses

Mourning and Repentance Practices

In ancient Israelite , sackcloth was ritually donned directly against the bare or , its coarse texture—typically woven from —intentionally causing physical discomfort to embody and self-abasement during periods of or , such as in response to famines, defeats, or prophetic warnings. This practice underscored the wearer's inner turmoil, as illustrated when King Ahab laid in sackcloth upon his bare flesh following Elijah's rebuke (1 Kings 21:27). Communal participation was a key feature of these rituals, with entire groups, cities, or even leaders and inhabitants collectively adopting sackcloth to express shared grief and collective contrition, often in obedience to prophetic exhortations for national repentance. For instance, in the book of Joel, priests and the broader community are called to gird themselves in sackcloth amid a locust plague symbolizing divine judgment, gathering in assembly to lament and seek mercy (Joel 1:13–14). Similar communal adoption occurred in non-Israelite contexts like Nineveh, where from the king to the common people, all donned sackcloth in response to Jonah's prophecy, highlighting the rite's role in averting calamity through unified humility. The wearing of sackcloth was generally short-term, spanning days to weeks and tied to the immediate crisis, with removal signaling resolution or restored divine favor, as implied in narratives where the practice ceased upon mercy being granted. In the Second Temple period (c. 516 BCE–70 CE), these rituals persisted, evident in accounts like Ezra's tearing of garments and adoption of sackcloth-like mourning amid communal distress over intermarriage ( 9:3–5). Accompanying elements enhanced the ritual's intensity, integrating sackcloth with the application of ashes or dust to the head to signify desolation and the baring of feet for processions or , evoking vulnerability and petitionary . These combined acts, seen in Second Temple practices, amplified the physical and symbolic expressions of repentance, such as when leaders like tore their clothes, donned sackcloth, and went in the temple during Assyrian threats (2 Kings 19:1).

Penance in Religious Traditions

In , sackcloth is intrinsically linked to teshuvah, the process of that involves a profound return to God through self-examination and behavioral change. Talmudic interpretations, particularly in Tractate (completed around 500 CE), emphasize the role of physical denial—such as donning sackcloth alongside and applying ashes—as external symbols that facilitate spiritual renewal by humbling the body to align with inner contrition. These practices underscore that while outward acts like wearing coarse sackcloth demonstrate sincerity, true teshuvah requires a corresponding transformation of deeds, as exemplified in the Gemara's analysis of Nineveh's where God accepts their turnaround based on ethical reform rather than mere ritual. Christian adaptations of sackcloth for emerged in the early Church, where it served as a tangible expression of for post-baptismal sins. Church Father (c. 200 CE), in his treatise On Repentance, advocated for penitents to lie in sackcloth and ashes, covering their bodies in mourning to lower their spirits in sorrow and reject former luxuries, thereby mirroring the biblical precedents of humility and debasement. This evolved in medieval into more intense forms of corporeal mortification, such as monastic hairshirts—garments of coarse hair or sackcloth worn against the skin to inflict discomfort and remind wearers of Christ's suffering, as practiced by ascetics and orders like the . Across these traditions, sackcloth and analogous practices embody the theological concept of corporeal mortification, where physical discomfort—through rough fabrics or ascetic attire—externally manifests and reinforces internal , aiding the soul's alignment with divine will. However, such visible penitential rites declined in following the , as reformers like Luther prioritized justification by alone over ritualistic , viewing them as potential distractions from genuine spiritual reliance on grace.

Cultural and Modern Interpretations

Depictions in Literature and Art

Sackcloth appears frequently in literary works as a symbol of , , and , often drawing from biblical precedents to evoke emotional or moral desolation. In Shakespeare's Pericles, Prince of Tyre (c. 1608), the protagonist Pericles dons sackcloth upon witnessing the supposed tomb of his daughter , marking a profound moment of that propels his seafaring and eventual redemption. This literal use underscores themes of paternal loss and endurance, contrasting with metaphorical references in other Shakespearean plays, such as Henry IV, Part 2 (1597), where Falstaff jests about "not in ashes and sackcloth, but in new silk and old sack," highlighting social over genuine . In 19th-century literature, sackcloth serves as a vehicle for social critique, amplifying apocalyptic imagery to portray societal decay. employs it in (1853) through biblical allusions, such as the sun turning "black as sackcloth," to depict the fog-shrouded, oppressive legal system and its dehumanizing effects on the poor, symbolizing collective remorse for institutional failures. This figurative application evolves the motif from personal to broader commentary on Victorian inequities. Dante Alighieri's (completed 1320) integrates sackcloth literally within its allegorical framework, particularly in , where envious souls on the second terrace are clad in "sackcloth vile," their eyes sewn shut as they recite examples of to atone for their . This depiction reinforces sackcloth's role in medieval penitential narratives, transitioning from ancient ritual garb to a structured of spiritual purification. Artistic representations of sackcloth emphasize its tactile austerity, often in religious contexts to convey and . In 12th-century Byzantine icons, is portrayed in a coarse camel-hair garment equivalent to sackcloth, as described in Matthew 3:4, symbolizing his prophetic wilderness life and call to repentance; such icons, like those from the , highlight the fabric's rough texture against his emaciated form to evoke humility. Medieval illuminated s further illustrate this, as seen in the Golden Legend (c. ), where hermits like Paul the Hermit wear sackcloth while receiving divine sustenance, underscoring themes of isolation and divine favor in works like Morgan Library MS M.672-5. Renaissance painters adapted sackcloth for intimate portrayals of penitence, notably in Caravaggio's Penitent Magdalene (c. 1597), where is shown with a sackcloth garment draped over her bare skin, her tear-streaked face and abandoned vanities conveying profound spiritual transformation amid dramatic lighting. This work exemplifies the motif's evolution toward psychological depth, influencing subsequent depictions of . The symbolic use of sackcloth has extended to modern visual media, particularly biblical epics that visualize ritual mourning scenes to dramatize historical and spiritual narratives. In films like The Ten Commandments (1956), directed by , sackcloth appears in crowd scenes of Hebrew lamentation and prophetic calls, reinforcing its ancient connotations of communal grief and amid grand-scale productions. Over time, the motif has shifted from concrete penitential attire in Dante and to abstract representations of existential barrenness in later and cinema, maintaining its core association with human vulnerability and redemption.

Contemporary Applications and Revivals

In the , sackcloth has seen limited but notable revivals in small-scale artisanal production, often tied to spiritual or charitable purposes. Companies like Sackcloth & Ashes, founded in , produce modern interpretations using upcycled materials such as recycled and to create blankets distributed to homeless shelters, drawing inspiration from the biblical symbol of and . Their mission has resulted in the donation of over one million blankets to homeless shelters as of 2025, emphasizing and social impact through ethical . Similarly, handmade sackcloth garments, crafted from burlap or coarse natural fibers like , are produced by independent artisans for religious or symbolic wear, available through platforms specializing in spiritual apparel. These efforts represent a focused on eco-conscious materials, echoing traditional coarse weaves while adapting to contemporary environmental concerns. Activist movements have occasionally adopted sackcloth as a dramatic emblem of and , reviving its ancient role in lamentation. In August 2025, the Filipino Catholic group Clergy for Good Governance donned sackcloth and ashes during a penitential service and march in to demand the of Sara , symbolizing a call for national moral renewal amid allegations of ; the group distributed 32 pieces of sackcloth to represent key political figures needing "conversion." Earlier instances include a 2021 demonstration at the U.S. presidential where a wore sackcloth to proclaim , highlighting societal sins like inequality. Such uses underscore sackcloth's potential in modern to evoke collective grief and ethical urgency, though they remain rare compared to other symbols. Religious communities maintain sackcloth in selective contemporary rituals, preserving its penitential essence amid evolving practices. The Sackcloth Project, initiated in 2022 by Christian activists, encourages participants to wear simple burlap garments during times of communal mourning, such as responses to mass shootings like the 2022 Uvalde tragedy, fostering spiritual reflection and solidarity. In Orthodox Jewish contexts, while literal sackcloth is uncommon, symbolic elements appear in Tisha B'Av observances through discussions and artistic representations of mourning traditions, linking to broader themes of repentance without widespread physical adoption. Rare revivals occur in Christian ascetic orders, where sackcloth-inspired garments serve as tools for personal mortification, akin to historical penance but adapted for private devotion in groups like Opus Dei, which favor modern equivalents such as cilices. These applications highlight continuity in spiritual discipline, prioritizing inner transformation over public display. Cultural revivals of sackcloth appear in theater, festivals, and , where it serves as a prop for exploring biblical narratives and human frailty. In the , productions at events like the featured actors in sackcloth costumes to depict apocalyptic or mourning scenes, as seen in student-led plays reenacting ancient rituals with dirt-smeared faces and coarse fabrics for immersive effect. Contemporary theater groups have incorporated authentic replicas in 2020s stagings of biblical stories, such as or , to evoke themes of repentance; for instance, Korean pansori adaptations of Trojan Women at the International of Arts used sackcloth-like attire to allegorize modern wartime grief. In fashion, eco-couture lines have experimented with sackcloth-inspired designs from sustainable and since the , blending historical symbolism with minimalist aesthetics in runway collections that promote environmental awareness. These artistic uses reposition sackcloth as a versatile medium for cultural commentary, bridging ancient symbolism with 21st-century expression.

References

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  13. https://www.academia.edu/115153362/Textile_Production_in_the_Iron_Age_Ancient_Near_East
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  15. https://sciencepress.mnhn.fr/sites/default/files/articles/pdf/az1993n17a5.pdf
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  17. https://trc-leiden.nl/trc-digital-exhibition/index.php/ancient-greek-loom-weights/item/132-4-what-is-a-warp-weighted-loom
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