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Synoptic scale meteorology
Synoptic scale meteorology
Synoptic scale meteorology
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In meteorology, the synoptic scale (also called the large scale or cyclonic scale) is a horizontal length scale of the order of 1,000 km (620 mi) or more.[1] This corresponds to a horizontal scale typical of mid-latitude depressions (e.g. extratropical cyclones). Most high- and low-pressure areas seen on weather maps (such as surface weather analyses) are synoptic-scale systems, driven by the location of Rossby waves in their respective hemisphere. Low-pressure areas and their related frontal zones occur on the leading edge of a trough within the Rossby wave pattern, while high-pressure areas form on the back edge of the trough. Most precipitation areas occur near frontal zones. The word synoptic is derived from the Ancient Greek word συνοπτικός (sunoptikós), meaning "seen together".

The Navier–Stokes equations applied to atmospheric motion can be simplified by scale analysis in the synoptic scale. It can be shown that the main terms in horizontal equations are Coriolis force and pressure gradient terms; therefore, one can use geostrophic approximation. In vertical coordinates, the momentum equation simplifies to the hydrostatic equilibrium equation.

Surface weather analysis

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A surface weather analysis for the United States on October 21, 2006
Main article: Surface weather analysis

A surface weather analysis is a special type of weather map that provides a view of weather elements over a geographical area at a specified time based on information from ground-based weather stations.[2] Weather maps are created by plotting or tracing the values of relevant quantities such as sea level pressure, temperature, and cloud cover onto a geographical map to help find synoptic scale features such as weather fronts.

The first weather maps in the 19th century were drawn well after the fact to help devise a theory on storm systems.[3] After the advent of the telegraph, simultaneous surface weather observations became possible for the first time. Beginning in the late 1840s, the Smithsonian Institution became the first organization to draw real-time surface analyses. Use of surface analyses began first in the United States, spreading worldwide during the 1870s. Use of the Norwegian cyclone model for frontal analysis began in the late 1910s across Europe, with its use finally spreading to the United States during World War II.

Surface weather analyses have special symbols which show frontal systems, cloud cover, precipitation, or other important information. For example, an H represents high pressure, implying good and fair weather. An L represents low pressure, which frequently accompanies precipitation. Various symbols are used not just for frontal zones and other surface boundaries on weather maps, but also to depict the present weather at various locations on the weather map. Areas of precipitation help determine the frontal type and location. Mesoscale systems and boundaries such as tropical cyclones, outflow boundaries and squall lines are also analyzed on surface weather analyses. Isobars are commonly used to place surface boundaries from the horse latitudes poleward, while streamline analyses are used in the tropics.[4]

Extratropical cyclone

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A fictitious synoptic chart of an extratropical cyclone affecting the UK and Ireland. The blue arrows between isobars indicate the direction of the wind, while the "L" symbol denotes the centre of the "low". Note the occluded, cold and warm frontal boundaries.
Main article: Extratropical cyclone

An extratropical cyclone is a synoptic scale low-pressure weather system that has neither tropical nor polar characteristics, being connected with fronts and horizontal gradients in temperature and dew point otherwise known as "baroclinic zones".[5]

The descriptor "extratropical" refers to the fact that this type of cyclone generally occurs outside of the tropics, in the middle latitudes of the planet. These systems may also be described as "mid-latitude cyclones" due to their area of formation, or "post-tropical cyclones" where extratropical transition has occurred,[5][6] but are often described as "depressions" or "lows" by weather forecasters and the public. These are the everyday phenomena that, along with anticyclones, drive the weather over much of the Earth.

Although extratropical cyclones are almost always classified as baroclinic since they form along zones of temperature and dew point gradient within the westerlies, they can sometimes become barotropic late in their life cycle when the temperature distribution around the cyclone becomes fairly uniform with radius.[7] An extratropical cyclone can transform into a subtropical storm, and from there into a tropical cyclone, if it dwells over warm waters and develops central convection, which warms its core.[8]

Surface high-pressure systems

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Main article: High-pressure area
Golden Gate Bridge in fog

High-pressure systems are frequently associated with light winds at the surface and subsidence through the lower portion of the troposphere. Subsidence will generally dry out an air mass by adiabatic, or compressional, heating.[9] Thus, high pressure typically brings clear skies.[10] During the day, since no clouds are present to reflect sunlight, there is more incoming shortwave solar radiation and temperatures rise. At night, the absence of clouds means that outgoing longwave radiation (i.e. heat energy from the surface) is not absorbed, giving cooler diurnal low temperatures in all seasons. When surface winds become light, the subsidence produced directly under a high-pressure system can lead to a buildup of particulates in urban areas under the ridge, leading to widespread haze.[11] If the low level relative humidity rises towards 100 percent overnight, fog can form.[12]

Strong, vertically shallow high-pressure systems moving from higher latitudes to lower latitudes in the northern hemisphere are associated with continental arctic air masses.[13] The low, sharp inversion can lead to areas of persistent stratocumulus or stratus cloud, colloquially known as anticyclonic gloom. The type of weather brought about by an anticyclone depends on its origin. For example, extensions of the Azores high pressure may bring about anticyclonic gloom during the winter, as they are warmed at the base and will trap moisture as they move over the warmer oceans. High pressures that build to the north and extend southwards will often bring clear weather. This is due to being cooled at the base (as opposed to warmed) which helps prevent clouds from forming.

On weather maps, these areas show converging winds (isotachs), also known as confluence, or converging height lines near or above the level of non-divergence, which is near the 500 hPa pressure surface about midway up through the troposphere.[14][15] High-pressure systems are alternatively referred to as anticyclones. On weather maps, high-pressure centers are associated with the letter H in English,[16] or A in Spanish,[17] because alta is the Spanish word for high, within the isobar with the highest pressure value. On constant pressure upper level charts, it is located within the highest height line contour.[18]

Weather fronts

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Main article: Weather front
Different air masses tend to be separated by frontal boundaries. The Arctic front separates Arctic from Polar air masses, while the Polar front separates Polar air from warm air masses. (cA is continental arctic; cP is continental polar; mP is maritime polar; cT is continental tropic; and mT is maritime tropic.)

A weather front is a boundary separating two masses of air of different densities, and is the principal cause of meteorological phenomena. In surface weather analyses, fronts are depicted using various colored lines and symbols, depending on the type of front. The air masses separated by a front usually differ in temperature and humidity. Cold fronts may feature narrow bands of thunderstorms and severe weather, and may on occasion be preceded by squall lines or dry lines. Warm fronts are usually preceded by stratiform precipitation and fog. The weather usually clears quickly after a front's passage. Some fronts produce no precipitation and little cloudiness, although there is invariably a wind shift.[19]

Cold fronts and occluded fronts generally move from west to east, while warm fronts move poleward. Because of the greater density of air in their wake, cold fronts and cold occlusions move faster than warm fronts and warm occlusions. Mountains and warm bodies of water can slow the movement of fronts.[20] When a front becomes stationary, and the density contrast across the frontal boundary vanishes, the front can degenerate into a line which separates regions of differing wind velocity, known as a shearline. This is most common over the open ocean.

See also

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References

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Synoptic scale meteorology

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Synoptic scale is the branch of focused on the analysis and prediction of large-scale atmospheric circulations and systems, typically spanning horizontal distances of 1,000 to 2,500 kilometers and evolving over timescales of days to a week. The term "synoptic" derives from the Greek word synoptikos, meaning "presenting a general view of the whole," emphasizing the integration of simultaneous observations from widespread locations to form a comprehensive snapshot of the atmosphere at a given time. This scale, also known as the cyclonic or large scale, contrasts with smaller mesoscale features like thunderstorms and larger planetary-scale phenomena like monsoons, bridging mid-latitude dynamics with global patterns. Key phenomena in synoptic scale meteorology include migratory high- and low-pressure systems, extratropical cyclones, fronts, and jet streams, which drive much of the day-to-day in mid-latitudes through processes like baroclinic instability and geostrophic balance. These systems often feature weak vertical motions on the order of centimeters per second but strong horizontal winds reaching tens of meters per second, with the atmosphere maintaining vertically. In tropical regions, synoptic features encompass , the Inter-Tropical (ITCZ), and circulations, while mid-latitude examples include polar highs, subtropical highs, and associated fronts. Such patterns are responsible for significant events, including storms, contrasts, and distributions across continents. Analysis in synoptic relies on standardized networks, with main synoptic hours at 00Z, 06Z, 12Z, and 18Z UTC, supplemented by additional hourly or six-hourly as needed. Forecasters use surface maps, upper-air charts, , and numerical models to depict pressure systems, fronts, and , enabling the identification of evolving patterns like troughs and ridges. This approach, pioneered in the with the advent of the telegraph for real-time sharing, forms the foundation for modern by providing the large-scale context that influences regional and local conditions. The significance of synoptic scale meteorology lies in its role as the primary framework for medium-range weather prediction, informing decisions in , , and disaster preparedness through institutions like the . By synthesizing dynamic, thermodynamic, and observational principles, it advances understanding of atmospheric behavior and supports research into interactions between synoptic systems and smaller-scale events, such as severe thunderstorms.

Fundamentals

Definition and Scope

Synoptic scale meteorology is a branch of dedicated to the analysis and prediction of large-scale patterns that span horizontal distances typically ranging from 1,000 to 2,500 kilometers. These patterns, often referred to as synoptic-scale phenomena, are primarily governed by quasi-geostrophic dynamics, which approximate the balance of forces in the mid-latitudes under the influence of and planetary-scale circulations such as the . This field emphasizes the of systems observable through simultaneous measurements across vast regions, distinguishing it from smaller mesoscale features or broader planetary circulations. The term "synoptic" originates from the Greek word synoptikos, meaning "presenting a general view of the whole," derived from synopsis ("a general view" or "seen together"), underscoring the reliance on coordinated, real-time observations to capture the state of the atmosphere at a specific moment. Popularized in the 19th century amid advancements in telegraphy and international weather networks, it was advanced by pioneers like Ralph Abercromby, whose 1887 work on forecasting via weather charts highlighted the value of synoptic maps for integrating global data, and Sir Napier Shaw, who as director of the British Meteorological Office integrated these methods into systematic atmospheric studies. Their efforts transformed scattered reports into cohesive tools for understanding weather progression, laying the groundwork for modern operational meteorology. At its core, synoptic scale meteorology rests on fundamental principles that describe balanced atmospheric flows. Horizontal gradients serve as the primary driver of motion, balanced by the Coriolis effect in geostrophic equilibrium, where winds flow parallel to isobars at large scales. Complementing this, the thermal wind relation quantifies the vertical shear in geostrophic winds as a direct response to horizontal contrasts, explaining phenomena like increasing westerly winds with height in baroclinic zones. These concepts, rooted in hydrostatic and geostrophic approximations, provide the theoretical framework for interpreting how , , and interact to shape weather evolution. The importance of synoptic scale meteorology lies in its capacity to forecast regional weather disruptions, such as extratropical storms or prolonged temperature anomalies, typically over timescales of one to several days, thereby supporting applications in , , and . By elucidating the interconnected dynamics of mid-latitude weather, it bridges observational with predictive models, enhancing societal resilience to atmospheric variability.

Spatial and Temporal Scales

Synoptic scale meteorology encompasses atmospheric phenomena with horizontal dimensions typically spanning 1,000 to 2,500 kilometers, a range that includes mid-latitude Rossby waves and extensive baroclinic zones where temperature gradients drive cyclogenesis. These scales are large enough to influence weather over regional to continental areas, distinguishing synoptic features from smaller mesoscale disturbances while remaining embedded within broader planetary circulations. In the vertical dimension, synoptic flows occupy the full depth of the troposphere, extending from the surface to altitudes of 10–15 kilometers, where the tropopause serves as an upper boundary. Tropopause folding, a common process in baroclinic wave development, can enhance vertical structure by descending stratospheric air into the upper troposphere, facilitating stratosphere-troposphere exchange over synoptic timescales. Temporally, synoptic phenomena evolve over durations of days to a week, aligning with the maturation and decay of pressure systems such as cyclones and anticyclones. This timeframe reflects the quasi-geostrophic dynamics governing their lifecycle, from initial baroclinic instability to eventual dissipation. Scale interactions are integral to synoptic , as large-scale synoptic flows provide the environmental forcing that organizes and intensifies mesoscale features like and fronts, while planetary-scale waves, including Rossby waves, modulate synoptic patterns through steering and amplification. These bidirectional influences underscore the synoptic scale's role as an intermediary in the atmospheric hierarchy, bridging global circulation patterns with localized weather events.

Observational Methods

Surface Observations

Surface observations form the foundational for synoptic-scale , providing essential measurements of atmospheric conditions at ground level across large regions. Weather stations, both manual and automated, collect data on key variables including , air , wind speed and direction, relative humidity, and amounts. These stations are strategically placed to ensure spatial coverage, with densities varying from dense networks in populated areas to sparser setups in remote regions. In the United States, the Automated Surface Observing System () represents a primary automated network, deployed at over 900 locations to deliver continuous, standardized observations every hour or more frequently during significant events. ASOS sensors measure parameters such as barometric pressure (reduced to for consistency), via platinum resistance thermometers, wind using anemometers, and through tipping-bucket gauges, enabling real-time data transmission for synoptic . The historical development of surface observations traces back to the mid-19th century, when manual measurements from volunteer networks began to support early weather mapping. By the 1840s, systematic observations were recorded at U.S. Army posts and Smithsonian Institution sites, but the advent of the telegraph in the 1850s revolutionized data collection by allowing simultaneous reports from distant stations. This enabled the first synoptic charts in the 1870s, as coordinated by the U.S. Army Signal Service (the predecessor to the U.S. Weather Bureau), where telegraphic bulletins compiled pressure, temperature, and wind data to depict weather patterns over continents. Over time, these manual efforts evolved into automated systems; by the late 20th century, ASOS and similar technologies like the Automated Weather Observing System (AWOS) largely replaced human observers, improving accuracy and frequency while integrating with global networks such as the World Meteorological Organization's Global Observing System. Modern enhancements include validation of surface data using satellite-derived estimates, where geostationary and polar-orbiting satellites provide cloud and moisture imagery to corroborate ground measurements of precipitation and fronts, ensuring comprehensive synoptic coverage even in data-sparse areas. Isobaric analysis relies on these surface pressure data to construct sea-level pressure charts, which reveal the horizontal distribution of and guide the identification of synoptic features. Analysts plot station pressures, adjust them to sea level using elevation corrections, and draw isobars—lines of equal —at intervals typically of 2 or 4 hectopascals—to highlight pressure gradients, highs (anticyclones), and lows (cyclones). Close spacing of isobars indicates strong gradients and thus potential for high winds, while closed contours delineate centers of high and low that drive weather system motion. These charts are fundamental for mapping the large-scale flow, with data from international exchanges ensuring hemispheric-scale synoptic views. Frontal depiction on surface charts uses standardized station models to encode observations symbolically, facilitating the visualization of boundaries between air masses. Each station plot features a central circle for total cloud cover, flags for wind speed and direction, numerical codes for temperature, dew point, pressure tendency, and weather symbols for precipitation or visibility. Analysts interpret these to trace fronts: warm fronts marked by semicircles on the leading edge, cold fronts by triangles, and occluded fronts by alternating symbols, often aligned with pressure troughs or sharp temperature contrasts. Troughs (elongated low-pressure axes) and ridges (high-pressure extensions) are similarly depicted with dashed lines connecting station minima or maxima. This symbolic representation allows meteorologists to delineate synoptic-scale discontinuities efficiently. Such observations play a key role in identifying the development of extratropical cyclones by revealing pressure lows and associated fronts.

Upper-Air Observations

Upper-air observations provide critical vertical profiles of the atmosphere, essential for understanding synoptic-scale flows that surface measurements alone cannot resolve. These observations capture the three-dimensional structure of , , , and , enabling meteorologists to identify features like jet streams and folds that influence large-scale weather patterns. networks form the backbone of in-situ upper-air observations, utilizing balloon-borne instruments to measure , , , and and direction from the surface up to approximately 30-35 km altitude. Launched from a global network of about 1,300 upper-air stations coordinated by the (WMO), radiosondes ascend via helium- or hydrogen-filled balloons, transmitting data in real-time until the balloon bursts, after which a parachute returns the instrument. The Integrated Global Radiosonde Archive (IGRA), maintained by NOAA, compiles historical and current data from over 2,800 stations worldwide, ensuring comprehensive coverage for synoptic analysis despite some regional gaps in data-sparse areas like the oceans. Observations typically occur twice daily at 00Z and 12Z, providing snapshots that reveal vertical shear related to the balance, where horizontal gradients drive changes in with height. Satellite observations complement s by offering continuous, global coverage of upper-air dynamics through . Geostationary satellites like GOES (operated by NOAA) and Meteosat (operated by ) use channels to detect concentrations in the mid- and upper , allowing derivation of wind vectors from cloud motion or patterns. Polar-orbiting satellites, such as those in the NOAA and series, provide higher-resolution profiles of temperature and via and sounders, filling gaps in data over remote regions. Atmospheric motion vectors derived from these platforms track winds at multiple pressure levels, with accuracies improving to 5-10 m/s in clear-air regions, crucial for monitoring synoptic-scale circulations like subtropical ridges. For instance, imagery from GOES-R series advanced baseline imagers enables hourly updates on upper-level , enhancing the depiction of synoptic flow evolution. Ground-based remote sensing methods, including and , extend upper-air observations by profiling without balloons. Doppler weather s detect jet streams indirectly through echoes in the upper , revealing speeds exceeding 50 m/s in strong synoptic jets via azimuth display techniques. profilers, which are vertically pointing Doppler s operating at UHF or VHF frequencies, continuously measure horizontal from 2-16 km altitude with 250-meter resolution, providing hourly profiles that track synoptic shifts. systems, using pulses to detect backscatter or molecular returns, offer complementary and temperature profiles up to 20 km, particularly in clear conditions, though they are less widespread than networks. Constant-level balloons, tracked by or GPS, float at fixed levels (e.g., 200 hPa) for days, yielding Lagrangian trajectories that reveal synoptic streamlines over data-void regions. In data assimilation processes for synoptic models, upper-air observations correct biases inherent in surface-only analyses by initializing vertical structures in systems. Techniques like three-dimensional variational (3D-Var) or ensemble Kalman filters integrate profiles and satellite-derived winds to reduce forecast errors in upper-level heights by up to 20-30 meters over 24 hours. For example, assimilating GOES winds into global models like the (GFS) improves the representation of positions, mitigating errors from surface pressure biases that propagate upward. Ensemble-based reanalyses, such as the 20th Century Reanalysis, demonstrate that upper-air data enhance synoptic reconstructions even in pre-satellite eras by constraining background error covariances. This integration ensures models accurately depict the full tropospheric column, vital for predicting synoptic evolution.

Major Weather Systems

Extratropical Cyclones

Extratropical cyclones, also known as mid-latitude cyclones, are large-scale low-pressure systems that form in the outside the , typically between 30° and 60° , and play a central role in synoptic-scale weather by transporting heat, moisture, and momentum poleward. These systems develop through the interaction of contrasting air masses and upper-level dynamics, often leading to widespread , strong winds, and contrasts across frontal boundaries. Unlike tropical cyclones, which rely on release, extratropical cyclones are primarily driven by baroclinic processes that convert from horizontal gradients into . They typically span 1,000 to 2,500 kilometers in diameter and evolve over 3 to 10 days, influencing weather over continents and oceans. The lifecycle of an begins with , the initial formation and intensification of a surface low-pressure center, often along a pre-existing frontal boundary where warm and cold air masses meet. This stage involves the development of a wave perturbation on the front, triggered by associated with an upstream upper-level trough, leading to surface pressure falls and the separation of warm and cold fronts. As the system intensifies, the low deepens rapidly, with the advancing eastward and the catching up from the southwest, creating a distinct warm sector between them where milder conditions prevail. is most common over oceans in preferred development regions like the western North Atlantic or North Pacific, where warm currents enhance baroclinicity. In the mature stage, the cyclone reaches peak intensity, characterized by a fully developed low-pressure center surrounded by spiraling isobars, with the cold front overtaking the warm front to form an occluded front that wraps around the center. The warm sector, ahead of the , features rising warm, moist air, while the cold sector behind the brings cooler, stable air; these sectors are separated by sharp frontal boundaries that produce and . Satellite imagery often reveals a characteristic comma-shaped pattern during this phase, with the "head" representing the warm and occluded fronts' cloud bands and the "tail" the , resulting from the circulations that organize moisture transport. Deepening rates can exceed 24 hPa per 24 hours in events, driven by enhanced baroclinicity. The occlusion and decay stage marks the cyclone's weakening as the occluded front lifts the warm air mass aloft, cutting off the supply of energy from the surface temperature contrast. The low-pressure center fills, fronts dissolve, and the system becomes increasingly asymmetric, eventually merging with another weather system or dissipating. This phase reduces the cyclone's vigor, though remnants can still produce lingering . The primary dynamical driver of extratropical cyclone development is baroclinic instability, which arises from the release of energy stored in horizontal temperature gradients along the . Seminal theoretical work by Charney (1947) demonstrated that zonal flows with vertical shear and a meridional gradient are unstable to wave perturbations, leading to cyclone growth on scales comparable to observed systems. Eady (1949) further simplified this in a model without planetary vorticity gradient, showing maximum growth rates for wavelengths around 1,000 km, aligning with synoptic scales. (PV) conservation governs the evolution, where quasigeostrophic PV, approximated as q=ζg+fσq = \frac{\zeta_g + f}{\sigma} with ζg\zeta_g as geostrophic relative vorticity, ff the Coriolis parameter, and σ\sigma the static stability, is conserved following the flow; anomalies in upper-level PV propagate downward, inducing surface cyclogenesis. Associated features include the warm sector's ascending airstreams and the cold sector's descending motion, which together form the cyclone's comma cloud signature visible in water vapor imagery, indicative of mid-tropospheric drying behind the system. In intense cyclones, particularly those following the Shapiro-Keyser type, sting-jet winds can occur—a narrow band of descending air from the cloud head's tip, accelerating to near-surface gusts exceeding 50 m/s through slantwise convection and evaporative cooling. These jets contribute to extreme winds in the right-entrance region of the upper jet streak. Regional variations in cyclone structure are captured by the classic Norwegian model, developed by Bjerknes and colleagues in the 1920s, which describes a symmetric lifecycle with successive frontal passages and occlusion from the cold front wrapping cyclonically around the low. Modern refinements, such as the theory introduced by (1986), emphasize asymmetric airstreams: the warm conveyor belt ascends moist air from the surface ahead of the warm front, fueling , while the cold conveyor belt wraps around the west side, enhancing the cloud head; this paradigm better explains observed asymmetries in North Atlantic storms. For instance, the 1987 Great Storm, an that deepened explosively over the , exemplifies these dynamics with sting-jet winds producing gusts up to 100 knots in southeast , felling 15 million trees and causing 18 fatalities in a once-in-200-year event.

High-Pressure Systems

High-pressure systems, also known as anticyclones, are large-scale features in synoptic characterized by descending air motion that promotes stable atmospheric conditions and fair . These systems typically span thousands of kilometers and exhibit weak horizontal pressure gradients, resulting in light winds near the center that circulate in the due to the Coriolis effect. A key structural element is the subsidence inversion, where sinking air warms adiabatically, creating a layer of increased with height that suppresses vertical mixing, formation, and , often leading to clear skies. Anticyclones are distinguished by their location: subtropical highs form semi-permanently around 25°–35° in both hemispheres, driven by the descending branch of the Hadley circulation, while polar highs develop near the poles through intense surface cooling. Formation of these systems involves distinct mechanisms depending on their type. Polar highs arise primarily from radiative cooling at the surface during winter, where longwave radiation loss from snow- and ice-covered regions chills the air, increasing its and causing it to subside and build high . This process is enhanced by the absence of solar heating, leading to anticyclogenesis in continental polar air masses. In contrast, both subtropical and mid-latitude highs often form dynamically through blocking patterns associated with Rossby waves, where amplified upper-level ridges in the westerly flow create persistent areas of aloft, promoting widespread and maxima. These blocking highs can detach from the mean flow, remaining quasi-stationary for days to weeks and altering typical synoptic progressions. The circulation around high-pressure systems is largely governed by geostrophic balance, where the counters the , yielding nearly straight-line flow parallel to isobars. The vector is given by Vg⃗=1fρ∇p×k^\vec{V_g} = \frac{1}{f \rho} \nabla p \times \hat{k}
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