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Surbahar
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Surbahar
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Surbahar (Hindi pronunciation: [s̪urbəhɑːr]; transl. Springtime of Notes)[1] sometimes known as bass sitar, is a plucked string instrument used in the Hindustani classical music of the Indian subcontinent. It is closely related to the sitar, but has a lower pitch. Depending on the instrument's size, it is usually pitched two to five whole steps below the standard sitar.

Overview

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The surbahar is over 130 cm (51 inches). It uses a dried gourd as a resonator, and has a neck with very wide frets, which allow a glissando or "meend" of as much as an octave on the same fret through the method of pulling. The neck is made out of toona, or mahogany wood. It has 3-4 rhythm strings (chikari), four playing strings (the broadest 1 mm), and 10 to 11 sympathetic strings. There are two bridges; the playable strings pass over the greater bridge, which is connected to the tabli with small legs, which are glued in place. The sympathetic strings pass over the smaller bridge which is directly glued on the tabli (soundboard). The bridges have a slightly curved upper surface parallel to the string that the strings touch when vibrating, which results in a buzzing sound known as jawari. The body of the instrument is similar to that of a sitar, in that it is made of a large dried gourd with a carved wood face on one side and joined to the neck by a carved wooden yoke or "gulu". It differs in that most surbahars have a gourd that is larger and tilted 90º so that the bottom of the gourd is to the back of the instrument, creating a shallower and rounder body for an enhanced bass response.

The instrumentalist plays the strings using a plectrum of bent steel wire, the mizrab, which is fixed on the index finger of the player's right hand. Three plectrums are used on the first three fingers to play the dhrupad style of alap, jor, and jhala on surbahar. In the dhrupad style, instead of performing the sitarkhani and masitkhani gats, the instrumentalist plays the slow dhrupad composition in accompaniment with pakhawaj.

Some researchers believe that surbahar was invented around 1825. At the time, the veena, which is considered a holy instrument associated with the goddess Saraswati, was only taught to descendants of veena players. The development of the surbahar was due in part to the desire to play in a lower range similar to that of the veena.

Surbahar was invented by Omrao Khan Beenkar and Ghulam Mohammad was his disciple. Omrao Khan Beenkar was the grandfather of Wazir Khan of Rampur. The invention is also attributed to Ustad Sahebdad Khan. Recent research shows that Lucknow-based sitarist Ustad Ghulam Mohammed may also have been the inventor.[2] A similar kind of instrument , known as the Mahakachhapi Vina, is also known to exist during that period.[3]

Notable performers

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See also

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References

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Surbahar

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The surbahar is a large, in the lute family, used primarily in of the , functioning as a bass counterpart to the with a deeper, more resonant tone suited for slow, meditative improvisations. It features a wide neck, thicker strings tuned across four octaves, and typically 17 to 19 frets, producing a sonorous sound that allows for wide glides (meends) spanning octaves. The instrument's body is constructed from woods like or , with a flat or optionally rounded and a distinctive often shaped like a dragon, crocodile, or swan. Developed in the early around 1825, the surbahar was invented to bridge the gap between the and the , enabling performers to execute -style —extended, non-metric improvisations—with greater depth and sustain than the sitar alone could provide. Its creation is attributed to luthiers such as Ustad Sahebdad Khan or Ustad Ghulam Mohammed Khan, with ties to the Imdadkhani and Senia gharanas of , though accounts vary on the exact originator. Primarily employed for , jod, and jhala sections in dhrupad and khayal traditions, it is played using wire plectrums or bare fingers on the right hand, while the left hand pulls strings to achieve pitches up to a seventh higher per . Unlike the sitar, which handles faster rhythmic sections, the surbahar's low register and deliberate pacing make it ideal for introspective renditions, often accompanying pakhawaj percussion in bin compositions. Though less common today due to the sitar's dominance, the surbahar remains a specialized tool for advanced musicians, with renowned exponents including , who elevated its khayal applications, and , known for her Imdadkhani style mastery. Other notable players, such as Pushparaj Koshti in and , continue to showcase its meditative timbre in contemporary performances. Instruments are crafted by traditional luthiers in centers like , , and , preserving its role in exploring the profound, bass-heavy dimensions of Indian ragas.

Overview

Physical Characteristics

The surbahar is a large bass variant of the , typically exceeding 130 cm (51 inches) in overall length, with dimensions around 149 cm long, 44 cm wide, and 23 cm deep. Its resonator, known as the tumbdi, is constructed from a dried , often featuring a flat base for stability and an optional rounded upper to enhance bass . The neck measures approximately 80-90 cm in length and is crafted from tun wood () or occasionally , , or deodar, providing a wide suited for low-pitch glissandos. The accommodates 17-25 movable frets, typically made of or wire and tied with thread, spaced widely to facilitate extended slides on its lower register. The string configuration includes 4 main playing strings—the thickest reaching up to 1 mm in diameter for a deep bass tone—paired with 3-4 chikari rhythm strings and 10-15 tarab , totaling around 17-21 strings overall. These strings pass over two bridges: the bada goraj, a large bridge with legs supporting the main and chikari strings, and the chota goraj, a smaller glued bridge for the sympathetic strings, both designed to produce the characteristic jawari buzzing tone. Weighing between 4-7 kg, the surbahar is substantial and is typically played in a seated position, resting on the floor or the musician's lap for stability during performance.

Musical Role

The surbahar serves as the bass counterpart to the in , producing deep, resonant tones typically tuned 2-3 semitones lower than the sitar, which enables its use in slow, meditative improvisations that explore the raga's essence with profound depth. This lower register allows for extended exploration in vilambit (slow tempo) sections, such as the (unmetered exposition), jor (rhythmic development), and jhala (fast rhythmic conclusion), particularly within the ang style, where deliberate phrasing and emotional intensity are paramount. A defining feature of the surbahar is its capacity for extended meend (), allowing performers to glide across up to an per , facilitating highly expressive and fluid melodic phrasing that captures subtle nuances of the . Unlike the , which is often paired with the for faster khayal or instrumental gats, the surbahar is typically accompanied by the pakhawaj drum, emphasizing its association with the more austere, contemplative tradition. The instrument's unique sonic profile features sustained bass notes enriched by sympathetic string resonance, creating a distinctive "spring-like" reverb that evokes the depth of the rudra veena while offering greater accessibility for modern performers. In performance, it primarily functions as a solo instrument for in-depth alap exploration, though it occasionally pairs with the sitar in duets to provide octave contrast and harmonic layering.

History and Development

Invention and Origins

The surbahar was invented around 1820–1825 in , northern , as an adaptation of the designed to provide deeper bass tones suitable for dhrupad-style performances, addressing the decline of the and restrictions on teaching its techniques outside the Senia lineage. This innovation emerged in the cultural milieu of 19th-century North Indian courts, where musicians sought instruments that could handle extended sections without the limitations of the standard . Primary credit for the invention is given to Omrao Khan Beenkar, a prominent beenkar from the Sena-Beenkar and grandfather of Wazir Khan of Rampur, who reportedly commissioned a larger variant to teach and jod to his disciple Ghulam Mohammed, a player desiring enhanced low-end resonance for melodic elaboration. Omrao Khan's work blended mechanics with -like bass capabilities, aligning with the gharana's emphasis on instrumental traditions tracing back to , and catered to the demands of court music in and Rampur. Alternative attributions include Sahebdad Khan, father of and a musician in the court, who is said by some accounts to have developed the instrument around 1825 to enable sitarists to perform elaborate alaps previously reserved for the . Other claims point to Ghulam Mohammed himself or Gholam Mohammad Khan, a disciple of both Piyar Khan and Omrao Khan, as potential creators, though recent scholarship leans toward Ghulam Mohammed's role in its practical refinement. The surbahar's early purpose was to facilitate complete raag expositions—encompassing , jor, and jhala—on a single instrument, serving as a practical replacement for the bin () among non-specialist musicians in traditions. This allowed broader access to the style's resonant, introspective bass without requiring mastery of the more demanding , though it later saw adoption in the Imdadkhani for further stylistic evolution.

Key Figures in Development

(1848–1920), a pioneering figure from the Imdadkhani , played a pivotal role in refining the surbahar by integrating it into his family's musical tradition and leading its technical perfection to enhance its distinctive bass timbre and expressive capabilities. His innovations in playing techniques emphasized smooth glissandi (meend), influencing string arrangements and overall instrument adaptation within the gharana. Ustad Enayat Khan (1894–1938), Imdad Khan's son and a master of both sitar and surbahar, advanced the instrument's design for greater tonal stability, commissioning custom builds that improved resonance and sustain, such as a flat-tumba surbahar crafted in the early . He transmitted these refinements and advanced performance methods to his sons, Vilayat Khan and Imrat Khan, embedding the surbahar deeper into the Imdadkhani repertoire. Lucknow- and Kolkata-based workshops, notably Kanailal & Bro. established in 1882, contributed significantly to post-invention standardization by producing consistent, high-quality surbahars tailored for professional musicians, facilitating wider adoption through reliable construction techniques. Ustad Wazir Khan of Rampur (c. 1850s–1926), a prominent beenkar from the Tansen lineage and grandson of the instrument's attributed inventor Omrao Khan Beenkar, was connected to the surbahar's early dissemination through family ties and taught it to disciples such as Ustad Ayat Ali Khan, helping bridge ancient veena traditions with modern string innovations. In the 20th century, gharana elders like Ustad Wahid Khan (1895–1961), Imdad Khan's son and a surbahar specialist, further honed playing techniques for enhanced clarity and appeal, preserving and evolving the instrument's core within family lineages.

Design and Construction

Materials Used

The of the surbahar is made from a dried , known as tumbdi, sourced from the plant Lagenaria siceraria and selected for diameters typically ranging from 35 to 45 cm to enhance amplification of low frequencies through its natural resonant cavity. This is sometimes reinforced with a thin on the soundboard, or tabli, to improve structural integrity while preserving acoustic warmth. The neck and fingerboard are primarily constructed from tun wood (Cedrela toona), prized for its stability, resonance, and ability to sustain deep tones without warping under string tension; alternatives like African mahogany are occasionally used for similar qualities in modern builds. For added durability on the fretboard, or may be employed to withstand the pressure of movable frets and prolonged play. The main bridge, or bada goraj, is traditionally carved from , , or deer horn to facilitate optimal string vibration and tonal clarity, though synthetic materials are increasingly adopted in contemporary constructions for ethical reasons. Strings consist of thick or bronze-wound bass strings for the main playing wires, gauged at 0.8 to 1.2 mm to produce the instrument's characteristic deep timbre, while is favored for the to provide rich, sustained . Movable frets are fashioned from silver or wire, tied in place with thread to allow precise adjustments for intonation and microtonal accuracy in Indian classical scales. Additional components include bone for the tuning pegs (kharju), valued for its hardness and smooth tuning action, and or thread windings on the sympathetic pegs to secure strings and prevent slippage during .

Structural Features

The surbahar features a body assembly centered on a large, flat in the kachhua style, which is cut horizontally and oriented to enhance bass projection, with the resonator covered by a thin, carved wooden tabli glued over sound holes to form the soundboard; overall length typically 130-150 cm, with a scale length of about 90-95 cm. This flat configuration, distinct from the rounded of a standard , contributes to the instrument's deep resonance, and an optional small secondary may be attached below the upper bridge or at the neck base for additional acoustic support. The neck is constructed as a tubular yoke extending from the resonator, typically made from tun wood for stability, with a broad approximately 10-15 cm wide to accommodate placement and facilitate left-hand access during extended glissandos. This wide design allows for greater string bending, enabling meends spanning up to an on a single . The bridge system includes a bada goraj, an elevated main bridge supported on three legs for the seven primary strings (including chikari strings), angled to produce the characteristic jawari through precise string contact. A chota goraj, flat and glued directly to the tabli, supports the 11-12 tarab (, which pass beneath a small cut in the soundboard after the main bridge. The fret system consists of 17-19 metal or frets, tied with thread or wire, spaced widely—up to 5 cm in the lower registers—to support octave-spanning glissandos and melodic continuity with minimal left-hand repositioning. Early models often featured sharp-edged, flat s in a been-style arrangement, differing from the rounded frets of the . The pegbox is located at the upper end of the , often sculpted in the shape of a snake, bird, or dragon head, housing 7 large rear pegs for the main strings, while smaller side pegs on the sidewall tune the . Strings are anchored at the tailpiece, typically an ivorine or piece fixed to the edge of the , ensuring tension distribution across the bridges. Acoustic enhancements include internal wooden blocks reinforcing the to prevent deformation under string tension, promoting sustained bass tones, and the optional secondary that amplifies without altering the primary flat body structure.

Playing and Tuning

Tuning Methods

The surbahar is typically tuned with the base pitch Sa (root note) set to approximately 196-220 Hz, corresponding to G3 or , which places it 4-5 semitones below the standard tuning. This lower register is adjustable via the main tuning pegs to accommodate concert keys, ensuring compatibility with accompanying instruments like the or . The main playing strings consist of four thick wires configured as Ma-Sa-Pa-Sa (fourth, , fifth, lowest ), where the lowest Sa string employs wound bass wire to produce profound depth and in the bass range. Complementing these, the chikari () strings—usually three in number—are tuned to Sa-Pa-Sa, functioning as a steady drone; they often utilize lighter gauge wire for enhanced clarity and projection. The sympathetic strings, numbering 10 to 20 and arranged in two parallel rows beneath the main strings, are tuned to the full scale of the chosen raag to provide harmonic resonance—for instance, in Raga Yaman, they align with Sa Re Ga Ma Pa Dha Ni. Fine adjustments to these strings, including microtonal tweaks for precise shruti (intonation), are made using dedicated tuning pegs, allowing subtle variations to match the raga's melodic nuances. Tuning the surbahar involves a methodical process beginning with the and progressing to the main and chikari strings, often requiring daily retuning due to string stretch from the instrument's and low frequencies. The bridges are adjusted for optimal intonation using specialized tools such as files or knives, while threads secure the movable frets, enabling precise calibration of note positions. The scale length, measuring 100-120 cm, contributes to lower string tension that promotes extended bass sustain, distinguishing the surbahar's sonorous quality. Wide frets further support stability in this low-pitch configuration.

Performance Techniques

The surbahar is typically played by musicians seated on the floor in a cross-legged posture known as or , with the instrument held vertically and the lower gourd (tumba) resting to the right of the right for stability, while the is angled slightly to the left to facilitate left-hand across the wide frets. The performer's right arm often provides additional support due to the instrument's substantial weight, which can exceed five kilograms, ensuring balance during extended sessions. A primary steel-wire mizrab, approximately 0.5 mm in thickness, is worn on the right to execute downward strokes, producing bols such as "Da" or "Dir" for plucking the main strings and chikari (drone) strings. In the dhrupad-influenced style common to surbahar performance, a second mizrab may be worn on the . Upward strokes, known as "Ra," are employed minimally, primarily for chikari strums in rhythmic sections like jhala, where the wrist rotates slightly to maintain fluid motion. Strokes in the section are slow and deliberate, often following patterns like da-ra-da to articulate sustained notes, allowing the instrument's deep to unfold gradually at tempos of 20-40 beats per minute. Expressive techniques include gamak, subtle oscillations produced by oscillating pressure from the left hand, and murki, quick grace notes achieved through rapid finger releases. The low tuning of the surbahar enables extended meend (glissandi) spanning 7-12 semitones per via broad left-hand pulls and slides on the thick strings. The left hand plays a dominant role in tonal variation, using the pads or nails to apply pressure for pitch bends, integrating bol akars (vocal syllables like those in ) through articulated slides that mimic vocal phrasing. In jhala passages, the right hand shifts to rhythmic chikari strums, alternating da and strokes for a pulsating effect that builds intensity without accelerating the . Performing on the surbahar presents challenges due to its heavy construction, necessitating arm support to prevent fatigue, and its slow, expansive phrases demand precise breath control and stamina for maintaining long, uninterrupted lines. The instrument's size and string gauge require adapted finger strength compared to lighter stringed instruments like the , emphasizing deliberate execution over speed.

Repertoire and Styles

Traditional Repertoire

The traditional repertoire of the surbahar is deeply rooted in the dhrupad ang of , adapting the meditative and expansive qualities of the ancient vocal form to the instrument's bass-oriented capabilities. Performances typically open with an extended vilambit alap, a slow, unaccompanied that unfolds the raga's (ascending scale) and avroha (descending scale) through deliberate glissandi and subtle oscillations, allowing the musician to evoke the raga's emotional essence over a prolonged duration. This section transitions into the jor, introducing a medium with gentle pulsation, and concludes with the jhala, a vigorous fast-rhythmic passage featuring intricate strumming patterns that build intensity without fixed metrical constraints. This repertoire favors ragas that thrive in the lower octave, such as Bhairav, , Yaman, , and , which exploit the surbahar's resonant bass strings for expressive andolan (oscillatory embellishments) on microtonal notes like komal re and komal ga. These selections emphasize depth and gravity, enabling prolonged explorations of the raga's melodic contours that align with the instrument's tonal range and slow unfolding. Representative performances in these ragas, such as and , illustrate how the surbahar's enhances the somber, introspective mood inherent to such forms. Accompaniment in traditional surbahar repertoire is minimal to preserve the instrument's sonic dominance, typically featuring the pakhawaj for its deep, resonant pulses that complement the dhrupad ang without overpowering the bass. The is generally avoided due to its brighter, higher-pitched , which could disrupt the meditative flow. Occasionally, a provides a subtle drone to the tonal center. Unlike the , which relies on structured gats for rhythmic elaboration, surbahar compositions prioritize fluid, non-metrical development through nom-tom alap phrases—syllabic vocalizations like "nom" and "tom" that guide improvisational flow—and bol banao, intricate syllable-based elaborations mimicking vocal techniques. This approach fosters organic expansion without predefined rhythmic frameworks, focusing on melodic purity and emotional depth. The Imdadkhani exerts significant influence on this , promoting a gayaki ang (vocalistic style) that infuses surbahar playing with lyrical phrasing and subtle nuances, as exemplified in 19th-century court performances associated with the Rampur tradition. This stylistic emphasis, developed by foundational figures in the , integrates khayal-like expressiveness into the dhrupad ang, enhancing the instrument's interpretive versatility within classical bounds.

Modern Interpretations

In the post-1950s era, the surbahar repertoire evolved through innovations by musicians like Ustad Imrat Khan, who incorporated elements of the khayal ang into the instrument's traditional framework. This blending allowed for a more vocal-like gayaki ang approach, combining the expansive, meditative with lighter, more fluid jor sections to enhance expressiveness while preserving the surbahar's resonant depth. Khan's style also introduced distinctive bolkaari techniques and gamak taans, adapting the instrument for broader appeal in global performances, such as his 1971 all-night concert at London's . Fusion experiments with the surbahar remain rare, reflecting its niche status compared to the , though occasional pairings with Western elements have occurred in recordings from the onward. Recording adaptations have facilitated the surbahar's integration into modern formats, including studio techniques that highlight its through careful layering and reverb to simulate live resonance. In concert settings, alaps have been shortened to accommodate typical performance durations, allowing the instrument's full exploration within structured programs while maintaining its contemplative essence. Contemporary interpretations extend the surbahar's role in vilambit khayal renditions, particularly in ragas like Puriya Dhanashri, where artists incorporate added taans to test the instrument's bass limitations while drawing on its roots. Imrat Khan's recordings in this exemplify such extensions, emphasizing intricate phrasing and tonal depth. Preservation efforts since the 1970s have countered the sitar's dominance, which often relegates the surbahar to introductory alaps before switching instruments. Festivals like the in promote full surbahar recitals, while workshops led by exponents such as Pandit Budhaditya Mukherjee and Ustad Irshad Khan foster its transmission amid declining practitioners. As of 2025, the instrument continues to feature in events such as the Ragas Live Festival and recitals by artists like Pandit Budhaditya Mukherjee.

Notable Performers

Pioneers

Omrao Khan Beenkar, an early 19th-century rudra veena player associated with the Mughal court traditions, contributed to the early development of the surbahar to facilitate performances at the Rampur court through his lineage. He shaped the instrument for his disciple Ghulam Mohammed Khan, establishing a family-bound technique that emphasized its deep, resonant tones for extended presentations in style. Ustad Imdad Khan (1848–1920), a fourth-generation musician from , pioneered the Imdadkhani 's application to the surbahar, introducing a khayal-ang (gayaki) style that incorporated vocal-like ornamentation and improvisation into instrumental playing. His innovations shifted the instrument away from strict forms toward more expressive, melodic explorations, as evidenced in his early 20th-century recordings that highlighted sustained alaps and intricate phrasing. Imdad Khan trained his sons, Ustad Enayat Khan and Ustad Wahid Khan, passing down this foundational style and ensuring the surbahar's evolution within the family tradition. Ustad Enayat Khan (1894–1938), son of Imdad Khan, refined surbahar techniques, particularly extended meends (glides) that allowed for octave-spanning expressions in ang, enhancing the instrument's capacity for fluid, vocal emulation during performances. He frequently performed in princely courts, where his interpretations showcased the surbahar's resonant depth in alap-jor-jhala structures without percussion. Enayat Khan owned a custom 1920s surbahar built by Kanailal & Brother in , which influenced subsequent designs through its reinforced structure and tonal clarity, later played by descendants like Imrat Khan. Ustad Wahid Khan (1895–1961), younger brother of Enayat Khan and a key figure in the Imdadkhani , focused on masterful renditions that bridged the Beenkar (veena-based) and Imdadkhani traditions, perfecting surbahar techniques for profound, audience-captivating alaps. His playing emphasized clarity and emotional appeal, particularly in deep, contemplative explorations such as those in , elevating the instrument's role in courtly and concert settings. Wahid Khan's legacy as a technician and performer was recognized with the inaugural in 1960, underscoring his foundational contributions to surbahar artistry. Ustad Mushtaq Ali Khan (1911–1989), from the Senia gharana, emerged as an early recording artist who documented traditional surbahar alaps on 78 RPM discs in , preserving the instrument's dhrupad-style purity amid evolving styles. Beginning surbahar training at age twelve under his father's guidance, he captured expansive, unaccompanied improvisations that highlighted the instrument's bass resonance and intricate meends. His recordings, among the earliest for surbahar, provided vital archival insight into pre-World War II performance practices.

Contemporary Artists

Ustad (1935–2018), a virtuoso of the Imdadkhani gharana, elevated the surbahar through his innovative techniques, including expansive octave-spanning meends in ragas like Yaman, which showcased the instrument's deep resonance and melodic flexibility. As a leading exponent of his family's tradition, he recorded extensively on the surbahar, producing albums that captured its bass-laden , jor, and jhala forms, thereby preserving and disseminating the gharana's vocalistic style globally. Khan also taught internationally, mentoring students in the United States and , which helped introduce the surbahar to new audiences beyond during the late . Annapurna Devi (1927–2018), an eminent exponent of the Maihar gharana, mastered the surbahar under her father Ustad Allauddin Khan's guidance, achieving virtuosic command of the instrument by the 1940s and 1950s, when she was hailed for her profound musical sensitivity and rare ability to evoke raga depth on its bass strings. Her performances during this period, including renditions like Raga Kaushiki, earned widespread acclaim at private musical gatherings, positioning her as one of the instrument's foremost interpreters. After withdrawing from public life in the mid-1950s—becoming famously reclusive and avoiding recordings or stage appearances for over six decades—she continued to influence the field through private instruction from her apartment, notably shaping the artistry of students such as flutist and sitarist . Ustad Vilayat Khan (1928–2004), though renowned primarily as a ist, was a dual expert in the Imdadkhani with deep training on the surbahar from his uncle Waheed Khan, enabling him to perform its elaborate dhrupad-style alaps with vocalistic precision. He occasionally featured the surbahar in bass duets, such as collaborations with his brother Imrat Khan during joint performances in the 1960s, highlighting its role as a foundational counterpart to the in recitals. Khan promoted the instrument indirectly through his extensive Western tours in the 1960s and 1970s, where he introduced audiences to Imdadkhani traditions, including rare surbahar recordings like those in Kafi Kanada and , fostering global appreciation for its bass-oriented aesthetics. Pandit Irshad Khan (born 1964), a contemporary innovator from the Imdadkhani gharana and son of Ustad , has advanced the surbahar's profile through masterful performances that blend traditional depth with accessible presentation. As a surbahar specialist, he has performed extensively at international venues like the Darbar Festival since 2008, where his renditions of ragas such as demonstrate the instrument's capacity for midnight evocations and intricate timbral exploration. Khan's work emphasizes modern interpretations of classic ragas, drawing on his family's legacy to maintain the surbahar's relevance in global Hindustani music circuits while residing and teaching in . Kushal Das (born 1959), a present-day practitioner focused on preservation, records comprehensive cycles of dhrupad-influenced ragas on the surbahar, such as Raga Darbari Kanada, to document and revive its historical repertoire amid declining practitioners. Active since the 2010s, he has emphasized the instrument's octave-bending potential in live and recorded formats, contributing to its endurance through his own label's releases of rare compositions. Das also engages in online teaching platforms, offering global access to surbahar techniques and thereby sustaining the instrument's pedagogical transmission in the digital era. Pandit , a renowned sitarist from the , incorporates the surbahar in select performances to showcase its meditative , continuing the instrument's tradition in contemporary concerts. Pushparaj Koshti, a specialist, performs on the surbahar to highlight its deep resonance in traditional improvisations, preserving its role in the dhrupad tradition.

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  38. https://www.facebook.com/HCMAEOFFICIAL/posts/-instrument-of-the-week-surbahar-surbahar-%25E0%25A4%25B8%25E0%25A5%2581%25E0%25A4%25B0%25E0%25A4%25AC%25E0%25A4%25B9%25E0%25A4%25BE%25E0%25A4%25B0-sometimes-known-as-bass-sitar-/2325954230961891/
  39. http://www.hindustaniclassical.com/gharana/Imdadkhani
  40. https://arbiterrecords.org/catalog/ancient-court-raga-traditions/
  41. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Zv2vs1y6BBs
  42. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=N338wRpmrCM
  43. https://www.thehindu.com/features/friday-review/music/Tanpura-the-great-accompanist/article16044716.ece
  44. http://ramprapanna.blogspot.com/2010/05/sitar-repertoire-of-ustad-vilayat-khan.html
  45. https://saxonianfolkways.wordpress.com/2014/02/24/the-imdadkhani-gharana/
  46. https://shakirkhan.in/gharana.php
  47. https://darbar.org/ustad-imrat-khan/
  48. https://www.thehindu.com/entertainment/music/ustad-imrat-khan-the-unsung-brother/article33132290.ece
  49. https://darbar.org/the-sitar-from-different-angles-pt-2-modern-players-global-experiments/
  50. https://www.jstor.org/stable/3090630
  51. https://indiacurrents.com/between-dhrupad-and-sitar/
  52. https://ragaslive.com/2025
  53. https://g5afoundation.org/calendar/noir-a-surbahar-and-sitar-recital/
  54. https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/lucknow/time-to-relive-nawabi-era-to-the-tune-of-surbahar/articleshow/56990522.cms
  55. https://panditarvindparikh.org/articles/gharana/etawah-imdadkhani-gharana/
  56. https://hidayathusainkhan.com/legacy/ustad-enayat-khan/
  57. https://www.vintagesitars.com/post/a-stunning-recreation-of-ustad-enayat-khan-s-1920s-surbahar
  58. https://www.ramprapanna.com/gharana-lineage
  59. https://ragascape.com/History/
  60. https://www.rudraveena.org/theBlog/oriental-traditional-music.blogspot.com/2014/04/mushtaq-ali-khan-1911-1989-sitar.html
  61. https://www.thehindu.com/entertainment/music/The-sacred-sound/article17177409.ece
  62. https://www.thehindu.com/entertainment/music/meet-the-imdadkhani-gharana-scions/article26203077.ece
  63. https://www.sruti.com/artist/annapurna-devi
  64. https://www.npr.org/2018/10/23/659786993/annapurna-devi-poised-star-surbahar-spent-60-years-her-apartment
  65. https://www.thehindu.com/entertainment/music/musician-annapurna-devi-passes-away/article25212211.ece
  66. http://www.medieval.org/music/world/vk.html
  67. https://www.darbar.org/ustad-irshad-khan/
  68. https://darbar.org/singing-sculptures-indias-curious-musical-instruments/
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