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Sitar
String instrument
Classification
Hornbostel–Sachs classification321.321
(Composite chordophone sounded with a plectrum)
Developed18th century
Related instruments
List
Sound sample

The sitar (English: /ˈsɪtɑːr/ or /sɪˈtɑːr/; IAST: sitāra) is a plucked stringed instrument, originating from the Indian subcontinent, used in Hindustani classical music. The instrument was invented in the 18th century, and arrived at its present form in 19th-century India. Khusrau Khan, an 18th-century figure of the Mughal Empire, has been identified by modern scholarship as the inventor of the sitar. According to most historians, he developed the sitar from the setar, an Iranian instrument of Abbasid or Safavid origin.[1][2][3][4]

Used widely throughout the Indian subcontinent, the sitar became popularly known in the wider world through the works of Ravi Shankar, beginning in the late 1950s and early 1960s.[5] The advent of psychedelic culture during the mid-to-late 1960s set a trend for the use of the sitar in Western popular music, with the instrument appearing on tracks by bands such as the Beatles, the Rolling Stones, Metallica and many others.[6]

Etymology

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The word sitar is derived from the Persian word sehtar, meaning 'three-stringed'.[7] According to Curt Sachs, Persians chose to name their lutes around the word tar, meaning string, combined with a word for the number of strings. Du + tar is the 2-stringed dutār, se + tar is the 3-stringed setār, čartar (4 strings), pančtār (5 strings).[8]

History

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19th-century sitar with 4 strings
19th-century sitar with 6 strings
19th-century sitar. This instrument does not have sympathetic strings.

It was theorized that the sitar was invented, or rather developed by Amir Khusrow (c. 1253–1325), a famous Sufi inventor, poet and pioneer of Khyal, Tarana and Qawwali, during the 13th century.[9][10][11][12] However, the tradition of Amir Khusrow is considered discredited by scholars.[13] Whatever instruments he might have played, no record exists from this period using the name "sitar".[11] An ambiguous statement made in a 19th century work by Captain N. Augustus Willard may have resulted in the incorrect association of the renowned poet Amir Khusrau with a later individual, potentially named Khusrau Khan, who lived during the 18th century.[14]

The earliest mention of Sitar dates back to 1739 AD. The "Muraqqa-i-Dehli", written by Dargah Quli Khan during the reign of Muhammad Shah Rangila, gives the earliest reference to the sitar.[15] Oral and textual evidence analysed by historians indicate that an eighteenth-century figure of the Mughal court, named Khusrau Khan originated the sitar from the small persian three-stringed setar.[16][17] In the late Mughal Empire, the instrument began to take on its modern shape. The neck got wider. The bowl, which had been made of glued lathes of wood was now made of gourd, with metal frets and a bone nut on the neck.[9] Masid Khan added two more strings to the sitar.[18] The modern seven string sitar was created by Allauddin Khan.[19] Sympathetic strings on sitar were first added by Imdad Khan.[20] The earliest compositional style specifically for the sitar emerged in the mid-eighteenth century, attributed to Firoz Khan, who was either the son or nephew of Khusrau Khan.[21]

Another, discredited hypothesis is that the sitar is derived from locally developed Indian instruments, such as the veena, prior to the arrival of Islam. Proponents of this hypothesis claim that Indian temple sculptures from the 9th and 10th centuries feature sitar-like instruments.[22] However, according to author Samidha Vedabala, a researcher and professor of music at Sikkim University, none of the instruments depicted in these sculptures precisely resemble the sitar, and neither the word "sitar" nor any local equivalent appears in any texts referring to these instruments. So its authenticity is in the absolute dark.[23] According to Allyn Miner, the evidence for this hypothesis is too weak for any conclusion and these hypotheses represent a prominent yet obsolete late 19th-century idea: that many of India's modern cultural innovations are actually products of pre-Muslim Sanskritic traditions.[24] According to Alastair Dick, the "modern view that ... invading Muslims simply changed into Persian the name of an existing Hindu instrument ... has no historical or musical foundation".[9] Other scholars have contested the veena origin hypotheses of the sitar by pointing out that proponents of these hypotheses select the number of strings as the primary criterion in coming to their conclusions. Additionally, they attempt to trace the sitar back to a known Indian musical instrument with a Sanskrit name, while acknowledging that there is no evidence for the existence of long-necked lutes in the Indian subcontinent prior to the era of Muslim expansion into the region.[25]

Physical description

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Anatomy of a sitar

A sitar can have 18, 19, 20, or 21 strings; 6 or 7 of these run over curved, raised frets and are played strings; the remainder are sympathetic strings (tarb, also known as taarif or tarafdaar), running underneath the frets and resonating in sympathy with the played strings. The frets, which are known as pardā or thaat,[26] are movable, allowing fine tuning. The played strings run to tuning pegs on or near the head of the instrument, while the sympathetic strings, which have a variety of different lengths, pass through small holes in the fretboard to engage with the smaller tuning pegs that run down the instrument's neck.

The instrument has two bridges: the large bridge (badaa goraa) for the playing and drone strings and the small bridge (chota goraa) for the sympathetic strings. Its timbre results from the way the strings interact with the wide, rounded bridge. As a string vibrates, its length changes slightly as one edge moves along the rounded bridge, promoting the creation of overtones and giving the sound its distinctive tone.[27] The maintenance of this specific tone by shaping the bridge is called jawari. Many musicians rely on instrument makers to adjust this.

Materials used in construction include teak wood or tun wood (Cedrela toona), which is a variation of mahogany, for the neck and faceplate (tabli), and calabash gourds for the resonating chambers. The instrument's bridges are made of deer horn, ebony, or very occasionally from camel bone. Synthetic material is now common as well.

Construction styles

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There are two popular modern styles of sitar: the fully decorated "instrumental style" (sometimes called the "Ravi Shankar style") and the "gayaki" style (sometimes called the "Vilayat Khan" style).

Close-up of the pen work on a "Ravi Shankar style" sitar

The instrumental style sitar is most often made of seasoned toon wood, but sometimes made of teak. It is often fitted with a second resonator, a small tumba (pumpkin or pumpkin-like wood replica) on the neck. This style is usually fully decorated, with floral or grape carvings and celluloid inlays with colored (often brown or red) and black floral or arabesque patterns. It typically has 13 sympathetic strings. It is said that the best Teak sitars are made from teak that has been seasoned for generations. The sources of very old seasoned wood are guarded trade secrets. Therefore, instrument builders look for old teak that was used in old colonial-style villas as whole trunk columns for their special sitar constructions.

Preferences of taraf string and peg positioning and their total number

There are various additional sub-styles and cross mixes of styles in sitars, according to customer preferences. Most importantly, there are some differences in preferences for the positioning of sympathetic (taraf) string pegs (see photo).

Among all sitar styles, there are student styles, beginner models, semi-pro styles, pro models, master models, and so on. Prices are often determined by the manufacturer's name and not by looks alone or materials used. Some sitars by certain manufacturers fetch very high collectible prices. Most notable are older Rikhi Ram (Delhi) and older Hiren Roy (Kolkata) sitars, depending upon which master built the instrument. Nikhil Banerjee had a small extra bridge fixed at the top of the sitar fingerboard for sustain.[28]

Tuning of sitar

[edit]

Tuning depends on the sitarist's school or style, tradition and each artist's personal preference. The main playing string is almost invariably tuned a perfect fourth above the tonic, the second string being tuned to the tonic. The tonic in the Indian solfège system is referred to as ṣaḍja, ṣaḍaj, or the shortened form sa, or khaṛaj, a dialectal variant of ṣaḍaj, not as vād, and the perfect fifth to which one or more of the drones strings are tuned is referred to as pañcam, not samvād.

The player should re-tune for each raga. Strings are tuned by tuning pegs, and the main playing strings can be fine-tuned by sliding a bead threaded on each string just below the bridge.

A black ebony wood Jawari

In one or more of the more common tunings (used by Ravi Shankar, among others, called "Kharaj Pancham" sitar) the playable strings are strung in this fashion:

  • Chikari strings: Sa (high), Sa (middle), and Pa.
  • Kharaj (bass) strings: Sa (low) and Pa (low).
  • Jod and baaj strings, Sa and Ma.

There is a lot of stylistic variance within these tunings, and like most Indian stringed instruments, there is no default tuning. Mostly, tunings vary by schools of teaching (gharana) and the piece that is meant to be played.

Playing

[edit]

The instrument is balanced between the player's left foot and right knee. The hands move freely without having to carry any of the instrument's weight.[citation needed] The player plucks the string using a metallic pick or plectrum called a mizraab. The thumb stays anchored on the top of the fretboard just above the main gourd. Generally, only the index and middle fingers are used for fingering although a few players occasionally use the third. A specialized technique called "meend" involves pulling the main melody string down over the bottom portion of the sitar's curved frets, with which the sitarist can achieve a seven-semitone range of notes. This was developed by Vilayat Khan into a technique that imitated the melisma of the vocal style, a technique known as gayaki ang.[29] Sometimes, a sitar could be played with a bow. Its sound is similar to sarangi, but raspier.

Adept players bring in charisma through the use of special techniques like Kan, Krintan, Murki, Zamzama, etc. They also use special Mizrab Bol-s, as in Misrabani.[30]

World music influence

[edit]
Ravi Shankar in 1988

In the late 1950s and early 1960s Ravi Shankar, along with his tabla player, Alla Rakha, began a further introduction of Indian classical music to western culture.

The sitar saw use in western music when, guided by David Crosby's championing of Shankar,[31] George Harrison played it on the Beatles' songs "Norwegian Wood (This Bird Has Flown)", "Love You To" and "Within You Without You", recorded between 1965 and 1967. The Beatles' association with the instrument helped popularise Indian classical music among Western youth,[32][33] particularly once Harrison began receiving tutelage from Shankar and the latter's protégé Shambhu Das in 1966.[34] That same year, Brian Jones of the Rolling Stones used a sitar on "Paint It Black",[35] while another English guitarist, Dave Mason, played it on Traffic's 1967 hits "Paper Sun" and "Hole in My Shoe".[36] These and other examples marked a trend of featuring the instrument in pop songs, which Shankar later described as "the great sitar explosion".[37][38] Speaking to KRLA Beat in July 1967, he said: "Many people, especially young people, have started listening to sitar since George Harrison, one of the Beatles, became my disciple ... It is now the 'in' thing."[39]

Star's electric sitar guitar

Led Zeppelin's Jimmy Page talked about his love of Indian music, saying: "I went to India after I came back from a tour with the Yardbirds in the late sixties just so I could hear the music firsthand. Let's put it this way: I had a sitar before George Harrison got his. I wouldn't say I played it as well as he did, though..."[40] Robbie Krieger's guitar part on the Doors' 1967 track "The End" was heavily influenced by Indian ragas and features melodic and rhythmic qualities that suggest a sitar or veena.[41] Many pop performances actually involve the electric sitar,[42] which is a solid-body, guitar-like instrument and quite different from the traditional acoustic Indian instrument.

The Kinks' 1965 single "See My Friends" featured a "low-tuned drone guitar" that was widely mistaken to be a sitar.[5] Crosby's band, the Byrds, had similarly incorporated elements of Indian music,[31] using "only Western instrumentation", on their songs "Eight Miles High" and "Why" in 1966.[43] Psychedelic music bands often used new recording techniques and effects and drew on non-Western sources such as the ragas and drones of Indian music. The Electric Prunes appeared in early ads for the Vox Wah wah pedal, which touted the effect's ability to make an electric guitar sound like a sitar.[44]

Donovan's personnel on his 1966 album Sunshine Superman included Shawn Phillips on sitar. Phillips also played sitar on one song on Donovan's next album Mellow Yellow, produced in 1967.

Starting in the late 1970s, Pakistan International Airlines in-flight music featured the sitar to evoke feelings of nostalgia for the homeland among the Pakistani diaspora.[45][46]

Steve Howe of the British progressive rock band Yes played a Danelectro sitar guitar on their album Close to the Edge as well as the song "To Be Over" from their 1974 album "Relayer". Deepak Khazanchi played sitar and tanpura on the song "It Can Happen", from Yes' 1983 album 90125.

Paul Young's 1985 cover of Hall & Oates's song "Everytime You Go Away" included an electric sitar played by John Turnbull.[47]

Sitar gharanas

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A gharana is a system of social organisation in the Indian subcontinent, linking musicians or dancers by lineage or apprenticeship. Notable gharana include:

See also

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References

[edit]
[edit]
Revisions and contributorsEdit on WikipediaRead on Wikipedia

Sitar

View on Grokipedia
from Grokipedia
The sitar is a long-necked, originating from the , prominently featured in traditions of northern , particularly , , and . It consists of a resonating body, a hollow wooden neck with curved metal frets, and typically 18 or 19 strings, including melody strings, drone strings, and that vibrate to enrich the sound with a characteristic buzzing resonance. Played by plucking the strings with a wire (mizrab) worn on the right hand's while pressing and sliding the left fingers along the frets to produce microtonal bends and slides (meend), the sitar produces a wide pitch range from about C2 to E5 and is tuned to a movable tonic (sa). The sitar's historical development traces back to the 18th century in Mughal-era , with the earliest documented reference appearing in 1739, evolving from earlier instruments like the Persian (a three-stringed ) and indigenous veenas through innovations by court musicians such as and his descendants. Initially a simpler three-stringed form, it expanded in the with the addition of sympathetic (tarab) strings for enhanced resonance and chikari drone strings for rhythmic pulse, reflecting influences from vocal styles and regional gharanas (musical lineages) like Imdadkhani and . Crafted primarily from or toon wood with a pumpkin-shaped resonator covered in a teardrop wooden soundboard, the instrument measures around 4 feet in length and is often decorated with inlaid or , though modern versions prioritize tunwood for tonal clarity. In performance, the sitar is typically played seated on the floor with the resting against the body and the neck angled upward, accompanying genres like (slow improvisation), jor (rhythmic development), and gat (fast composition), often alongside the percussion and drone. Its global prominence surged in the 20th century through virtuosos such as and , who introduced it to Western audiences via collaborations, festivals, and recordings, influencing , film scores, and even rock genres. Today, the sitar remains a symbol of Indian cultural heritage, taught through guru-shishya (master-disciple) traditions, while contemporary adaptations include electrified variants for fusion styles.

Origins and History

Etymology

The word sitar derives from the Persian sitar or sehtar, literally meaning "three-stringed," a term composed of si or seh ("three") and tar ("string"). This originally referred to an early form of the instrument with three main playing strings, reflecting its Persian linguistic roots introduced to the through cultural exchanges. Over time, as the sitar evolved in Indian usage during the Mughal era, the instrument incorporated additional —typically 11 to 13 in modern configurations—yet retained its original name, which no longer strictly denoted the string count. In Hindustani musical terminology, the term underwent a phonetic shift from sehtar to sitar around the , aligning with the instrument's refinement and widespread adoption in North . Regionally, sitar became the standard name in North India for this plucked lute, while in Iran, the closely related term setār (also from se + tār) designates a distinct three- or four-stringed long-necked instrument, highlighting shared Persian etymological heritage across Indian subcontinental and Middle Eastern string traditions.

Historical Development

The sitar is traditionally attributed to the 13th-century musician and poet Amir Khusrau, who reportedly modified the Persian setar (a three-stringed lute) or the Indian tri-tantri veena to create an early version suited to Indian musical idioms. However, scholarly analysis indicates no concrete evidence of the sitar prior to the 18th century, with modern consensus pointing to its invention during the late Mughal period, possibly by Fakir Khusro Khan, a court musician under Emperor Mohammad Shah (r. 1719–1748). Mughal courts from the 16th to 18th centuries fostered its initial refinement, as musicians adapted it for Hindustani classical performances, with Ustad Masit Khan (late 18th century) pioneering the gat style that elevated it from accompaniment to solo instrument. This evolution reflected Persian influences in its nomenclature and design, linking to broader Silk Road exchanges. During the , under British colonial rule, the sitar gained prominence in surviving Indian princely courts and among hereditary musicians, transitioning from basic prototypes to a more defined instrument despite broader cultural disruptions. A significant was the introduction of 13 sympathetic (tarab) strings in the early , which added resonant depth and became integral to its sound. By , the sitar had achieved standardization in structure and playing techniques, with Ustad (1848–1920) advancing its expressive potential through the Imdad Khani , emphasizing intricate jhala passages. These developments solidified its role in Hindustani traditions amid colonial challenges. Following India's independence in 1947, the sitar underwent a revival as part of renewed interest in classical arts, with emerging as its foremost ambassador in the mid-20th century. Trained under Ustad , Shankar refined the instrument's techniques and performed globally, elevating its status in concerts and recordings. The marked a pivotal Western exposure when Shankar taught sitar to of , inspiring the instrument's use in "Norwegian Wood (This Bird Has Flown)" on their 1965 album and sparking broader fusion experiments in .

Design and Construction

Physical Components

The sitar features a distinctive gourd-shaped resonator known as the tumba, which forms the main body and is typically crafted from a dried pumpkin shell or, in some cases, wood to replicate the gourd's acoustic properties. This hollow chamber amplifies the instrument's sound and rests on the floor during performance. Attached to the tumba is the long, hollow neck called the dand, usually made from teak or tun wood, which extends the instrument's length and supports the playing surface. The neck accommodates 20-25 movable frets, referred to as or parda, which are convex metal rods tied in place with string and positioned to facilitate microtonal scales in . The sitar's string configuration includes 6-7 main strings that run over the frets for and —comprising baj tar for primary playing, jor for bass, and chikari strings for drone—along with 11-13 sympathetic strings (tarab) that vibrate underneath to enrich the . Additionally, 1-2 side chikari strings provide rhythmic emphasis. A key feature is the jawari, a curved bridge typically made of bone, ivory, or synthetic materials like Delrin, which supports the main strings and imparts the instrument's characteristic buzzing timbre through its sloped surface. A separate smaller bridge handles the sympathetic strings. Tuning is achieved via wooden pegs (kharjal) for the main strings and smaller taraf pins for the sympathetic ones, allowing precise adjustments. Typical sitars measure 1.2-1.3 meters in length, with a weight of approximately 3-4 kg, making them portable yet substantial for sustained play. While core components remain consistent, materials may vary slightly across regional styles.

Construction Variations

The sitar exhibits notable variations in construction that cater to different playing preferences and acoustic requirements, primarily categorized into Gayaki and styles. The Gayaki style, designed to emulate vocal tones, features a single gourd (tumba) and a more compact build, often with a closed or rounded jawari (bridge) that produces a softer, more sustained suitable for expressive, melodic playing. In contrast, the instrumental style, optimized for faster tempos and intricate rhythms, incorporates two gourds for enhanced volume and , paired with an open or flatter jawari that emphasizes brighter harmonics and quicker decay. A medium jawari configuration, as used by players like , balances sustain and clarity for varied phrasing. Materials in sitar construction prioritize seasoned tun wood () for the neck (dandi) due to its stability and resonance, while the resonator gourds are dried for natural amplification. The soundboard (tabli) traditionally uses stretched goat skin or deer skin for its responsive , though post-2000s innovations have introduced synthetic membranes as durable alternatives, particularly appealing to touring musicians seeking weather-resistant instruments. Bridges (jawari) were historically crafted from deer or , but modern builds increasingly use synthetic substitutes like Elforyn for longevity and consistent tone. Prominent maker traditions underscore these variations, with Kolkata-based Kanai Lal & Brothers emphasizing hand-carved tun wood necks and deer-derived components in their Gayaki-oriented models, maintaining a legacy of meticulous jointing between the neck and resonator for optimal sound transfer. In , Rikhi Ram's workshop favors machine-assisted polishing on instrumental styles, incorporating synthetic fittings and lightweight designs since the late to accommodate global performers, while preserving hand-shaping of the jawari. These schools highlight a shift from fully artisanal to hybrid production, ensuring accessibility without compromising playability. Acoustically, jawari shape profoundly influences the sitar's timbre and sustain: a rounded Gayaki jawari yields a warm, vocal-like with longer decay, ideal for melodic elaboration, whereas flatter instrumental jawari generates sharper overtones and reduced sustain for rhythmic precision. Late 20th-century adaptations to lightweight frames, using thinner tun wood and synthetic elements, have improved portability for touring while preserving core , though they may slightly diminish the depth of traditional builds.

Musical Fundamentals

Tuning Systems

The standard tuning system for the sitar, known as Pancham and associated with the , configures the seven main strings as follows: the (bass string) tuned to the lower Sa, the pancham (bass string) to Pa, the (thick melody string) to Sa (one above kharaj), the baj (primary melody string) to Ma ( above Sa), and the three chikari strings to Pa, Sa, and a higher Sa, respectively. The tonic Sa is typically set around 240-260 Hz in modern practice, though often higher at C# (~277 Hz) for compatibility with other instruments. This setup allows for versatile playing across ragas while maintaining harmonic support through the chikari strings, which are rhythmically strummed. A related variant is the Gandhar Pancham tuning, used in the Imdadkhani gharana, which employs six main strings without the bass kharaj and pancham, instead featuring a gandhar string tuned to Pa (or sometimes Ga depending on the raga), providing a lighter configuration suited to different improvisational styles. The sympathetic strings, numbering 11 to 13 and tuned via taraf pegs, are adjusted to the specific notes of the raga being performed, creating resonance that enhances the overall timbre and supports microtonal nuances during glides (meend). For instance, in Raga Yaman (from the Kalyan thaat), the sympathetic strings are tuned to Sa (C#), Re (D#), Ga (E), tivra Ma (G), Pa (G#), Dha (A), and Ni (B), with duplicates for key notes like Sa and Pa to amplify their prominence. These taraf pegs enable precise microtonal adjustments to align with the 22 shrutis of the just intonation system, ensuring sympathetic vibrations align closely with the raga's scale for optimal resonance during meend. Tuning variations exist based on musical style, with open tuning—where all main strings are accessible without muting—common in performances for expansive sections, contrasting the closed tuning in Khayal, which mutes the lowest string () via a hook to focus on denser rhythmic patterns. The base pitch for Sa typically falls between 240 and 260 Hz, allowing compatibility with accompanying tanpuras, though slight deviations accommodate the instrument's . Players employ both traditional ear-based methods, referencing a for Sa and Pa, and modern electronic tuners (such as the Cleartune app) for accuracy, particularly in settings. Seasonal adjustments are necessary due to humidity's effect on tension, with higher moisture causing pitch drops that require retuning to maintain intonation.

Playing Techniques

The sitar is typically played in a seated position on the floor, with the instrument resting on the player's right thigh and supported by the left leg, allowing for stability during extended performances. The right hand, equipped with a mizrab—a metal attached to the index finger—handles plucking of the main playing strings, while the left hand manages on the and executes slides known as meend. This posture facilitates the instrument's resonant body to vibrate freely against the player's torso, enhancing the sound's depth. Fundamental playing techniques revolve around specific bol akars, or stroke syllables, which define the rhythmic and melodic articulation. The primary strokes include "Da" for downstrokes on the main and "Re" for upstrokes, often combined in patterns to create intricate bol sequences that form the basis of . Advanced rhythmic techniques encompass jhala, a rapid strumming pattern using the upper peg for a pulsating, drone-like effect, and gat, which introduces a fixed thematic composition around which musicians improvise variations. These strokes are executed with precise and finger control to maintain tonal clarity across the sitar's curved frets. Expressive elements elevate the sitar's emotive range through the integration of from the 11 to 13 tarab strings, which provide a continuous drone underscoring the without direct plucking. Techniques like gamak involve subtle oscillations on notes for vibrato-like nuance, while toras encompass hammer-ons and pull-offs to produce bends and microtonal inflections, allowing players to evoke the bends inherent in Indian classical ragas. The ' resonance is particularly vital in slower passages, amplifying harmonic overtones for a shimmering sustain. Learning the sitar follows a structured progression within the guru-shishya parampara, the traditional teacher-disciple system, where techniques are transmitted orally through demonstration and repetition. Beginners start with , an unaccompanied, slow exploration of the raga's melodic essence without strict rhythm, gradually advancing to jor for moderate rhythmic development and culminating in jhala for high-speed rhythmic elaboration. This sequential approach builds technical proficiency and improvisational intuition over years of dedicated practice under a guru's guidance.

Traditions and Global Impact

Gharanas and Styles

The sitar playing tradition in is organized around gharanas, or stylistic schools, each emphasizing distinct approaches to elaboration, technique, and expression. These gharanas evolved primarily in the 19th and 20th centuries, drawing from earlier fusions of , pakhawaj, and influences, leading to variations in bols (stroke patterns), tempos, and overall aesthetic. The major sitar gharanas include the Senia, Imdadkhani (also known as ), and , each preserving unique lineages while adapting to contemporary contexts. The Senia Gharana traces its roots to the descendants of , particularly through Masit Sen, and is characterized by a slower, meditative approach rooted in dhrupad-ang aesthetics. This style features extended alaps in a been-style (veena-like), with short meends (glides) without murkis (oscillations), emphasizing purity and depth over virtuosic displays. Bols such as da, ga, and ra are played using three mizrabs on instruments like the , and gats often begin on the seventh beat in , incorporating techniques like (unstruck notes) and thonk jhala for a resonant, introspective quality. Prominent exponents include Mushtaq Ali Khan, who composed over 400 gats exemplifying this tradition, and earlier figures like Rahim Sen and Amrit Sen. In contrast, the Imdadkhani Gharana, founded by Imdad Khan in the late , focuses on a lyrical, vocal-like imitation known as gayaki ang, which prioritizes fluid meends and sustained notes to evoke khayal singing. This school favors simple alaps with intricate right-hand bols like dirdir and dara dara, transitioning to medium-paced vilambit masitkhani gats and faster drut razakhani gats in , often culminating in elaborate jhalas using chikari strings. Vilayat Khan, a key innovator, refined this style by introducing gamak tans (oscillating runs) and modifying the sitar for enhanced vocal mimicry, as heard in his recordings of ragas like Yaman. Other notable artists include Shahid Parvez, who exemplifies the gharana's precision in bol patterns, and Shujaat Hussain Khan, continuing the lineage through compositions that blend tradition with subtle rhythmic explorations. The Gharana, established by Ustad Allauddin Khan in the early 20th century, emphasizes emotional depth and virtuosity, combining dhrupad-ang alaps with khayal-ang gats for a broad expressive range. It features low-pitched tuning of laraj and kharaj strings to access mandra and atimandra octaves, enabling soft, resonant tones, alongside tantrakari techniques like krintan (double plucks) and (rapid alternations) in vilambit gats with extensive vistar (elaborations). Pandit Ravi Shankar, a principal exponent, popularized this style globally through recordings like his in , highlighting the gharana's focus on emotion and integration of Carnatic elements. His daughter, , represents modern through performances that maintain these traits while incorporating subtle fusions. Stylistic differences among these gharanas manifest in tempo preferences—Senia's preference for prolonged vilambit explorations versus Imdadkhani's balanced pacing and Maihar's dynamic shifts—and bol usage, with Senia avoiding tihai (rhythmic cadences) for purity, Imdadkhani employing multiple strokes per note for lyricism, and Maihar integrating pakhawaj-derived patterns for intensity. These distinctions arose from 19th-century innovations, such as the shift from accompanying poorak baj to solo presentations with drut gats. Since the 1990s, contemporary developments have seen emerging fusion styles within these s, blending sitar with and genres; for instance, Anoushka Shankar's albums like Rise (2005) incorporate Maihar emotional depth with improvisational elements, while Imdadkhani exponents like Nishat Khan explore cross-genre collaborations in works such as The Gate of the Moon (2013). These evolutions maintain core identities while expanding the instrument's global palette. As of 2025, fusions continue, with Anoushka Shankar's Chapter II: Flora (2024) blending sitar with electronic and orchestral elements in the Maihar tradition.

Influence on World Music

The sitar's introduction to Western audiences gained momentum in the 1960s through Ravi Shankar's collaborations, particularly his influence on The Beatles. George Harrison, inspired by Shankar's recordings, incorporated the sitar into "Norwegian Wood (This Bird Has Flown)" on the 1965 album Rubber Soul, marking one of the first prominent uses of the instrument in Western pop music and sparking widespread interest in Indian classical elements. Shankar's friendship with Harrison further amplified this, as he provided guidance on Indian music, helping to bridge cultural gaps during the era's psychedelic movement. Additionally, Shankar contributed to film scores that highlighted the sitar's evocative tones, enhancing global exposure through cinematic contexts. A pivotal moment came with Shankar's performance at the 1967 , where he delivered a four-hour set of to an enthralled audience of over 100,000, including rock icons, solidifying the sitar's place in the scene. This event, documented in festival recordings, showcased ragas like Raga Todi and tabla solos, influencing subsequent fusions and establishing Shankar as a "godfather of ." The sitar's global fusions extended to rock, jazz, and new age genres. In rock, The Byrds drew on Shankar's style for the droning riff in "Eight Miles High" (1966), blending it with jazz improvisation to pioneer raga rock and psychedelia. In jazz, saxophonist John Handy collaborated with Indian masters, notably on the 1975 album Karuna Supreme with sarod player Ali Akbar Khan, incorporating modal structures akin to sitar ragas to create Indo-jazz hybrids. The 1970s new age scene saw fusions like the band Shakti, led by guitarist John McLaughlin and featuring Indian percussionists Zakir Hussain and T.H. Vinayakram alongside violinist L. Shankar, which emphasized rhythmic complexity and acoustic textures reminiscent of sitar traditions, influencing world music ensembles. In modern contexts, the sitar has integrated into Bollywood soundtracks, providing melodic depth in films like Parakh (1960) with songs such as "O Sajna Barkha," a tradition continuing into contemporary scores for emotional resonance. Post-2010s (EDM) has sampled sitar riffs for exotic atmospheres, as in KSHMR's "" (2016), which layers sitar motifs over bass drops to evoke global fusion. The instrument appears in film soundtracks, such as samples of Shankar's work in tracks from 2000s productions, enhancing narrative tension in . Cultural exchange has led to the establishment of sitar academies in the West, like the Ali Akbar College of Music in , founded in 1968, which offers professional training in North Indian classical sitar under the Maihar gharana lineage. However, 21st-century debates on cultural appropriation have critiqued Western adoptions, such as Harrison's sitar use, for potentially exoticizing Indian traditions without full contextual understanding, as discussed in analyses of Beatles-era influences. Similar concerns arose in 2016 regarding global artists like and incorporating Indian elements, prompting calls for respectful collaboration over superficial borrowing.

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