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Short-tail stingray
Scientific classification Edit this classification
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Chordata
Class: Chondrichthyes
Subclass: Elasmobranchii
Order: Myliobatiformes
Family: Dasyatidae
Subfamily: Dasyatinae
Genus: Bathytoshia
Species:
B. brevicaudata
Binomial name
Bathytoshia brevicaudata
(F. W. Hutton, 1875)
Range of the short-tail stingray[2]
Synonyms
  • Trygon brevicaudata F. W. Hutton, 1875
  • Trygon schreineri Gilchrist, 1913
  • Dasyatis matsubarai Miyosi, 1939

The short-tail stingray or smooth stingray (Bathytoshia brevicaudata) is a common species of stingray in the family Dasyatidae. It occurs off southern Africa, typically offshore at a depth of 180–480 m (590–1,570 ft), and off southern Australia and New Zealand, from the intertidal zone to a depth of 156 m (512 ft). It is mostly bottom-dwelling in nature and can be found across a range of habitats from estuaries to reefs, but also frequently will swim into open water. One of the largest stingrays in the world, this heavy-bodied species can grow upwards of 2.1 m (6.9 ft) across and 350 kg (770 lb) in weight. Its plain-colored, diamond-shaped pectoral fin disc is characterized by a lack of dermal denticles even in adults, and white pores beside the head on either side. The body can have colors as well as dark grey or black with rows of white spots along each wing. Its tail is usually shorter than the disc and thick at the base. It is armed with large tubercles and a midline row of large thorns in front of the stinging spine which has the dorsal and ventral fin folds behind.[3]

The diet of the short-tail stingray consists of invertebrates and bony fishes, including burrowing and midwater species. It tends to remain within a relatively limited area throughout the year, preferring deeper waters during the winter, and is not known to perform long migrations. Large aggregations of rays form seasonally at certain locations, such as in the summer at the Poor Knight Islands off New Zealand. Both birthing and mating have been documented within the aggregations at Poor Knights. This species is aplacental viviparous, with the developing embryos sustained by histotroph ("uterine milk") produced by the mother. The litter size is typically 6 –10, but litter sizes of up to fifteen are not unheard of.

The short-tail stingray is not aggressive, but is capable of inflicting a lethal wound with its long, venomous sting. It is often caught incidentally by commercial and recreational fisheries throughout its range, usually surviving to be released. Because its population does not appear threatened by human activity, the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) lists it under least concern.

Taxonomy

[edit]

The original description of the short-tail stingray was made by Frederick Hutton, curator of the Otago Museum, from a female specimen 1.2 m (3.9 ft) across caught off Dunedin in New Zealand. He published his account in an 1875 issue of the scientific journal Annals and Magazine of Natural History, in which he named the new species Trygon brevicaudata, derived from the Latin brevis ("short") and cauda ("tail"). Although long assigned to Dasyatis, recent work by Last et al. (2016) resurrected Bathytoshia for it and the broad stingray, as well as the roughtail stingray.[4][5] The short-tail stingray may also be referred to as giant black ray, giant stingray, New Zealand short-tail stingaree, Schreiners ray, short-tailed stingaree, shorttail black stingray, and smooth short-tailed stingray.[6] It is closely related to the similar-looking but smaller pitted stingray (Dasyatis matsubarai) of the northwestern Pacific.[7] A review based on Molecular phylogenetic data in 2016 added Dasyatis matsubarai and Dasyatis multispinosa as populations of this species.[8]

Description

[edit]
As its name suggests, tail length is an identifying trait of the short-tail stingray.

Heavily built and characteristically smooth, the pectoral fin disc of the short-tail stingray has a rather angular, rhomboid shape and is slightly wider than long. The leading margins of the disc are very gently convex, and converge on a blunt, broadly triangular snout. The eyes are small and immediately followed by much larger spiracles. The widely spaced nostrils are long and narrow; between them is a short, skirt-shaped curtain of skin with a fringed posterior margin. The modestly sized mouth has an evenly arched lower jaw, prominent grooves at the corners, and five to seven papillae (nipple-like structures) on the floor. Additional, tiny papillae are scattered on the nasal curtain and outside the lower jaw. Short Tailed Stingrays have between 45–55 densely arranged teeth, which are small, blunt, and conical. The teeth are arranged in a gridded, quincunx pattern, and have a flat, planar appearance. The pelvic fins are somewhat large and rounded at the tips.[2][9]

The tail is usually shorter than the disc and has one, sometimes two, serrated stinging spines on the upper surface, about halfway along its length. It is broad and flattened until the base of the sting; after, it tapers rapidly and a prominent ventral fin fold runs almost to the sting tip, as well as a low dorsal ridge. Dermal denticles are only found on the tail, with at least one thorn appearing on the tail base by a disc width of 45 cm (18 in). Adults have a midline row of large, backward-pointing, spear-like thorns or flattened tubercles in front of the sting, as well as much smaller, conical thorns behind the sting covering the tail to the tip. The dorsal coloration is grayish brown, darkening towards the tip of the tail and above the eyes, with a line of white pores flanking the head on either side. The underside is whitish, darkening towards the fin margins and beneath the tail.[2][9] Albino individuals have been reported.[10] The short-tail stingray is the largest stingray species, known to reach at least 2.1 m (6.9 ft) in width, 4.3 m (14 ft) in length, and 350 kg (770 lb) in weight. Reliable observers off New Zealand have reported sighting individuals almost 3 m (10 ft) across.[1] Mature females are about a third larger than mature males.[7]

Distribution and habitat

[edit]
Off Australia and New Zealand, the short-tail stingray was common in shallow coastal waters.

The short-tail stingray is common and widely distributed in the temperate waters of the Southern Hemisphere. Off southern Africa, it has been reported from Cape Town in South Africa to the mouth of the Zambezi River in Mozambique. Along the southern Australian coast, it is found from Shark Bay in Western Australia to Maroochydore in Queensland, including Tasmania. In New Zealand waters, it occurs off North Island and the Chatham Islands, and rarely off South Island and the Kermadec Islands. Records from northern Australia and Thailand likely represent misidentifications of pink whipray and pitted stingray, respectively.[2][5] Over the past few decades, its range and numbers off southeastern Tasmania have grown, possibly as a result of climate change.[11]

Off southern Africa, the short-tail stingray is rare in shallow water and is most often found over offshore banks at a depth of 180 to 480 m (590 to 1,570 ft). However, off Australia and New Zealand, it was found from the intertidal zone to no deeper than 156 m (512 ft).[1] Australian and New Zealand rays were most abundant in the shallows during the summer. A tracking study conducted on two New Zealand rays suggests that they shifted to deeper waters during the winter, but did not undertake long-distance migrations.[12] The short-tail stingray is mainly bottom-dwelling in nature, inhabiting a variety of environments including brackish estuaries, sheltered bays and inlets, sandy flats, rocky reefs, and the outer continental shelf.[1][7] However, it also makes regular forays upward into the middle of the water column.[12]

Biology and ecology

[edit]
The short-tail stingray mainly forages for food on or near the bottom.

The short-tail stingray is usually slow-moving, but can achieve sudden bursts of speed, flapping its pectoral fins with enough force to cavitate the water and create an audible "bang". Cavitation is when a liquid is pushed faster that it can react, causing a drop in pressure.[13] It is known to form large seasonal aggregations; a well-known example occurs every summer (January to April) at the Poor Knights Islands off New Zealand, particularly under the rocky archways. In some areas, it moves with the rising tide into very shallow water.[12][14] Individual rays tend to stay inside a relatively small home range with a radius of under 25 km (16 mi).[12] Captive experiments have shown it capable of detecting magnetic fields via its electroreceptive ampullae of Lorenzini, which in nature may be employed for navigation.[15]

The short-tail stingray forages for food both during the day and at night.[16] It feeds primarily on benthic bony fishes and invertebrates, such as molluscs and crustaceans. The lateral line system on its underside allows it to detect the minute water jets produced by buried bivalves and spoon worms, which are then extracted by suction; the excess water is expelled through the spiracles.[17] Fishes and invertebrates from open water, including salps and hyperiid amphipods, are also eaten in significant quantities.[12] Off South Africa, this ray has been observed patrolling the egg beds of the chokka squid (Loligo vulgaris reynaudii) during mass spawnings, capturing squid that descend to the bottom to spawn.[18] The short-tail stingray has few predators due to its size; these included the copper shark, the smooth hammerhead, the great white shark, and the killer whale.[5][12] When threatened, it raises its tail warningly over its back like a scorpion.[2] Smaller fishes have been observed using swimming rays for cover while hunting their own prey.[13] Known parasites of this species include the nematode Echinocephalus overstreeti,[19] and the monogeneans Heterocotyle tokoloshei and Dendromonocotyle sp.[20][21]

Life history

[edit]
Short-tail stingrays gather every summer off the Poor Knights Islands, New Zealand.

The summer aggregations of the short-tail stingray at the Poor Knights Islands seem to at least partly serve a reproductive purpose, as both mating and birthing have been observed among the gathered rays. Courtship and mating takes place in midwater, and the rising current flowing continuously through the narrow archways is thought to aid the rays in maintaining their position.[7][13] Each receptive female may be followed by several males, which attempt to bite and grip her disc. One or two males may be dragged by the female for hours before she accedes; the successful male flips upside down beneath her, inserting one of his claspers into her vent and rhythmically waving his tail from side to side. Copulation lasted 3–5 minutes.[12][14] Females in captivity have been observed mating with up to three different males in succession.[22]

Like other stingrays, the short-tail stingray was aplacental viviparous; once the developing embryos exhaust their yolk supply, they are provisioned with histotroph ("uterine milk", enriched with proteins, lipids, and mucus) produced by the mother and delivered through specialized extensions of the uterine epithelium called "trophonemata".[5] Females bear litters of six to 10 pups in the summer; males appear to assist in the process by nudging the female's abdomen with their snouts. Females are ready to mate again shortly after giving birth.[2][7][14] Newborns measure 32–36 cm (13–14 in) across.[1][2]

Human interactions

[edit]
A short-tail stingray at the Sydney Aquarium

Curious and unaggressive, the short-tail stingray may approach humans and can be trained to be hand-fed.[23] At Hamelin Bay in Western Australia, many short-tail stingrays, thorntail stingrays, and New Zealand eagle rays regularly gather to be hand-fed fish scraps; the number of visitors has steadily increased in recent years, and interest exists in developing the site as a permanent tourist attraction.[24] However, if startled or harassed, this species is capable of inflicting a serious, even fatal wound with its sting. The sting can measure over 30 cm (12 in) long and can penetrate most types of footwear, including kevlar bootees, and its mucous sheath contains a toxin that causes necrosis. The most dangerous injuries involve damage to a vital organ, massive blood loss, and/or secondary sepsis or tetanus. A startled ray is also able to leap through water, and inflict injuries with its tail. This species is responsible for the majority of stingray injuries off New Zealand;[25][26] the most infamous incident of which was the death of Australian naturalist Steve Irwin when a stingray pierced his chest with its barbed tail.[27]

Throughout its range, the short-tail stingray is caught incidentally by various commercial fisheries using trawls, Danish and purse seines, longlines and set lines, and drag and set nets. Sport fishers occasionally keep captured rays for meat or angling competitions; a few are also kept for display in public aquariums,[1] and they reproduce in captivity.[14] As it survives fishing activities well and remained common throughout its range, the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) has assessed the short-tail stingray as least concern. Within most of this species' range off New Zealand, targeting it commercially is prohibited.[1] In June 2018 the New Zealand Department of Conservation classified the short-tail stingray as "Not Threatened" with the qualifier "Secure Overseas" under the New Zealand Threat Classification System.[28]

References

[edit]
[edit]
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Short-tail stingray

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from Grokipedia
The short-tail stingray (Bathytoshia brevicaudata), also known as the smooth stingray, is a large benthic species of stingray belonging to the family Dasyatidae, distinguished by its nearly circular to rhomboidal pectoral disc that is wider than long, a short and thick tail armed with a single serrated venomous spine, and a smooth dorsal surface lacking tubercles except in males during breeding season. Adults can reach a maximum disc width of 2.1 meters (7 feet) and a total length of 4.3 meters, with weights up to 350 kilograms (770 pounds), making it one of the larger dasyatid rays. The species exhibits a plain grayish-brown coloration dorsally with darker patches above the eyes and a pale ventral side, adapted for camouflage on sandy or muddy substrates. Native to the temperate waters of the Indo-West Pacific, the short-tail stingray has an antitropical distribution ranging from (including and ) eastward to , , and northward to and Peter the Great Bay in eastern . It primarily inhabits coastal environments such as estuaries, bays, harbors, and inlets over soft-bottom substrates like sand or mud, often adjacent to rocky reefs, from the down to depths of at least 480 meters, though it is most common in shallow inshore areas less than 150 meters deep. Ecologically, this ray is a demersal predator that forages by shuffling along the seafloor to uncover benthic , with a diet dominated by crustaceans such as spider crabs and bivalves, supplemented occasionally by small . It is viviparous with histotrophy, where females give birth to 6–10 large pups. The species poses a notable to humans due to its defensive venomous spine, which can inflict painful wounds, though it is not aggressive and is sometimes encountered in fisheries or aquarium settings; it is assessed as Least Concern by the (2020).

Taxonomy

Classification

The short-tail stingray is classified within the domain Eukarya under the kingdom Animalia, phylum Chordata, class , subclass , order , family Dasyatidae, genus Bathytoshia, and species Bathytoshia brevicaudata. In a major taxonomic revision published in 2016, the species was reclassified from the genus Dasyatis (as Dasyatis brevicaudata) to the newly established genus Bathytoshia, based on integrated molecular phylogenetic analyses (using mitochondrial and nuclear DNA sequences) and detailed morphological examinations that revealed Dasyatis to be polyphyletic, necessitating the recognition of monophyletic groups within the family Dasyatidae. This species has accumulated several synonyms over time due to historical misclassifications and nomenclatural changes, including Dasyatis brevicaudata (the primary pre-2016 name), Dasyatis matsubarai, Dasyatis schreineri, Trygon brevicaudata, Trygon schreineri, and Urolophoides matsubarai; these were deprecated as junior synonyms following the 2016 revision, which clarified that they all referred to the same but had been assigned to invalid or inappropriate genera based on incomplete earlier understandings of diversity.

Etymology and synonyms

The scientific name Bathytoshia brevicaudata consists of the genus name Bathytoshia, combining "bathys" meaning deep, referring to the oceanic of species in this genus, and honoring James R. Tosh (1872–1917), a Scottish who studied stingrays in . The specific epithet "brevicaudata" originates from the Latin "brevis" (short) and "cauda" (tail), alluding to the species' characteristically short tail relative to other stingrays. This species is commonly known as the short-tail stingray or smooth stingray, with additional regional names including giant black ray, giant stingray, and short-tail stingaree; in , it is often called the short-tailed ray or smooth ray. Historical synonyms for Bathytoshia brevicaudata include:
  • Trygon brevicaudata Hutton, 1875
  • Trygon brevicaudatus Hutton, 1875
  • Dasyatis brevicaudata (Hutton, 1875)
  • Dasyatis brevicaudatus (Hutton, 1875)
  • Dasyatis matsubarai Miyosi, 1939
The was reclassified into the genus Bathytoshia in 2016 based on molecular and morphological analyses distinguishing it from .

Description

Body morphology

The short-tail stingray exhibits a characteristic flattened body form typical of the Dasyatidae family, dominated by a diamond-shaped pectoral disc that is nearly as wide as it is long. The anterior margins of this disc are rounded, transitioning to concave posterior margins, with a bluntly angular where the tip projects only slightly. The tail is notably short and thick-based, with a small upper caudal fold, tapering abruptly distal to the stinging spine, and possessing a prominent lower caudal fold that is broad and extends past the spine. The mouth is positioned ventrally on the underside, featuring a transverse groove across the belly, while the small eyes and larger spiracles are situated dorsally on the head. The is armed with typically one or two venomous spines that are serrated and barbed for defense. The dorsal surface remains largely smooth, lacking widespread dermal denticles, though larger adults often develop scattered tubercles or a midline row of thorns along the preceding the spine; the ventral surface is plain white.

Size and coloration

The short- stingray (Bathytoshia brevicaudata) is among the largest species of stingrays, capable of reaching a maximum disc width of 2.1 m (6.9 ft), a total length of 4.3 m (14 ft) including the , and a weight of up to 350 kg (770 lb). These dimensions reflect its heavy-bodied build, with the disc typically broader than long. Sexual dimorphism is evident, as females attain larger sizes than males, the latter distinguished by the presence of claspers used in reproduction. This size difference aligns with patterns observed in many batoid , where females often exceed males in maximum body size to support reproductive demands. Dorsally, the species exhibits a uniform coloration ranging from dark gray to brown or bluish-gray, often darkest above the eyes and at the tip, while the ventral surface fades to white. A subtle row of small pale blue spots occurs at the base of each pectoral fin, but adults otherwise lack spots or other markings. The , which is shorter than the disc width, shares the plain dorsal coloration without additional patterns.

Distribution and habitat

Geographic range

The short-tail stingray (Bathytoshia brevicaudata) inhabits temperate waters of the Indo-West Pacific, exhibiting an antitropical distribution pattern. Its range extends from southern and in the western , across the temperate and subtropical coasts of —from in the east to in the west—and includes . In the northern portion of its range, confirmed populations occur off and in the , as well as Peter the Great Bay in eastern . Throughout its distribution, the short-tail stingray shows a preference for coastal regions, with confirmed sightings primarily in nearshore environments.

Habitat preferences

The short-tail stingray (Bathytoshia brevicaudata) primarily inhabits coastal and inshore waters, favoring environments such as bays, estuaries, harbors, and surf zones. These areas typically feature sandy or muddy bottoms that support the species' demersal lifestyle. This stingray occupies depths from 0 to 480 m on the continental shelf and slope, typically less than 150 m in Australian waters, though it is deeper (180–480 m) off . It demonstrates tolerance for brackish conditions within estuarine habitats. It shows a strong preference for soft sediments, including sandy and muddy substrates, which allow it to bury itself for and rest; beds are also utilized, and it is often found near rocky reefs. The species prefers water temperatures between 15°C and 29°C, aligning with temperate to subtropical conditions across its range. In Australian populations, seasonal migrations occur, often leading to aggregations in warmer shallow waters during summer months.

Biology

Feeding habits

The short-tail stingray (Bathytoshia brevicaudata) is an opportunistic benthic predator that primarily feeds on invertebrates and small fish inhabiting soft-bottom substrates. Its diet is dominated by benthic invertebrates, including crustaceans such as crabs and shrimp, mollusks like bivalves and small cephalopods, and polychaete worms, supplemented by small bottom-dwelling bony fishes. To forage, the ray employs its broad pectoral fins to flap and stir the , combined with hydraulic jetting of water from its and gills to uncover buried prey, followed by to capture it. Hard-shelled items, such as crustaceans and mollusks, are crushed between specialized plate-like teeth that form grinding plates in the jaws. Stable isotope analyses of muscle tissue confirm the species' position as a mesopredator in coastal food webs, with a strong reliance on invertebrate prey in natural conditions.

Reproduction

The short-tail stingray (Bathytoshia brevicaudata) exhibits aplacental viviparity, in which embryos develop within the mother's and are nourished by histotroph, a nutrient-rich uterine often referred to as "uterine ," after depleting their sacs. This lipid-based histotrophy supports embryonic growth until live birth, with pups emerging fully formed at approximately 36 cm disc width. The gestation period is unknown. Litter sizes typically range from 6 to 10 pups, though up to 12 have been reported in closely related , reflecting the reproductive output of this large dasyatid. Mating occurs through , with males utilizing paired to transfer sperm into the female's . involves the male grasping the female's pectoral disc margins or biting her wings to position himself, followed by rhythmic tail movements to insert the clasper; copulation lasts 3–5 minutes and often leaves white scars or wounds on the female's body. In Australian and populations, breeding is seasonal, peaking in summer (December–April in the ), as evidenced by increased female aggregation and fresh mating wounds during this period. Males may nudge the female's to assist during parturition. Sexual maturity is reached at a disc width of 1.0–1.2 m for males and 1.2–1.5 m for females, based on gonadal development and population structure analyses in northeastern waters. Observations of multiple mating scars suggest possible , similar to patterns in other dasyatids where females mate with several males during the breeding season.

Ecology and behavior

Social behavior

The short-tail stingray (Bathytoshia brevicaudata) is generally solitary but occasionally forms loose aggregations in shallow bays or near food sources, such as areas provisioned with discards. These groupings are typically temporary and unstructured, allowing individuals to maintain independence while benefiting from localized resource availability. Studies using drone-based tracking have revealed fine-scale daily movement patterns, with individuals tracked up to over 800 m within coastal estuaries, influenced by tidal cycles that affect accessibility and opportunities. During periods of low activity, short-tail stingrays often bury themselves in the substrate to conserve energy or avoid disturbance, emerging more frequently during active phases. The species forages both during the day and at night, with diel patterns observed in vertical movements. A 2021 study on a provisioned population demonstrated a stable, moderately linear dominated by a single individual, analyzed using a heterarchic framework combining hierarchy and , indicating structured social interactions in resource-rich contexts.

Predation and population dynamics

The short-tail stingray faces predation primarily from large and orcas, which target adults due to their size and demersal habits. Juveniles, being smaller and less defended, are particularly vulnerable to smaller elasmobranchs such as other rays or . As a , the short-tail stingray influences benthic community structure in coastal and shelf ecosystems. It also occupies a mid-trophic level in webs, serving as prey for apex predators and contributing to energy transfer across marine habitats. of the short-tail stingray indicate stable abundances in core ranges such as and , where it is described as common and widely distributed on continental shelves. In Australian fisheries zones, catches have remained consistent, averaging around 89 tonnes annually in the Southern and Eastern Scalefish and Fishery from 2001 to 2006, with no evidence of overall declines. Recent assessments in the confirm this stability, though local depletions can result from in trawl and gillnet operations; measures like bycatch reduction devices have decreased incidental capture by over 94% in some fisheries, and post-release survival rates are high. The is classified as Least Concern globally by the IUCN, reflecting resilient population trends supported by protected areas and low fishing pressure in key habitats.

Conservation and human interactions

Conservation status

The short-tail stingray (Bathytoshia brevicaudata) is assessed as Least Concern on the IUCN Red List, with the evaluation conducted on 27 November 2020. This classification reflects its broad distribution across the Indo-West Pacific, from southern Africa to Australia and New Zealand, and its apparent resilience to fishing pressures, with no evidence of a global population decline. However, data on population trends remain limited in parts of the Indo-Pacific, where monitoring is insufficient to fully assess local vulnerabilities. Regionally, concerns are higher in certain Australian waters, where the species is classified as Vulnerable based on Reef Life Survey assessments due to localized declines from fishing and habitat pressures. In South Australia, for instance, recent protections include a maximum size limit of 100 cm disc width and a combined bag limit of one for rays, aimed at curbing recreational harvest. Key threats include habitat degradation from coastal development, which disrupts shallow inshore nurseries and feeding grounds, and in trawl and gillnet fisheries targeting other species. poses additional risks in temperate ranges, such as and , through ocean warming that alters prey distribution and habitat suitability for this ectothermic species. Management measures include regulated recreational bag and size limits in Australian states like Victoria (one ray per day, under 1.5 m width) and , as well as protections in where commercial and recreational take is prohibited in certain bioregions. In , the species is protected from and subject to recreational restrictions, contributing to its "Not Threatened" national status. It is not listed under .

Interactions with humans

The short-tail stingray (Bathytoshia brevicaudata) is caught as in commercial trawl, Danish seine, longline, and purse seine fisheries operating in and , with a portion retained for meat and fins. In the Australian Southern and Eastern Scalefish and , approximately 5% of captured individuals were retained between 2000 and 2006. It is also targeted recreationally, prized as a fish due to its large size and fighting ability when hooked. Envenomations from the short-tail stingray are rare and occur defensively when the animal is startled or threatened, typically via from its tail spines. The is protein-based, consisting primarily of enzymes and bioactive peptides that cause intense pain, tissue damage, and potential systemic effects like or cardiac irregularities, though fatalities are exceptional. A notable incident occurred in 2006 when conservationist was fatally injured by a short-tail stingray barb piercing his chest during filming near the , puncturing his heart and lungs. In Indigenous Australian cultures, the short-tail stingray holds cultural significance as a source, harvested seasonally when "fat" and linked to ancestral knowledge through calendar indicating optimal times. It is prepared by coastal communities, such as the Nykina people who refer to it as "Jinnup," emphasizing its role in sustenance and connection to sea . The species is popular in public aquaria worldwide, adapting well to captive display due to its tolerance of varied conditions and engaging swimming behavior. Tourism-related provisioning, such as discarded waste from recreational , alters its behavior by increasing residency and visitation rates at affected sites; for instance, acoustic studies in Harbour showed stingrays spending more time at provisioning locations compared to control sites, potentially heightening human encounters. Similar incidental provisioning occurs at coastal hotspots like Ningaloo Reef, where it draws rays closer to human activity.

References

  1. https://www.floridamuseum.ufl.edu/discover-fish/species-profiles/short-tail-stingray/
  2. https://fishesofaustralia.net.au/home/species/2020
  3. https://fishbase.se/summary/Bathytoshia-brevicaudata.html
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  5. https://www.iucnredlist.org/species/104039923/104039985
  6. https://www.biolib.cz/en/taxon/id139326/
  7. https://www.mapress.com/zt/article/view/zootaxa.4139.3.2
  8. https://www.sharksandrays.com/short-tail-stingray/
  9. https://etyfish.org/dasyatidae/
  10. https://shark-references.com/species/view/Bathytoshia-brevicaudata
  11. http://www.marinespecies.org/aphia.php?p=taxdetails&id=316573
  12. https://www.fishbase.se/summary/Dasyatis-brevicaudata.html
  13. https://fish.gov.au/docs/SharkReport/2023_FRDC_Bathytoshia_brevicaudata_Final.pdf
  14. https://research-management.mq.edu.au/ws/portalfiles/portal/138355139/137067092.pdf
  15. https://saveourseas.com/worldofsharks/species/short-tail-stingray
  16. https://animalia.bio/short-tail-stingray
  17. https://www.aquarium.co.za/animals/short-tail-stingray
  18. https://saveourseas.com/update/hungry-hungry-stingrays/
  19. https://scaquarium.org/ask-an-expert-stingray-teeth/
  20. https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/jfb.15370
  21. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/36880179/
  22. https://academic.oup.com/icesjms/article/69/8/1427/703364
  23. https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/marine-science/articles/10.3389/fmars.2021.641761/full
  24. https://www.mdpi.com/2072-4292/13/1/40
  25. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/222954738_Observations_of_mesoscale_movements_in_the_short-tailed_stingray_Dasyatis_brevicaudata_from_New_Zealand_using_a_novel_PSAT_tag_attachment_method
  26. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/236680803_Conservation_of_coastal_stingrays_Seasonal_abundance_and_population_structure_of_the_short-tailed_stingray_Dasyatis_brevicaudata_at_a_Marine_Protected_Area
  27. https://www.fishbase.se/summary/Bathytoshia-brevicaudata
  28. https://reeflifesurvey.com/species/bathytoshia-brevicaudata/
  29. https://pir.sa.gov.au/recreational_fishing/rules/species_limits/species_profile/smooth_stingrays
  30. https://www.nature.com/articles/s41467-022-35091-x
  31. https://vfa.vic.gov.au/recreational-fishing/recreational-fishing-guide/catch-limits-and-closed-seasons/types-of-fish/sharks-skates-and-rays/skates-rays-and-guitar-fish/ray-protection-fishing-rules
  32. https://rules.fish.wa.gov.au/Species/Index/169
  33. https://www.fishi-pedia.com/fishes/bathytoshia-brevicaudata
  34. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8781517/
  35. https://scienceline.org/2006/09/ask-grant-irwin/
  36. http://www.mesa.edu.au/seaweek2005/pdf_senior/is08.pdf
  37. https://www.sdwk.wa.gov.au/visitors/visitor-information/sculptures-on-the-marsh/stingray.aspx
  38. https://researchers.cdu.edu.au/en/publications/effects-of-food-provisioning-on-site-use-in-the-short-tail-stingr
  39. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/233815349_Bioturbation_by_stingrays_at_Ningaloo_Reef_Western_Australia
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