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Sparkling water showing its carbonation, which may be either natural or artificially introduced
External audio
audio icon "Fizzy Water", Distillations Podcast Episode 217, Science History Institute

Carbonated water[a] is water containing dissolved carbon dioxide gas, either artificially injected under pressure, or occurring due to natural geological processes. Carbonation causes small bubbles to form, giving the water an effervescent quality. Common forms include sparkling natural mineral water, club soda, and commercially produced sparkling water.[1]

Club soda, sparkling mineral water, or some other sparkling waters contain added or dissolved minerals such as potassium bicarbonate, sodium bicarbonate, sodium citrate, or potassium sulfate. These occur naturally in some mineral waters but are also commonly added artificially to manufactured waters to mimic a natural flavor profile and offset the acidity of introducing carbon dioxide gas giving one a fizzy sensation. Various carbonated waters are sold in bottles and cans, with some also produced on demand by commercial carbonation systems in bars and restaurants, or made at home using a carbon dioxide cartridge.[2]

It is thought that the first person to aerate water with carbon dioxide was William Brownrigg in the 1740s.[3][4] Joseph Priestley invented carbonated water, independently and by accident, in 1767 when he discovered a method of infusing water with carbon dioxide after having suspended a bowl of water above a beer vat at a brewery in Leeds, Yorkshire.[5] He wrote of the "peculiar satisfaction" he found in drinking it, and in 1772 he published a paper entitled Impregnating Water with Fixed Air.[6][7] Priestley's apparatus, almost identical to that used by Henry Cavendish five years earlier, which featured a bladder between the generator and the absorption tank to regulate the flow of carbon dioxide, was soon joined by a wide range of others. However, it was not until 1781 that companies specialized in producing artificial mineral water were established and began producing carbonated water on a large scale. The first factory was built by Thomas Henry of Manchester, England. Henry replaced the bladder in Priestley's system with large bellows.

While Priestley's discovery ultimately led to the creation of the soft drink industry—which began in 1783 when Johann Jacob Schweppe founded Schweppes to sell bottled soda water[8]—he did not benefit financially from his invention.[5] Priestley received scientific recognition when the Council of the Royal Society "were moved to reward its discoverer with the Copley Medal" at the anniversary meeting of the Royal Society on 30 November 1773.[5][9]

Composition

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Natural and manufactured carbonated waters may contain a small amount of sodium chloride, sodium citrate, sodium bicarbonate, potassium bicarbonate, potassium citrate, potassium sulfate, or disodium phosphate, depending on the product. These occur naturally in mineral waters but are added artificially to commercially produced waters to mimic a natural flavor profile and offset the acidity of introducing carbon dioxide gas (which creates low 5–6 pH carbonic acid solution when dissolved in water).[10][failed verification]

Artesian wells in such places as Mihalkovo in the Bulgarian Rhodope Mountains, Medžitlija in North Macedonia, and most notably in Selters in the German Taunus mountains, produce naturally effervescent mineral waters.[11]

Health effects

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By itself, carbonated water appears to have little to no impact on health.[12]

Carbonated water, such as club soda or sparkling water, is defined in US law as a food of minimal nutritional value, even if minerals, vitamins, or artificial sweeteners have been added to it.[13]

Carbonated water does not appear to have an effect on gastroesophageal reflux disease.[14] There is tentative evidence that carbonated water may help with constipation among people who have had a stroke.[15]

Acid erosion

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While carbonated water is somewhat acidic, this acidity can be partially neutralized by saliva.[16] A study found that sparkling mineral water is slightly more erosive to teeth than non-carbonated water but is about 1% as corrosive as soft drinks are.[17]

Chemistry and physical properties

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Bonds in carbonic acid are more easily broken at high temperatures resulting in the generation of water and gaseous carbon dioxide. Thus sparkling water at lower temperatures (far right) holds more carbonation than at high (far left).[18]

Carbon dioxide gas dissolved in water creates a small amount of carbonic acid (H2CO3):

H2O(l) + CO2(g) ⇌ H2CO3(aq)

with the concentration of carbonic acid being about 0.17% that of CO2.[19] The acid gives carbonated water a slightly tart flavor. Its pH level of between 5 and 6[10][failed verification] is approximately in between apple juice and orange juice in acidity, but much less acidic than the acid in the stomach. A normal, healthy human body maintains pH equilibrium via acid–base homeostasis and will not be materially adversely affected by consumption of plain carbonated water.[20] Carbon dioxide in the blood is expelled through the lungs. Alkaline salts, such as sodium bicarbonate, potassium bicarbonate, or potassium citrate, will increase pH.

The amount of a gas that can be dissolved in water is described by Henry's law. The coefficient depends on the temperature.[19] In the carbonization process, water is chilled, optimally to just above freezing, to maximize the amount of carbon dioxide that can be dissolved in it. Higher gas pressure and lower temperature cause more gas to dissolve in the liquid. When the temperature is raised or the pressure is reduced (as happens when a container of carbonated water is opened), carbon dioxide effervesces, thereby escaping from the solution.

The density of carbonated water is slightly greater than that of pure water. The volume of a quantity of carbonated water can be calculated by taking the volume of the water and adding 0.8 cubic centimetres for each gram of CO2.[21][22]

History

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Joseph Priestley pioneered a method of carbonation in the 18th century.

Many alcoholic drinks, such as beer, champagne, cider, and spritzer, were naturally carbonated through the fermentation process. In 1662 Christopher Merret created 'sparkling wine'.[23] William Brownrigg was apparently the first to produce artificial carbonated water, in the early 1740s, by using carbon dioxide taken from mines.[24] In 1750 the Frenchman Gabriel François Venel also produced artificial carbonated water, though he misunderstood the nature of the gas that caused the carbonation.[25] In 1764, Irish chemist Dr. Macbride infused water with carbon dioxide as part of a series of experiments on fermentation and putrefaction.[26][27] In 1766 Henry Cavendish devised an aerating apparatus that would inspire Joseph Priestley to carry out his own experiments with regard to carbonated waters.[28] Cavendish was also aware of Brownrigg's observations at this time and published a paper on his own experiments on a nearby source of mineral water at the beginning of January in the next year.[29]

Engraving of assorted scientific equipment, such as a pneumatic trough. A dead mouse rests under one glass canister.
Equipment used by Priestley in his experiments on gases and the carbonation of water

In 1767 Priestley discovered a method of infusing water with carbon dioxide by pouring water back and forth above a beer vat at a local brewery in Leeds, England.[30][31][32] The air blanketing the fermenting beer—called 'fixed air'—was known to kill mice suspended in it. Priestley found water thus treated had a pleasant taste, and he offered it to friends as a cool, refreshing drink. In 1772, Priestley published a paper titled Impregnating Water with Fixed Air in which he describes dripping "oil of vitriol" (sulfuric acid) onto chalk to produce carbon dioxide gas, and encouraging the gas to dissolve into an agitated bowl of water.[6] Priestley referred to his invention of this treated water as being his "happiest" discovery.[31]

"Within a decade, inventors in Britain and in Europe had taken Priestley's basic idea—get some "fixed air," mix it with water, shake—and created contraptions that could make carbonated water more quickly, in greater quantities. One of those inventors was named Johann Jacob Schweppe, who sold bottled soda water and whose business is still around today."

—The Great Soda-Water Shake Up, The Atlantic, October 2014.[33]

Priestley's apparatus, which was very similar to that invented by Henry Cavendish five years earlier, featured a bladder between the generator and the absorption tank to regulate the flow of carbon dioxide, and was soon joined by a wide range of others, but it was not until 1781 that companies specialized in producing artificial mineral water were established and began producing carbonated water on a large scale. The first factory was built by Thomas Henry of Manchester, England. Henry replaced the bladder in Priestley's system with large bellows.[5] J. J. Schweppe developed a process to manufacture bottled carbonated mineral water based on the discovery of Priestley, founding the Schweppes Company in Geneva in 1783. Schweppes regarded Priestley as "the father of our industry".[34] In 1792, Schweppe moved to London to develop the business there. In 1799 Augustine Thwaites founded Thwaites' Soda Water in Dublin. A London Globe article claims that this company was the first to patent and sell "Soda Water" under that name. The article says that in the hot summer of 1777 in London "aerated waters" (that is, carbonated) were selling well but there was as yet no mention of "soda water", though the first effervescent drinks were probably made using "soda powders" containing bicarbonate of soda and tartaric acid.[35] The name soda water arose from the fact that soda (sodium carbonate or bicarbonate) was often added to adjust the taste and pH.[citation needed]

Modern carbonated water is made by injecting pressurized carbon dioxide into water.[36] The pressure increases the solubility and allows more carbon dioxide to dissolve than would be possible under standard atmospheric pressure. When the bottle is opened, the pressure is released, allowing gas to exit the solution, forming the characteristic bubbles.

Modern sources of CO2 are from industrial processes, such as burning of fossil fuels like coal and methane at power plants, or steam reforming of methane for hydrogen production.

Etymology

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Belfast Evening Post, Belfast, Ireland, August 7, 1786

In the United States, plain carbonated water was generally known either as soda water, due to the sodium salts it contained, or seltzer water, deriving from the German town Selters renowned for its mineral springs.[37]

Sodium salts were added to plain water both as flavoring (to mimic famed mineral waters, such as naturally effervescent Selters, Vichy water and Saratoga Water) and acidity regulators (to offset the acidic 5-6 pH carbonic acid created when carbon dioxide is dissolved in water).[10]

Products for carbonating water

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Home

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Soda siphons

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Main article: Soda siphon
A soda siphon c. 1922

The soda siphon, or seltzer bottle—a glass or metal pressure vessel with a release valve and spout for dispensing pressurized soda water—was a common sight in bars and in early- to mid-20th-century homes where it became a symbol of middle-class affluence.

The gas pressure in a siphon drives soda water up through a tube inside the siphon when a valve lever at the top is depressed. Commercial soda siphons came pre-charged with water and gas and were returned to the retailer for exchange when empty. A deposit scheme ensured they were not otherwise thrown away.

Home soda siphons can carbonate flatwater through the use of a small disposable steel bulb containing carbon dioxide. The bulb is pressed into the valve assembly at the top of the siphon, the gas injected, then the bulb withdrawn.

Gasogene

[edit]
Main article: Gasogene
Late Victorian seltzogene made by British Syphon

The gasogene (or gazogene, or seltzogene) is a late Victorian device for producing carbonated water. It consists of two linked glass globes: the lower contained water or other drink to be made sparkling, the upper a mixture of tartaric acid and sodium bicarbonate that reacts to produce carbon dioxide. The produced gas pushes the liquid in the lower container up a tube and out of the device. The globes are surrounded by a wicker or wire protective mesh, as they have a tendency to explode.[38]

Codd-neck bottles

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Main article: Codd-neck bottle
The Codd-neck bottle is designed to contain a marble which seals in the carbonation.

In 1872, soft drink maker Hiram Codd of Camberwell, London, designed and patented the Codd-neck bottle, designed specifically for carbonated drinks. The Codd-neck bottle encloses a marble and a rubber washer/gasket in the neck. The bottles were filled upside down, and pressure of the gas in the bottle forced the marble against the washer, sealing in the carbonation. The bottle was pinched into a special shape to provide a chamber into which the marble was pushed to open the bottle. This prevented the marble from blocking the neck as the drink was poured.

Soon after its introduction, the bottle became extremely popular with the soft drink and brewing industries mainly in the UK and the rest of Europe, Asia, and Australasia, though some alcohol drinkers disdained the use of the bottle. R. White's, the biggest soft drinks company in London and south-east England when the bottle was introduced, was among the companies that sold their drinks in Codd's glass bottles.[39] One etymology of the term codswallop originates from beer sold in Codd bottles, though this is generally dismissed as a folk etymology.[40]

The bottles were produced for many decades, but gradually declined in usage. Since children smashed the bottles to retrieve the marbles, vintage bottles are relatively rare and have become collector items, particularly in the UK. Due to the risk of explosion and injuries from fragmented glass pieces, use of this type of bottle is discouraged in most countries, since other methods of sealing pressurized bottles can more easily incorporate release of unsafe pressures. The Codd-neck design is still used for the Japanese soft drink Ramune, and in the Indian drink called Banta.

Soda makers

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A typical all-in-one soda maker for home use found in supermarkets. A refillable carbon dioxide canister and a high-pressure bottle are often included.

Soda makers or soda carbonators are appliances that carbonate water with multiple-use carbon dioxide canisters. A variety of systems are produced by manufacturers and hobbyists.[41][42] The commercial units may be sold with concentrated syrup for making flavored soft drinks.

One major producer of soda carbonators is SodaStream. Their products were popular during the 1970s and 1980s in the United Kingdom, and are associated with nostalgia for that period and have experienced a comeback in the 2000s.[43][44]

Commercial

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A modern bar soda gun

The process of dissolving carbon dioxide in water is called carbonation. Commercial soda water in siphons is made by chilling filtered plain water to 8 °C (46 °F) or below, optionally adding a sodium or potassium based alkaline compound such as sodium bicarbonate to neutralize the acid created when pressurizing the water with carbon dioxide (which creates high 8-10 pH carbonic acid-bicarbonate buffer solution when dissolved in water).[45] The gas dissolves in the water, and a top-off fill of carbon dioxide is added to pressurize the siphon to approximately 120 pounds per square inch (830 kPa), some 30 to 40 psi (210–280 kPa) higher than is present in fermenting champagne bottles.[citation needed]

In many modern restaurants and bars soda water is manufactured on-site using devices known as carbonators. Carbonators use mechanical pumps to pump water into a pressurized chamber where it is combined with carbon dioxide from pressurized tanks at approximately 100 psi (690 kPa). The pressurized carbonated water then flows either directly to taps or mixing heads where flavoring is added before dispensing.

Uses

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Wikibooks Cookbook has a recipe/module on

Carbonated beverages

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Main article: Soft drink

Carbonated water is a key ingredient in soft drinks, beverages that typically consist of carbonated water, a sweetener, and a flavoring such as cola, ginger, or citrus.

Plain carbonated water or sparkling mineral water is often consumed as an alternative to soft drinks or alcoholic beverages. Club soda is carbonated water to which compounds such as sodium bicarbonate or potassium sulfate have been added.[46] Many manufacturers produce unsweetened sparkling water products that are lightly flavored by the addition of aromatic ingredients such as essential oils.[47][48] Carbonated water is often mixed with fruit juice to make sparkling alcoholic and non-alcoholic punches.[49]

Alcoholic beverages

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Main article: Hard seltzer

Carbonated water is a diluent mixed with alcoholic beverages where it is used to top-off the drink and provides a degree of 'fizz'.

Adding soda water to "short" drinks such as spirits dilutes them and makes them "long" (not to be confused with long drinks such as those made with vermouth). Carbonated water also works well in short drinks made with whiskey, brandy, and Campari. Soda water may be used to dilute drinks based on cordials such as orange squash. Soda water is a necessary ingredient in many cocktails, such as whiskey and soda or Campari and soda.

Cooking

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Carbonated water is increasingly popular in Western cooking as a substitute for plain water in deep-frying batters to provide a lighter texture to doughs similar to tempura. Kevin Ryan, a food scientist at the University of Illinois at Urbana–Champaign, says the effervescent bubbles when mixed with dough provide a light tempura-like texture, which gives the illusion of being lower calorie than regular frying batters. The lightness is caused by pockets of carbon dioxide gas being introduced into the batter (a process which natural rising using yeast also creates) and further expanding when cooked.[50]

Stain remover

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Since the dissolved gas in carbonated water acts as a temporary surfactant, it has been recommended as a household remedy for removing stains, particularly those of red wine.[51]

See also

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Notes

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References

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[edit]
Revisions and contributorsEdit on WikipediaRead on Wikipedia

Carbonated water

View on Grokipedia
from Grokipedia
Carbonated water, also known as sparkling water or soda water, is water into which gas has been dissolved under pressure, resulting in and a slightly tangy, acidic taste due to the formation of . This process mimics the natural found in certain springs, where is absorbed from geological sources. Plain carbonated water contains no added sugars, flavors, or calories, distinguishing it from sweetened soft drinks, though varieties like may include minor minerals such as for taste. The history of carbonated water dates back over 2,000 years, when ancient civilizations in and recognized the therapeutic properties of naturally effervescent mineral springs, using them to treat ailments like digestive issues and joint pain. In the , scientific advancements enabled artificial production: English chemist invented a method in 1772 to infuse water with using and chalk, earning recognition from the Royal Society. This was soon commercialized by Jacob Schweppe in the 1780s through a pressurized pump system, leading to bottled carbonated water becoming a popular beverage in and beyond. Production involves purifying water to meet standards like those set by the or FDA, then injecting —typically 1.5 to 5 grams per liter—under high pressure in automated systems to achieve saturation. Naturally carbonated waters, such as those from mineral springs, retain geological minerals like calcium and magnesium, while artificial versions use treated water and may be fortified. Today, it serves as a versatile mixer in cocktails, a flavored alternative to still water, and a healthier substitute for sugary sodas, with global consumption driven by health-conscious trends. Regarding health effects, plain carbonated water is generally safe and hydrating, with no calories or added sugars, making it a recommended option in dietary guidelines for children and adults. Studies show it does not significantly alter oral or promote compared to plain , though frequent consumption of acidic variants may pose minor risks to dental enamel. Overall, evidence indicates neutral to positive impacts on thirst quenching and as a low-risk beverage choice.

Composition and Chemistry

Chemical Composition

Carbonated water consists of in which (CO₂) gas is dissolved under pressure, leading to the partial formation of (H₂CO₃) through a reversible . The primary reaction is: CO2(g)+H2O(l)⇌H2CO3(aq)\mathrm{CO_2 (g) + H_2O (l) \rightleftharpoons H_2CO_3 (aq)} This equilibrium, known as the hydration of CO₂, has an Kh=1.70×10−3K_h = 1.70 \times 10^{-3} at 25°C, indicating that only a small fraction of dissolved CO₂ converts to H₂CO₃. The resulting dissociates weakly, releasing ions (H⁺) and lowering the of the solution to typically 3.5–5.5, depending on the CO₂ concentration and temperature. Variations in carbonated water arise from the addition or natural presence of other compounds, altering its chemical profile beyond plain CO₂ dissolution. Seltzer water is simply carbonated with CO₂, containing no additional minerals or flavors. Club soda, in contrast, incorporates added mineral salts such as (NaHCO₃), (NaCl), (K₂SO₄), and disodium phosphate (Na₂HPO₄), which contribute sodium, potassium, and other ions to enhance taste and mimic natural effervescence. These salts are typically added in small quantities, with sodium content ranging from 75–250 mg per liter in commercial formulations, sourced from purified mineral compounds during manufacturing. Tonic water includes carbonated water flavored with (derived from bark) and sweetened with sugar or , often at levels of 20–30 grams per 250 ml serving, along with for tartness. Naturally carbonated mineral water, sourced from underground aquifers, contains inherent dissolved CO₂ from geological processes as well as minerals like calcium, magnesium, sodium, potassium, , sulfate, and , with compositions varying by origin (e.g., higher levels in volcanic spring waters).

Physical Properties

Carbonated water exhibits distinct physical primarily due to the dissolution of (CO₂) gas in under elevated , which influences its , , sensory characteristics, and bulk like and . The of CO₂ in follows , which states that the concentration of dissolved CO₂ (C) is proportional to its (P) above the liquid: C=k⋅PC = k \cdot P where kk is Henry's constant, approximately 0.034 mol/L/atm at 25°C. This relationship quantifies how increased during carbonation allows more CO₂ to dissolve, creating a supersaturated solution relative to atmospheric conditions. Solubility decreases with rising temperature, as higher disrupts the gas-liquid interactions, while has the opposite effect by forcing more CO₂ into solution. Consequently, when carbonated water is heated, the dissolved CO₂ escapes gradually, resulting in progressive degassing. By the time the water reaches its boiling point, the carbonation is effectively lost, producing flat water. The gas release occurs gradually under normal conditions in open containers or standard kettles, without rapid pressure buildup or associated hazards such as explosion. Upon opening a , the sudden leads to , triggering sites where dissolved CO₂ forms bubbles, resulting in characterized by rapid gas release and foaming. This bubble formation is enhanced at lower temperatures, where is higher, prolonging the fizzy release. The sensory properties of carbonated water arise from the release of CO₂, producing a fizzy sensation as bubbles expand and burst on the , alongside a tingling . This tingling is mediated by the conversion of CO₂ to in the oral cavity, which activates nociceptors via the enzyme , stimulating pathways without relying solely on mechanical bubble contact. Dissolved CO₂ slightly alters the bulk physical ; the of carbonated water is marginally higher, approximately 1.002 g/cm³ compared to 1.000 g/cm³ for still at standard conditions, due to the of dissolved gas and minor ionic contributions from formation. also experiences a subtle increase with CO₂ concentration, though the change is small (on the order of 1-2% for typical levels), affecting flow behavior minimally in everyday contexts.

Health Effects

Potential Benefits

Carbonated water provides hydration benefits comparable to still . A involving euhydrated participants demonstrated that carbonated water maintains and urine output similarly to non-carbonated , with no significant differences in absorption rates or overall hydration efficacy. This equivalence arises because the content does not alter the fundamental absorption mechanisms in the body. Regarding digestive health, carbonated water can aid and alleviate certain gastrointestinal issues. Research indicates that the stimulates sensory nerves in the oral and pharyngeal regions, promoting faster and stronger swallowing responses, which may benefit individuals with mild . Additionally, a clinical study on patients with functional dyspepsia and found that consuming carbonated water significantly improved symptoms of dyspepsia and constipation compared to , potentially through enhanced motility. Carbonated water may support by enhancing sensations of fullness. In a study of healthy young women, of carbonated water led to higher fullness scores and increased gastric activity, suggesting an appetite-suppressing effect from the carbonation-induced distension in the . This satiating sensation could contribute to reduced intake when substituted for other beverages, though effects on long-term remain modest. Certain variants of carbonated water, particularly sparkling mineral waters rich in minerals, offer benefits for . Under Directive 2009/54/EC, natural mineral waters may be labeled as containing calcium if they exceed 150 mg/L and magnesium if over 50 mg/L, ensuring standardized mineral content for health claims. A of clinical trials highlighted that regular consumption of calcium-rich sparkling mineral waters (e.g., >150 mg/L calcium) may help maintain density in postmenopausal women, owing to the high of these minerals compared to supplements. Some evidence suggests neutral effects on in hypertensive patients from sparkling water consumption, though findings are mixed and further is required.

Potential Risks

Carbonated water, due to its acidic nature from dissolved forming , poses a low risk of . The of plain carbonated water typically ranges from 4.0 to 5.0, which is mildly acidic but studies show minimal effects on enamel demineralization, similar to still water, even with frequent exposure. Flavored variants often include citric or , exacerbating the risk and leading to greater enamel loss. The recommends limiting intake of acidic variants to mealtimes and rinsing with plain water afterward to mitigate this, particularly for those with existing dental sensitivity. To further minimize contact with teeth, using a straw to bypass direct exposure and avoiding constant sipping by consuming in one sitting can reduce exposure time. In terms of gastrointestinal effects, carbonated water may induce and gas in some individuals by introducing additional air into the digestive tract, potentially worsening symptoms in those with (IBS) or (GERD). These effects, such as bloating and burping, may be more pronounced when consumed on an empty stomach, as the carbon dioxide gas expands more readily without food to buffer it. Studies indicate a weak but notable association with reflux exacerbation, as the can increase stomach pressure and promote belching or regurgitation. For sensitive populations, such as IBS patients, moderation is advised to avoid flare-ups, though plain carbonated water is generally better tolerated than sweetened alternatives. To minimize these effects, individuals can start with small amounts, consume with food to buffer the gas, alternate with still water, and monitor or reduce intake if they experience GERD or IBS symptoms. Concerns about bone density primarily relate to carbonated beverages containing , such as colas, which have been linked to reduced bone mineral density and higher risk through interference with calcium absorption. However, plain carbonated water lacks this additive and shows no significant impact on bone health in available . Harvard Health reports no evidence that the from alone affects bone metabolism. Club soda, a type of carbonated water mineralized with or other salts, contains approximately 75-300 mg of sodium per liter, varying by brand, posing risks for individuals with who must monitor intake to avoid elevated . The suggests limiting total daily sodium to under 2,300 mg, making excessive consumption a potential contributor in salt-sensitive persons. Opting for sodium-free seltzer is preferable for those with cardiovascular concerns. Generally, sticking to plain natural varieties of carbonated water without added citric acid or sweeteners helps minimize overall health risks associated with acidity and additives.

History

Early Development

Ancient civilizations recognized the therapeutic properties of naturally effervescent mineral springs, which contained dissolved (CO2). In the , people frequented such springs for bathing and drinking to alleviate ailments like tumors and gallstones, with acidic, carbonated waters believed to aid digestion and overall health. The hot springs at Bath, —known to the Romans as and developed from the 1st century AD—exemplified these sites, where mineral-rich waters were harnessed for medicinal purposes despite their thermal rather than distinctly carbonated nature. The scientific foundation for artificial carbonation emerged in the amid Enlightenment-era experiments with gases. In 1767, English chemist devised the first method to artificially aerate water by suspending it over a mixture of and , which reacted to produce "fixed air" (CO2) that dissolved into the liquid under pressure. This breakthrough, detailed in his 1772 pamphlet Impregnating Water with Fixed Air, replicated the of natural springs and opened the door to controlled production. Building on this, apothecary Thomas Henry of , , advanced practical manufacturing around the same period, producing carbonated water in 12-gallon barrels for medicinal distribution and establishing the first dedicated factory by the late 1770s. Commercialization accelerated in the late , driven by demand for accessible therapeutic waters. In 1783, Swiss-German watchmaker and jeweler founded a factory in to mass-produce bottled carbonated using an improved apparatus that generated CO2 from and , then infused it via agitation. Schweppe's Geneva System emphasized purity and consistency, initially targeting the middle and upper classes for health tonics, and laid the groundwork for the global soft drink industry. Throughout the 18th and 19th centuries, carbonated water was widely prescribed for digestive disorders and conditions like , reflecting its roots in natural therapies. Physicians recommended it as a remedy for , , and buildup associated with , often quinine-infused variants for prevention. These applications were inspired by earlier insights into pressure and gases, such as Evangelista Torricelli's 1643 experiments, which demonstrated atmospheric pressure's role in supporting liquids and influenced subsequent techniques for dissolving CO2 under controlled conditions. By the mid-19th century, aerated waters had transitioned from elite prescriptions to broader consumption, underscoring their perceived curative value.

Etymology and Terminology

The term "carbonated" originates from the Latin carbo, meaning "coal" or "charcoal," alluding to the carbon source in the gas used for infusion. French chemist coined the name "carbon" for the element in 1787 and referred to as acide carbonique in his reforms, establishing the chemical basis for the descriptor. The application of "carbonated" to specifically dates to 1834, as a concise form of "soda water," reflecting the growing understanding of the gas's composition during the early . "Soda water" emerged in 1802 to describe water impregnated with , often combined with —commonly called "soda"—to enhance and stability in early preparations. Although contemporary plain carbonated water typically lacks added sodium compounds, the term endures due to this historical association with alkaline salts derived from . Regional variations abound in terminology. In the and much of , "sparkling water" is the standard term, emphasizing the visual effect of bubbles. In the United States, "" prevails, a name tracing to the when carbonated water was commonly served in exclusive gentlemen's clubs as a refined mixer. Colloquially, "fizzy water" is used across English-speaking regions to evoke the sound and sensation of . Terminology evolved significantly in the , shifting from "aerated water"—an early phrase post-Joseph Priestley's 1767 method of infusing water with "fixed air" ()—to "carbonated" as chemists like Lavoisier clarified the gas's identity, aligning names with precise chemical principles.

Production Methods

Home Carbonation Devices

Home carbonation devices enable consumers to produce sparkling water on a small scale without relying on commercially bottled products. These tools have evolved from 19th-century inventions designed for household use to contemporary appliances that simplify the process of infusing into . Early mechanisms often relied on chemical reactions or manual pressure systems, while modern versions utilize pressurized gas cylinders for efficient and controlled . Soda siphons, introduced in the , were among the first portable devices for handling carbonated beverages at home, typically constructed from or metal with a capacity of about one liter. These siphons operated by filling the bottle with plain and then injecting using replaceable small cartridges, known as "bulbs" or "chargers," which were pierced to release the gas under . The occurred as the device was shaken, allowing the CO2 to dissolve into the water, after which a release on the dispensed the sparkling without the need for pumping. This design, popularized by brands like Sparklets in the early , allowed users to maintain on demand and was particularly valued for mixing cocktails or refreshing drinks in households lacking access to soda fountains. Preceding the widespread use of gas cartridges, gasogenes emerged in the as a chemical-based alternative for generating in the home, gaining popularity in the 1880s among affluent households in and . The device consisted of two interconnected glass globes or containers: the lower one held a solution of (or ), while the upper contained (baking soda). When a user tilted or connected the globes, the acid mixed with the bicarbonate, triggering an immediate that produced gas, which then bubbled through and carbonated a separate vessel of water. This on-demand method avoided the need for pre-pressurized components but required careful handling to manage the reactive chemicals and resulting fizz, often resulting in a single serving of soda water for immediate consumption. Gasogenes, sometimes encased in wicker for aesthetics and safety, represented an early effort to democratize carbonated beverages beyond commercial apothecaries. In parallel, the Codd-neck bottle, patented in 1872 by British inventor Hiram Codd, offered a simple, reusable solution for retaining carbonation in bottled drinks without complex machinery. This thick glass bottle featured a narrow neck with internal grooves and a ledge that trapped a glass marble against a rubber washer seal when pressurized by the CO2 in the carbonated liquid. Upon filling and sealing at a factory or home setup, the internal pressure from the dissolved gas pushed the marble upward to form an airtight closure, preventing escape of the effervescence; to open, the consumer pressed the marble downward with a thumb, allowing the drink to flow out. Designed specifically for soft drinks, these bottles were durable for multiple uses—up to 40 refills in some cases—and became widespread in the British Empire and Australia during the late 19th and early 20th centuries. Today, antique Codd-neck bottles are prized by collectors for their ingenious physics-based mechanism and historical significance in the soda industry. Modern home carbonation devices, such as the introduced in its current form during the , build on these foundations with user-friendly electric or manual systems that employ large CO2 cylinders for repeated use. Originating from early 20th-century patents for home soda makers, 's machines—relaunched after a merger—allow users to carbonate a of plain by attaching a 60-liter CO2 cylinder and pressing a button, which releases a metered amount of gas into the water through a mechanism, achieving customizable fizz levels in seconds. Safety features, including relief valves that automatically vent excess gas to prevent explosions, and child-resistant cylinder connections, ensure household operation without hazards. These appliances, compatible with reusable bottles, have promoted eco-friendly alternatives to single-use packaging since their global expansion in the early .

Commercial Manufacturing

Commercial manufacturing of carbonated water involves a series of standardized industrial processes to ensure purity, consistent carbonation, and safety for large-scale production. The process begins with , where source water—typically municipal or —is treated through methods such as , , , or disinfection to remove impurities, microorganisms, and contaminants, achieving compliance with sanitary standards. This step is critical to produce high-quality base water free from adulteration, with ongoing monitoring and records maintained for regulatory adherence. Following purification, the purified water is chilled to approximately 0–5°C to enhance solubility, and food-grade carbon dioxide (CO2) is then injected under pressure, typically 3–6 bar (approximately 3–6 atm), using specialized carbonation equipment. Inline carbonators, which process water continuously in a high-pressure mixing chamber, are preferred for high-volume production due to their efficiency and precision in achieving uniform carbonation levels of 2–4 volumes (where 1 volume equals 1 liter of CO2 gas at standard temperature and pressure per liter of water), while batch carbonators are used for smaller runs or specialized formulations. Automated fillers then dispense the carbonated water into PET plastic or glass bottles or cans, maintaining the target CO2 levels through counter-pressure filling systems that minimize gas loss, followed by sealing to preserve effervescence. Pasteurization via tunnel pasteurizers may be applied in some facilities for added microbial stability, particularly if additives are included, though it is not always required for plain carbonated water bottled under aseptic conditions. For variants like , salts such as , , or are precisely dosed during the mixing stage post-carbonation, using automated proportioning systems to achieve specific profiles without altering the water's . In contrast, naturally carbonated waters are sourced directly from protected springs, where CO2 is either naturally occurring or supplemented minimally to retain the water's inherent composition, with bottling occurring at or near the source to comply with origin requirements. Quality control is enforced through rigorous standards, including U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) Current Good Manufacturing Practices (CGMPs) under 21 CFR Part 129, which mandate weekly bacteriological testing for total coliforms, annual analyses for chemical and radiological contaminants, and sanitary plant design to prevent contamination. CO2 used must meet beverage-grade purity of at least 99.9%, as per International Society of Beverage Technologists (ISBT) guidelines adopted by industry, ensuring minimal impurities that could affect taste or safety. In the , Directive 2009/54/EC governs natural mineral and spring waters, permitting carbonation while prohibiting treatments that alter composition, with similar microbial and purity testing requirements to maintain potability. These measures support a typical of up to 1–2 years for unopened bottled carbonated water when stored properly, during which carbonation levels remain stable.

Uses and Applications

In Beverages

Carbonated water serves as a foundational ingredient in , where it provides the signature fizz essential to soft drinks. Since the 1890s, when commercial carbonation technology became widely available, soda fountains in drugstores across the have mixed carbonated water with flavored syrups to create refreshing concoctions like and , transforming it from a medicinal tonic into a popular treat. As a standalone option, known as seltzer, it offers a simple, calorie-free alternative for hydration and refreshment, prized for its clean taste and without added sugars. In the realm of alcoholic beverages, carbonated water functions primarily as a mixer in cocktails, diluting spirits while amplifying their carbonated lift and . Classic examples include the , which combines whiskey or other base spirits with soda water, and the gin and soda, both of which rely on the water's bubbles to balance flavors and extend the drink's volume. Typical proportions call for 1 part spirit to 2-4 parts chilled soda water, allowing the carbonation to integrate smoothly without overpowering the . The market for carbonated water in beverages has diversified with flavored sparkling varieties, which infuse natural essences to mimic fruit profiles while maintaining zero calories. LaCroix, launched in 1981 by the , exemplifies this trend by offering essences like grapefruit and berry in slim cans, positioning itself as an accessible, soda-like option for everyday consumption. Globally, the sparkling water sector underscores its beverage dominance, with the market valued at $42.62 billion in 2024 and projected to reach $108.35 billion by 2032, driven by demand for low-sugar alternatives. Culturally, carbonated water has emerged as a diet-friendly substitute for sugary sodas, particularly amid post-World War II health trends that emphasized reduced intake, evolving into a billion-dollar industry by appealing to consumers seeking fizz without the sweetness.

In Cooking and Cleaning

Carbonated water finds practical applications in cooking, where its mild acidity from dissolved ( of about 3.5-5) aids in tenderizing meat by breaking down proteins without overpowering flavors. For instance, marinating tougher cuts like in sparkling water for 1-2 hours softens the fibers, resulting in a more tender texture upon cooking, as the gently denatures muscle proteins. This method is particularly useful for quick preparations, avoiding the need for longer enzymatic marinades. In and batter-based recipes, carbonated water acts as a , releasing CO2 bubbles during mixing and heating to create lighter, airier results. It can substitute for eggs in vegan baked goods, binding ingredients while providing lift, as seen in recipes for fluffy pancakes or batters where the fizz promotes crisp exteriors without . Historical 19th-century recipes, such as early soda cakes, incorporated carbonated elements alongside for enhanced rise in pastries, reflecting the era's experimentation with effervescent ingredients for quick breads. Adding it to doughs or batters, like in German pancake recipes, yields fluffier textures by trapping air bubbles that expand in the oven. Beyond proteins, carbonated water preserves the color and firmness of cut fruits by slowing oxidation; soaking slices of apples, pears, or peaches in for about 5 minutes coats them with , which inhibits enzymatic browning reactions. This technique is effective for fruit salads or garnishes, maintaining vibrancy for up to a day when stored chilled. In vegetable preparation, the can help crisp leaves like by dislodging dirt without wilting them. For creamy elements, incorporating a splash into whipping cream mixtures enhances fluffiness in desserts, as the bubbles stabilize during beating. Carbonated water can be safely boiled for use in cooking and other applications requiring heated water. As the water is heated, the dissolved carbon dioxide escapes gradually, resulting in flat water by the time it reaches boiling point. Under normal conditions in open vessels or standard kettles, there is no risk of explosion, fire, or equipment damage, since carbon dioxide is non-flammable and the gas release is not rapid enough to cause significant pressure buildup. Boiling may occur slightly faster due to the presence of gases providing nucleation sites, but it poses no unique hazards compared to boiling regular water. In cleaning, carbonated water excels at on fabrics due to its bubbling action, which lifts embedded particles and dilutes spills before they set. Pouring liberally on fresh wine or food stains, then blotting, effectively removes them from or , as the CO2 agitation dislodges residues without harsh chemicals. Its mild acidity also aids in descaling appliances, such as refrigerators or sinks, by dissolving light mineral buildup from ; a fizzing solution of with salt can polish surfaces and prevent streaks. For routine maintenance, applying it to countertops or stovetops loosens grime for easy wiping.

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