Hubbry Logo
Wave solderingWave solderingMain
Open search
Wave soldering
Community hub
Wave soldering
logo
8 pages, 0 posts
0 subscribers
Be the first to start a discussion here.
Be the first to start a discussion here.
Wave soldering
Wave soldering
Wave soldering
View on Wikipedia
from Wikipedia
Inside a wave soldering machine, showing the wave soldering process
Temperature and time graph showing wave soldering solder pot and topside temperatures

Wave soldering is a bulk soldering process used in printed circuit board manufacturing. The circuit board is passed over a pan of molten solder in which a pump produces an upwelling of solder that looks like a standing wave. As the circuit board makes contact with this wave, the components become soldered to the board. Wave soldering is used for both through-hole printed circuit assemblies, and surface mount. In the latter case, the components are glued onto the surface of a printed circuit board (PCB) by placement equipment, before being run through the molten solder wave. Wave soldering is mainly used in soldering of through hole components.

As through-hole components have been largely replaced by surface mount components, wave soldering has been supplanted by reflow soldering methods in many large-scale electronics applications. However, there is still significant wave soldering where surface-mount technology (SMT) is not suitable (e.g., large power devices and high pin count connectors), or where simple through-hole technology prevails (certain major appliances).

Wave solder process

[edit]
A simple wave soldering machine.

There are many types of wave solder machines; however, the basic components and principles of these machines are the same. The basic equipment used during the process is a conveyor that moves the PCB through the different zones, a pan of solder used in the soldering process, a pump that produces the actual wave, the sprayer for the flux and the preheating pad. The solder is usually a mixture of metals. A typical leaded solder is composed of 50% tin, 49.5% lead, and 0.5% antimony.[1] The Restriction of Hazardous Substances Directive (RoHS) has led to an ongoing transition away from 'traditional' leaded solder in modern manufacturing in favor of lead-free alternatives. Both tin-silver-copper and tin-copper-nickel alloys are commonly used, with one common alloy called SN100C, developed by Nihon Superior Co, being 99.25% tin, 0.7% copper, 0.05% nickel and <0.01% germanium.[2]

Fluxing

[edit]

Flux in the wave soldering process has a primary and a secondary objective. The primary objective is to clean the components that are to be soldered, principally any oxide layers that may have formed.[3] There are two types of flux, corrosive and noncorrosive. Noncorrosive flux requires precleaning and is used when low acidity is required. Corrosive flux is quick and requires little precleaning, but has a higher acidity.[4]

Preheating

[edit]

Preheating helps to accelerate the soldering process and to prevent thermal shock.[5]

Cleaning

[edit]

Some types of flux, called "no-clean" fluxes, do not require cleaning; their residues are benign after the soldering process.[6] Typically no-clean fluxes are especially sensitive to process conditions, which may make them undesirable in some applications.[6] Other kinds of flux, however, require a cleaning stage, in which the PCB is washed with solvents and/or deionized water to remove flux residue.

Finish and quality

[edit]

Quality depends on proper temperatures when heating and on properly treated surfaces.

Defect Possible causes Effects
Cracks Mechanical Stress Loss of Conductivity
Cavities Contaminated surface

Lack of flux
Insufficient preheating

Reduction in strength

Poor conductivity

Wrong solder thickness Wrong solder temperature

Wrong conveyor speed

Susceptible to stress

Too thin for current load
Undesired bridging between paths

Poor Conductor Contaminated solder Product Failures

Solder types

[edit]

Different combinations of tin, lead and other metals are used to create solder. The combinations used depend on the desired properties. The most popular combinations are SAC (Tin(Sn)/Silver(Ag)/Copper(Cu)) alloys for lead-free processes and Sn63Pb37 (Sn63A) which is a eutectic alloy consisting of 63% tin and 37% lead. This latter combination is strong, has a low melting range, and melts and sets quickly (i.e., no 'plastic' range between the solid and molten states like the older 60% tin / 40% lead alloy). Higher tin compositions give the solder higher corrosion resistances, but raise the melting point. Another common composition is 11% tin, 37% lead, 42% bismuth, and 10% cadmium. This combination has a low melting point and is useful for soldering components that are sensitive to heat. Environmental and performance requirements also factor into alloy selection. Common restrictions include restrictions on lead (Pb) when RoHS compliance is required and restrictions on pure tin (Sn) when long term reliability is a concern.[7][8]

Effects of cooling rate

[edit]

It is important that the PCBs be allowed to cool at a reasonable rate. If they are cooled too fast, then the PCB can become warped and the solder can be compromised. On the other hand, if the PCB is allowed to cool too slowly, then the PCB can become brittle and some components may be damaged by heat. The PCB should be cooled by either a fine water spray or air cooled to decrease the amount of damage to the board.[9]

Thermal profiling

[edit]

Thermal profiling is the act of measuring several points on a circuit board to determine the thermal excursion it takes through the soldering process. In the electronics manufacturing industry, SPC (Statistical Process Control) helps determine if the process is in control, measured against the reflow parameters defined by the soldering technologies and component requirements.[10] Products like the Solderstar WaveShuttle and the Optiminer have been developed special fixtures which are passed through the process and can measure the temperature profile, along with contact times, wave parallelism and wave heights. These fixture combined with analysis software allows the production engineer to establish and then control the wave solder process.[11]

Solder wave height

[edit]

The height of the solder wave is a key parameter that needs to be evaluated when setting up the wave solder process.[12] The contact time between the solder wave and assembly being soldered is typically set to between 2 and 4 seconds. This contact time is controlled by two parameters on the machine, conveyor speed and wave height, changes to either of these parameters will result in a change in contact time. The wave height is typically controlled by increasing or decreasing the pump speed on the machine. Changes can be evaluated and checked using a tempered glass plate, if more detailed recording are required fixture are available which digitally record the contact times, height and speed. Also, some wave solder machines can give the operator a choice between a smooth laminar wave or a slightly higher-pressure 'dancer' wave.

Contact times and shape of wave solder on underside of PCB

See also

[edit]

References

[edit]

Further reading

[edit]
Revisions and contributorsEdit on WikipediaRead on Wikipedia

Wave soldering

View on Grokipedia
from Grokipedia
Wave soldering is an automated bulk process primarily used in to attach through-hole components to printed circuit boards by passing the assembly over a pumped wave of molten that wets and solidifies on the component leads and board pads. The process typically involves sequential stages of application to remove oxides and promote wetting, preheating to minimize and activate , immersion in the solder wave for formation, and post-soldering cooling to solidify connections. Developed in the mid-20th century as one of the earliest practical methods for mass-producing soldered assemblies, wave soldering enabled efficient scaling of production before the dominance of and . It remains a standard for through-hole and mixed-technology boards due to its high throughput and reliability for larger components, though it requires careful to avoid defects like solder bridging or insufficient fillet formation. Key defining characteristics include the use of eutectic or lead-free maintained at temperatures around 250–260°C, precise control of wave dynamics to ensure uniform contact, and integration with conveyor systems for continuous operation in high-volume settings.

History

Invention and Patenting

Wave soldering emerged in the mid-1950s as an automated method to electronic components onto printed circuit boards (PCBs), addressing the inefficiencies of manual for . The technique involved pumping molten to form a , allowing a PCB—pre-fluxed and preheated—to pass over it, where drew into joints via . The process was invented by Allan Barnes, Vic Elliot, and Ralph Strauss, engineers at the British firm Fry's Metal Foundries Ltd. They filed a for the wave soldering apparatus on October 3, 1956, which was granted on July 23, 1958, marking the formal protection of the core innovation: a pot with a generating a controlled laminar wave for consistent and formation. Fry's supplied the first practical wave soldering machine to Co. in 1956, demonstrating its viability for industrial use prior to patent issuance. This development coincided with the rise of through-hole PCB assembly, enabling scalable electronics manufacturing without compromising reliability.

Early Commercial Adoption

The first commercial wave soldering machine was developed and sold by Fry's Metals Foundry in the shortly after initial testing in November 1955. This rudimentary apparatus, constructed using a gas-fired solder pot and components, was purchased by , a pioneering British firm in radio receivers and , for £197. The sale marked the transition from experimental prototypes to practical industrial application, addressing the limitations of manual soldering for emerging printed circuit boards (PCBs) in post-World War II electronics manufacturing. Following the grant on July 23, 1958, for the process invented by Allan Barnes, Vic Elliot, and Ralph Strauss, wave soldering gained traction among producers seeking efficient through-hole component attachment. Fry's Metals promoted the technology through technical publications by representatives like Peter Offord, facilitating adoption in high-volume assembly lines. By the late , it enabled scalable production of complex assemblies, reducing labor costs and improving consistency compared to methods previously used for smaller-scale PCB work. Early adopters, primarily in the UK and extending to the by the early 1960s, included firms in and defense sectors, where the process's ability to handle denser component layouts proved advantageous. This adoption coincided with the proliferation of transistor-based devices, making wave soldering a for mass-producing reliable interconnections without pursuing a patent due to anticipated regulatory hurdles. The technology's commercial viability was underscored by its role in supplanting labor-intensive hand , though initial implementations required post- cleaning to mitigate residues.

Standardization and Widespread Use

Following its invention in 1956 by Fry's Metal, a British company, wave soldering rapidly transitioned from experimental to commercial application, enabling automated of through-hole printed circuit boards (PCBs) and supplanting labor-intensive manual methods. By the , the process had gained traction in the burgeoning sector, particularly for consumer devices like televisions and radios, where high-volume assembly demanded consistency and speed; early machines, though rudimentary, processed boards at rates far exceeding hand , with conveyor systems facilitating continuous operation. Adoption accelerated in the with the introduction of more reliable automated wave soldering machines, coinciding with the industry's expansion and the of PCB designs, which reduced defects and supported output scales of thousands of units per day in facilities. The widespread use of wave soldering established it as the dominant method for (THT) assembly until the rise of (SMT) in the 1980s, remaining integral for mixed-technology boards and applications requiring robust mechanical joints, such as automotive and industrial controls. Its efficiency—achieving solder joints in seconds per board versus minutes manually—drove cost reductions of up to 50% in high-volume production, per industry analyses, while minimizing variability through controlled application and preheat stages. Formal standardization emerged through the IPC (Association Connecting Electronics Industries), founded in 1957, which issued guidelines like IPC-TR-460 for wave soldering and optimization by the 1970s, addressing common issues such as bridging and insufficient . Later documents, including IPC J-STD-001 (initially published in 1992), codified requirements for soldered assemblies applicable to wave , specifying criteria for integrity, flux residues, and profiling to ensure reliability across classes of service (e.g., Class 2 for general , Class 3 for high-performance). These standards, informed by empirical data from manufacturers, promoted uniformity, with IPC-7530 providing temperature profile guidelines for wave soldering to mitigate defects like cold , reflecting iterative refinements based on defect rates observed in production exceeding 1% without controls.

Process Description

Fluxing Stage

In the fluxing stage of wave soldering, a chemical is applied to the underside of the (PCB) assembly immediately after component insertion and prior to preheating. This step prepares the metal surfaces— including component leads, plated-through-hole (PTH) barrels, and solder pads—for interaction by chemically removing oxides and contaminants that form during storage or handling. also prevents re-oxidation by creating a protective barrier against atmospheric oxygen and reduces , enabling molten to wet and flow more effectively across the joints. Without adequate fluxing, joints may exhibit poor , incomplete filling of PTHs, or defects such as dewetting, where beads up instead of spreading evenly. The predominant method of flux application is spray fluxing, where liquid flux is atomized through nozzles into a fine directed at the PCB's bottom surface as it moves along the conveyor. This technique ensures uniform coverage with minimal excess, typically achieving flux densities of 500–2000 micrograms per square centimeter depending on board complexity and type, while solvents in the flux evaporate rapidly to avoid residue buildup. Alternative methods include fluxing, in which flux is aerated into a stable and the PCB is gently lowered into it for selective contact, reducing overspray but requiring precise foam height control to prevent bridging on fine-pitch components; and drop-jet or selective spraying for targeted application on high-density boards. or dip methods are less common in modern automated lines due to inconsistencies in coverage and potential for contamination. Flux formulations for wave soldering are typically low-solids (2–5% activators by weight) to minimize post-solder residues, with no-clean variants preferred for environmental compliance and reduced cleaning steps, as their rosin-based or synthetic activators volatilize during subsequent heating without leaving conductive films. Water-soluble fluxes, containing organic acids for stronger oxide removal, demand post-process rinsing to avoid but offer better performance with lead-free solders, which oxidize more readily at higher temperatures around 260°C. Operational parameters such as conveyor speed (typically 1–2 meters per minute), flux (20–40 psi for sprays), and distance (10–20 cm from board) are optimized to match flux —often 15–25 seconds measured by Ford cup—to achieve consistent during the ensuing preheat phase, where temperatures of 100–150°C thermally decompose the flux for peak efficacy. Inadequate fluxing, often due to clogging or depleted chemistry, correlates with defect rates exceeding 5% in PTH soldering, underscoring the stage's criticality in yield optimization.

Preheating Phase

The preheating phase in wave soldering occurs immediately after flux application and serves to thermally condition the (PCB) assembly prior to immersion in the molten wave. This stage typically raises the PCB temperature to 100–150°C on the bottom side, with the top side reaching 80–120°C depending on board thickness and component density, over a dwell time of 1–3 minutes determined by conveyor speed and zone length. The process employs heating via forced hot air from perforated nozzles or tubular calrod elements, , or conduction from heated platens, with methods favored for uniform heat distribution and rapid response to adjustments. Key functions include activating the flux's chemical agents to remove metal oxides on leads, , and barrel walls, which requires elevating the flux to its activation temperature, often 90–130°C, while evaporating solvents to minimize voiding and splattering during wave contact. Preheating also mitigates by providing a gradual temperature ramp-up, preventing microcracks in components or delamination in the PCB laminate, and reduces the delta-T between the assembly and solder pot (typically 250–260°C), enhancing and minimizing formation. Inadequate preheating leads to incomplete flux activation, resulting in poor hole fill and bridging defects, whereas overheating can cause flux burnout, residue charring, or component damage, particularly in lead-free processes with higher thermal masses. Optimization involves thermal profiling to monitor top- and bottom-side temperatures, ensuring a ramp rate of 1–2°C/second and peak preheat aligned with specifications, often validated through for specific alloys like SAC305. For no-clean , lower preheat temperatures suffice to avoid excessive activation, balancing cleanliness with joint integrity.

Wave Soldering Interaction

In the wave soldering interaction stage, the preheated (PCB) assembly, with through-hole components inserted and applied, passes over a molten bath where mechanical pumps generate one or more waves of liquid forming a stable crest for contact. The PCB typically skims the solder surface via an inclined , with contact duration controlled to approximately 2-5 seconds to enable without excessive thermal exposure. This interaction primarily relies on , where the -activated molten wets the metallized pads and component leads, drawing into through-holes to form bonds and fillets. The solder wave dynamics involve turbulent or laminar flow profiles, often configured with a first turbulent wave to dislodge oxides and preheat further, followed by a smoother laminar wave for uniform joint formation, minimizing defects like bridging or icicles. Solder temperature, maintained at 250-270°C for lead-free alloys like SAC305, influences viscosity (typically 1-2 mPa·s) and surface tension (around 400-500 mN/m), directly affecting wetting speed and capillary rise rates, which can reach 1-10 mm/s depending on hole geometry and flux activity. Computational fluid dynamics (CFD) models simulate these interactions, predicting solder flow against the PCB undersurface and optimizing parameters to reduce dross formation and ensure void-free joints. Key variables during interaction include immersion depth (0.5-2 mm), conveyor speed (0.5-2 m/min), and wave height (5-10 mm), which collectively determine volume transfer and joint quality; deviations can lead to insufficient fill (below 75% occupancy) or excess causing shorts. For lead-free processes, higher temperatures exacerbate dissolution rates (up to 0.1-0.5 wt% per hour), necessitating atmospheres to suppress oxidation and maintain flow stability. Empirical studies confirm that optimal interaction yields shear strengths exceeding 50 MPa for standard PTH joints, verifiable via cross-section analysis.

Cooling and Cleaning Steps

Following the wave soldering interaction, the printed circuit board (PCB) undergoes controlled cooling to solidify the molten into mechanically robust joints. This stage typically employs air via fans or, less commonly, sprays to achieve rapid yet uniform reduction, preventing defects such as thermal shock-induced fractures or warping. Cooling zones maintain temperatures between 30–100°C (86–212°F) to facilitate even solidification while minimizing thermo-mechanical stresses from rapid . The cooling rate profoundly affects joint microstructure, including solder grain size refinement, intermetallic compound (IMC) layer thickness control (typically targeting 2–5 μm to avoid brittleness), and suppression of low-melting-point phase segregation that could compromise reliability. Recommended ramp-down rates range from 1–3°C per second, balancing speed for productivity with gradual descent to reduce differential expansion between components, PCB substrate, and solder. Excessive rapidity risks microcracks in lead-free alloys like SAC305, while overly slow cooling promotes excessive IMC growth and oxidation. In nitrogen atmospheres, cooling efficiency improves due to reduced oxidation, often extending joint lifespan by 20–30% in high-reliability applications. Subsequent cleaning eliminates flux residues, which remain activated post-soldering and can promote , dendritic growth, or insulation resistance degradation if unremoved—issues exacerbated by rosin-based or water-soluble formulations. Even "no-clean" fluxes warrant removal in demanding environments like , where residues may outgas or attract contaminants over time. Processes involve immersion in aqueous detergents or spraying with (IPA, ≥90% concentration) followed by deionized water rinsing and hot-air drying to achieve <1 μg/cm² ionic residue levels per IPC standards. For heavy burnt-in fluxes on pallets or masks, alkaline cleaners with 15–30 minute soaks at 50–70°C ensure complete without damaging substrates. Cleaning must commence within 4–8 hours post-soldering for reactive fluxes to avert premature , with ultrasonic agitation enhancing efficacy by 50% in residue penetration.

Materials and Alloys

Solder Composition and Types

In wave soldering, are typically supplied in bar form for in solder pots, with compositions optimized for fluidity, wetting on pads and component leads, and minimal formation during the wave contact. Traditional leaded alloys dominated until the mid-2000s, featuring eutectic mixtures like Sn63Pb37 (63% tin, 37% lead), which has a sharp of 183°C, enabling reliable through-hole joints with low for effective . A variant, Sn60Pb40, offers similar performance but with a slightly broader range of 183–191°C, providing marginally higher fluidity at the expense of potential joint brittleness under thermal cycling. These alloys' low s allowed wave temperatures of 240–260°C, reducing oxidation and bridging defects while complying with pre-RoHS standards for assembly. The European Union's RoHS Directive, effective July 1, 2006, restricted lead content to below 0.1% in , prompting a shift to lead-free alloys for wave soldering. The predominant lead-free type is the SAC family, particularly SAC305 (96.5% tin, 3.0% silver, 0.5% ), with a range of 217–220°C, requiring elevated pot temperatures of 255–270°C to maintain liquidity and prevent incomplete wetting on mixed-technology boards. SAC305's silver content enhances tensile strength and creep resistance, yielding joints with shear strengths exceeding 40 MPa, though it generates more dross than leaded solders due to tin oxidation, necessitating frequent skimming and alloy purity monitoring per IPC J-STD-001 guidelines limiting impurities like to 0.08–0.2%. Alternative lead-free compositions include SAC405 (95.5% tin, 4.0% silver, 0.5% ) for superior resistance in high-reliability applications, though its higher silver raises costs by approximately 20–30% over SAC305; and lower-silver like SAC105 or SAC125 for cost-sensitive production, which exhibit reduced wetting speed but adequate performance when paired with activated fluxes. Non-SAC options, such as SnCu0.7 (99.3% tin, 0.7% ), offer lower points around 227°C and minimal silver expense but suffer from poorer joint reliability under vibration, limiting their use to non-critical assemblies. selection must account for board preheat (typically 100–150°C) to mitigate , with empirical data showing SAC alloys' higher liquidus temperatures increasing defect rates by 10–15% without optimized fluxing.

Flux Formulations

Flux formulations in wave soldering are engineered to remove oxides from (PCB) surfaces, component leads, and molten while minimizing oxidation during the brief exposure to the solder wave, typically at temperatures between 250–300°C. These formulations generally comprise activators for reduction, vehicles or resins to control and residue, and solvents for application and . Activators commonly include rosin-derived colloids or synthetic organic acids such as adipic, glutaric, or , which react with metal oxides to form soluble compounds. Rosin-based fluxes, derived from pine resin, dominate traditional formulations and are classified under IPC J-STD-004 standards by halide content (e.g., ROL0 for low-solids, halide-free rosin) and activity level (no-clean, low, medium, or high). Non-activated rosin (R) fluxes provide mild cleaning with minimal residue, while mildly activated (RMA) variants incorporate small amounts of amine hydrochlorides or other activators for enhanced performance on oxidized surfaces, though they may leave tacky residues requiring selective cleaning. Activated rosin (RA) fluxes employ stronger halide activators like zinc chloride for heavily oxidized assemblies but demand thorough post-soldering washing to prevent corrosion. No-clean fluxes, formulated with low solids content (typically under 5% by weight), prioritize residue-free operation and are often alcohol-based with proprietary resins and organic activators to achieve without post-process cleaning. These are halide-free or ORH1-compliant (organic halides <1000 ppm) to reduce ionic risks, evaporating rapidly during preheating to avoid formation. Water-soluble fluxes, conversely, feature higher solids (10–30%) with aggressive organic or inorganic acids (e.g., phosphoric or hydrochloric derivatives) dissolved in aqueous or glycol carriers, necessitating deionized water rinsing to eliminate hygroscopic residues that could promote electrochemical migration. For lead-free soldering with higher-melting alloys like SAC305 (melting at 217–220°C), specialized formulations incorporate thermally stable activators and VOC-free solvents like to maintain efficacy at wave temperatures exceeding 260°C, reducing defects like incomplete hole fill. , such as or non-ionic esters, are added across types to improve and flux spreading, while defoamers prevent bubbling in the solder pot. Flux solids content typically ranges from 1–5% for no-clean to 15–35% for water-soluble, directly influencing (20–50 seconds in Ford cup #4) and application via spray nozzles at 40–80 mL/min.

Equipment and Operational Parameters

Core Machine Components

A wave soldering machine integrates several core components to facilitate the automated of electronic components onto printed circuit boards (PCBs), primarily for . These include the fluxing unit, preheating zone, solder pot with integrated , wave generator, , and cooling section, each contributing to precise control over the soldering process. The fluxing unit applies a thin, uniform layer of to the PCB's underside to chemically remove layers from metal surfaces and promote during wave contact. Spray fluxers deliver a fine mist for precise application and minimal excess, while foam fluxers provide a thicker suitable for varied board topographies; dip methods, though simpler, often result in uneven distribution and are less common in modern systems. The preheating zone elevates the PCB temperature to 100–150°C prior to exposure, activating the , evaporating solvents to prevent contamination, and reducing that could warp boards or cause defects. (IR) preheaters enable rapid heating rates for high-speed production lines, whereas systems using hot air circulation achieve more uniform profiles, particularly beneficial for multilayer or densely populated PCBs with ramp rates of 2–4°C/s. The pot serves as the reservoir for molten , typically maintained at 240–260°C for lead-free compositions like SAC alloys, ensuring consistent fluidity. Paired with a mechanism, it feeds into the wave generator, which forms the wave—either turbulent for aggressive wetting in through-hole pins to overcome in dense areas, or laminar for controlled, smooth flow that minimizes bridging and formation in surface-mount applications. Contact dwell time with the wave is generally 2–4 seconds to achieve reliable fill and formation. The , often a or belt mechanism, transports PCBs horizontally through sequential zones at speeds of 1–2 meters per minute, with adjustments for board dimensions up to several hundred millimeters and process variables like preheat duration. This ensures aligned passage over the wave and prevents misalignment-induced defects. Post-soldering, the cooling section solidifies joints via from fans for economical operation or methods for accelerated rates in high-density assemblies, promoting stable microstructures without excessive stress. An captures flux vapors and fumes through hoods and filters, maintaining operator safety and environmental compliance.

Key Process Variables

Solder bath temperature represents a primary control parameter, typically maintained at 245–265°C for leaded alloys to ensure adequate fluidity for through-hole and fillet formation without promoting excessive accumulation or oxidation. For lead-free solders, temperatures often exceed 250°C, up to 260–270°C, to compensate for higher melting points and , though this elevates risks of on components. Conveyor speed, ranging from 0.5 to 2.5 m/min (or 1–3 cm/s in some setups), governs the dwell time of the (PCB) over the solder wave, directly impacting solder flow into vias and hole fill percentage; slower speeds extend contact for better penetration but increase bridging potential on fine-pitch leads. Wave height, adjustable via pump settings, influences the effective contact area between the molten and PCB underside; optimal heights of 2–5 mm promote uniform immersion while minimizing turbulence-induced defects like icicles or solder balls, with precise calibration essential for varying board thicknesses. Preheating temperature, often 100–150°C on the component side, activates residues and reduces thermal gradients to prevent cracking in ceramics or warping in multilayer boards, with profiles tailored to assembly mass and per IPC-610 standards. Flux application rate and uniformity, controlled via spray and distance (typically 20–50 cm above the board), ensure removal without excess residue that could cause ionic ; low-solids no-clean fluxes demand higher volumes for efficacy in lead-free processes. Contact time, derived from conveyor speed and interactions (ideally 2–4 seconds), critically affects void minimization and layer thickness; studies indicate that suboptimal durations below 2 seconds in lead-free yield incomplete hole fills exceeding 10% voidage. Additional variables include solder flow rate, which modulates meniscus dynamics to avert bridging, and optional inert atmospheres like to suppress oxidation at interfaces, reducing defect rates by up to 20% in high-volume production. Interdependence among these parameters necessitates empirical profiling, as deviations can amplify defects per J-STD-001 criteria.

Quality Control and Optimization

Thermal Profiling Techniques

Thermal profiling in wave soldering measures the temperature-time history experienced by printed circuit boards (PCBs) as they traverse the preheating, fluxing, , and cooling zones, ensuring flux activation, melting, and avoidance of thermal damage to components or substrates. This process verifies that the assembly reaches temperatures sufficient for reliable joints while minimizing defects such as incomplete or bridging, with profiles typically targeting flux activation above 100–120°C, pot temperatures of 250–270°C for lead-free alloys, and total preheat times of 2–4 minutes depending on board thickness. Standards like IPC-7530B, revised in January 2025, outline guidelines for profiling to achieve acceptable joints in mass soldering processes, including wave. The primary technique employs fine-wire thermocouples (typically Type K, 0.076–0.127 mm diameter) attached to a representative test vehicle mimicking production PCBs in terms of , thickness (e.g., 1.6 mm ), and component density. A minimum of three thermocouples is recommended: one on the top surface to monitor preheat efficacy, one on the bottom to capture flux and pre- temperatures, and a third drilled through a via or hole to measure direct wave contact duration and peak immersion . These sensors connect to a portable or profiler that travels with the board on the conveyor, sampling at rates of 1–10 Hz to record across zones. Advanced implementations may incorporate multi-channel profilers supporting up to 20–40 thermocouples for detailed mapping of hotspots or variations due to board warpage and conveyor speed (typically 0.8–1.5 m/min). Post-process analysis software evaluates key metrics, such as time above liquidus (TAL) for solder flow (3–5 seconds for through-hole joints) and maximum ramp rates to prevent thermal shock exceeding 2–4°C/s. While infrared (IR) pyrometry offers non-contact alternatives for spot-checking solder pot or preheat uniformity, thermocouple methods remain dominant for their accuracy in conductive heat transfer scenarios, as IR can be skewed by emissivity variations on PCBs. Profiling frequency is advised at machine setup, after parameter changes, or material switches, with IPC-7530B emphasizing validation against production yields to correlate profiles with defect rates.

Impact of Cooling Rates

In wave soldering, the cooling rate following solder contact determines the solidification kinetics of the molten alloy on the (PCB), influencing grain structure, phase distribution, and defect formation. Rapid cooling, often achieved via forced air or jets, promotes finer dendritic microstructures in the solder bulk by limiting atomic diffusion time, which enhances mechanical homogeneity and reduces segregation of alloying elements like silver or in Sn-Ag-Cu formulations. Slower cooling allows extended , resulting in coarser grains and potential microvoids from shrinkage during phase transformation, as observed in non-ideal conditions where defect rates increase due to uneven solidification. The formation and morphology of intermetallic compounds (IMCs) at the solder-substrate interface, primarily Cu₆Sn₅ and Cu₃Sn layers, are highly sensitive to cooling velocity. Faster rates, exceeding 2°C/s, suppress IMC thickening by curtailing growth kinetics, yielding thinner layers (typically under 3-5 μm) with refined, planar grains that improve and fatigue resistance compared to the brittle, scalloped morphologies from prolonged cooling at below 1°C/s. However, excessively rapid cooling—above 6°C/s—can induce gradients across the , generating residual stresses that promote microcracks, particularly in lead-free solders with higher melting points (around 217-227°C for SAC305), exacerbating reliability under . Optimal cooling rates in wave soldering processes balance these effects, targeting 1-4°C/s to minimize both excessive IMC growth and stress-induced failures, as validated in profiles mirroring reverse heating ramps for uniform joint solidification. This controlled approach, often implemented via adjustable air knives post-solder wave, correlates with lower defect rates (under 0.5% for bridging or filleting issues tied to poor solidification) and enhanced long-term reliability, with studies showing up to 20% improvement in joint pull strength at moderated rates versus uncontrolled natural cooling. Empirical data from thermal profiling indicates that deviations from these rates amplify risks in high-volume production, where lead-free transitions have heightened sensitivity due to elevated process temperatures (250-260°C pot). For instance, insufficient cooling prolongs the liquidus phase, fostering Kirkendall voids at IMC interfaces from unequal , while overcooling stresses multilayer PCBs, leading to in components with mismatched coefficients of . Industry guidelines emphasize real-time monitoring via thermocouples to maintain these parameters, as variability beyond ±1°C/s can degrade joint integrity by 10-15% in accelerated life tests.

Wave Height and Conveyor Dynamics

The height of the solder wave, measured from the surface of the solder pot to the wave crest, critically influences the contact time between the molten solder and the underside of the printed circuit board (PCB) during wave soldering. Optimal wave heights are typically maintained between 2 and 3 mm above the PCB surface to ensure consistent wetting of through-hole leads and formation of proper solder fillets without excessive solder flow. Deviations in wave height lead to variations in contact duration; an increase causes prolonged immersion and risks such as bridging or icicles, while a decrease results in inadequate solder application and poor hole fill. Precise measurement and control, often via automated sensors, are essential to stabilize these parameters across production runs, as even minor fluctuations can degrade joint reliability. Conveyor dynamics encompass the speed, tilt angle, and alignment of the transport system that propels the PCB over the wave, directly governing dwell time and drainage. Standard conveyor speeds range from 0.8 to 1.5 meters per minute, calibrated such that dwell time—calculated as the wave contact length divided by speed—falls between 2 and 4 seconds for effective in through-holes. Excessive speed shortens contact, leading to incomplete , whereas insufficient speed promotes overheating or balls. The conveyor tilt angle, commonly set at 4° to 9°, facilitates runoff from the board via , countering frictional forces estimated at around 3° and preventing defects like bridging by promoting clean separation of excess molten alloy. Rail parallelism and perpendicularity to the wave front must also be verified to avoid uneven immersion across the PCB width, which could otherwise induce asymmetric patterns. Interactions between wave height and conveyor parameters amplify their impact on process outcomes; for instance, higher waves paired with slower speeds extend effective contact but heighten bridging risks, necessitating empirical tuning via design of experiments to balance hole fill and defect rates. In lead-free processes, these dynamics require tighter controls due to higher solder viscosity, often involving nitrogen atmospheres to mitigate oxidation during prolonged exposure. Monitoring tools, such as laser-based height sensors and speed encoders, enable real-time adjustments, ensuring compliance with standards like those outlined in IPC guidelines for consistent through-hole reliability.

Advantages and Limitations

Operational Strengths

Wave soldering provides high throughput capabilities, processing hundreds of printed circuit boards (PCBs) per hour in settings, which supports efficient large-scale of through-hole assemblies. This continuous flow utilizes automated conveyor systems to move boards sequentially through flux application, preheating, and solder wave contact zones, enabling rapid cycle times that outperform selective or hand soldering for volume production. The method delivers cost efficiency for high-volume runs, with per-board expenses decreasing as output scales due to minimal manual intervention and optimized equipment utilization. Compared to , wave soldering achieves faster processing for predominantly through-hole components, reducing overall assembly time while maintaining solder joint integrity through precise control of molten solder waves. Operational consistency arises from standardized parameters such as bath (typically 250–260°C for eutectic alloys) and conveyor speed (0.5–2 m/min), which minimize variability and yield reliable interconnections across batches. This reliability, combined with the process's adaptability to , positions wave soldering as a robust choice for industries requiring durable, high-density through-hole without frequent reconfiguration.

Technical Drawbacks and Defect Risks

Wave soldering exhibits several technical limitations, particularly in its applicability to modern printed circuit boards (PCBs) featuring mixed through-hole and (SMT) components. The process struggles with fine-pitch SMT devices, such as ball grid arrays (BGAs), due to inadequate solder flow control and potential for shadowing effects where larger components block molten from reaching adjacent areas. This restricts its use primarily to through-hole assemblies or boards with minimal SMT, as wave exposure can lead to uneven heating and reflow inconsistencies for bottom-side SMT parts. A primary defect risk is , where excess molten connects adjacent pins or pads, often resulting from unstable wave , overly close component spacing (less than 0.5 ), or insufficient conveyor tilt angles that hinder drainage. Bridging occurs in up to 20-30% of unoptimized runs and can cause short circuits, necessitating post-process cleaning or rework. Similarly, formations—elongated filaments hanging from joints—arise from rapid cooling or exhaustion, promoting poor fillet formation and mechanical weakness. Other prevalent defects include solder balls, small spherical residues detached during flux volatilization or dross agitation, which pose risks of electrical arcing or contamination if not minimized through precise application and control (typically 2-5 mm). Insufficient , characterized by incomplete solder adherence to leads or pads, stems from oxidized surfaces, inadequate preheat (below 100-120°C), or flux degradation, leading to voided joints with reduced reliability under thermal cycling. Pinholes and blowholes, gas entrapments from flux or laminate voids, further compromise joint integrity, with defect rates escalating beyond 10% in high-volume production without rigorous process monitoring. Thermal drawbacks amplify these risks, as solder bath temperatures (250-260°C for Sn-Pb, higher for lead-free alloys) can induce PCB warpage, , or component stress, especially for multilayer boards exceeding 1.6 mm thickness. Excessive formation from solder oxidation not only contaminates the wave but also increases maintenance downtime, while inconsistent hole fill in plated-through holes (PTHs) results from failures, often linked to penetration deficits or conveyor speeds over 1.5 m/min. Overall, unmitigated processes can yield defect rates as high as 50%, underscoring the need for selective alternatives in complex assemblies.

Environmental and Regulatory Considerations

Lead-to-Lead-Free Transition

The transition to lead-free soldering in wave processes was primarily driven by the European Union's Restriction of Hazardous Substances (RoHS) Directive, which took effect on July 1, 2006, limiting lead content in homogeneous materials to 0.1% by weight in electrical and electronic equipment. This regulation compelled manufacturers worldwide to replace traditional tin-lead (SnPb) solders, such as the eutectic Sn63Pb37 alloy with a melting point of approximately 183°C, with lead-free alternatives to comply with export requirements and environmental standards. The shift aimed to reduce environmental and health risks from lead leaching in landfills, though it introduced significant process adaptations without fully resolving debates over long-term reliability trade-offs. Lead-free alloys predominant in wave soldering include SAC305 (96.5% tin, 3% silver, 0.5% ), which has a melting range of 217–220°C, necessitating solder pot temperatures of 255–265°C—roughly 50–70°C higher than for SnPb—to achieve adequate fluidity and hole fill. Preheat zones were adjusted upward to 150–180°C to minimize , while fluxes evolved to more aggressive, low-solids formulations to counter the higher oxide formation and in tin-rich solders, which otherwise promote defects like bridging and dewetting. These changes increased generation by up to 2–3 times due to tin's reactivity, requiring enhanced pot maintenance and atmospheres to suppress oxidation. Implementation challenges included elevated risks of board warpage, component , and incomplete barrel fill from the solder's higher (10–20% greater than SnPb), with early adoption post-2006 revealing defect rates 15–30% higher in high-volume production until process optimization stabilized yields by 2010. Copper dissolution rates in solder pots rose substantially due to tin dominance, shortening pot life and necessitating coatings or alloy tweaks like SAC305 variants with or for mitigation. Despite these hurdles, the transition enhanced compatibility with modern high-Tg laminates, though empirical studies indicate lead-free joints exhibit 20–50% lower life under cycling compared to SnPb, attributing brittleness to growth.

Health, Safety, and Ecological Effects

Wave soldering operations generate fumes from flux volatilization and melting, which can include rosin-based compounds and metal vapors such as lead, tin, and , leading to respiratory , , and chronic effects like reduced function upon prolonged exposure. Inadequate local exhaust ventilation over wave soldering machines has been documented to cause air contamination, exacerbating symptoms including , eye , headaches, and sinus issues among operators. Lead-containing solders pose additional risks through of fumes or incidental , potentially resulting in neurological and renal damage over time, though airborne lead levels in modern controlled settings often remain below thresholds. Safety protocols emphasize , such as fume extraction hoods positioned directly above the solder pot and conveyor to capture emissions at the source, alongside including respirators for rosin flux use and heat-resistant gloves to prevent thermal burns from molten at temperatures typically exceeding 250°C. Operators must maintain physical barriers and automated handling to minimize contact with —oxidized residue—and ensure compliance with standards like OSHA's permissible exposure limits for lead (50 μg/m³ air average) through regular air monitoring and housekeeping to remove settled particulates. Transition to lead-free alloys, mandated by regulations such as the EU's RoHS directive since 2006, further mitigates heavy metal exposure risks while requiring adjustments for higher temperatures that demand enhanced thermal safeguards. Ecologically, traditional tin-lead wave soldering contributes to and contamination via lead leaching from , with lead's persistence and posing risks to ecosystems and through food chains. The shift to lead-free solders, primarily tin-silver-copper alloys, reduces toxic metal emissions and hazards, as evidenced by life-cycle assessments showing lower and ecotoxicity potentials despite marginally higher energy demands from elevated points (around 217–227°C versus 183°C for eutectic Sn-Pb). Process , including and residues, generates particulate emissions and requires treatment to prevent heavy metal release; recovers up to 90% of metals but incurs CO₂ emissions from , underscoring the need for closed-loop systems to minimize net environmental footprint.

Recent Developments

Automation and Selective Enhancements

Fully automated wave soldering systems have evolved from semi-automated setups of the 1980s, incorporating robotic arms for component handling, synchronized conveyor belts, and automated flux application to minimize human error and ensure consistent solder joint formation. These machines feature real-time data monitoring and temperature-controlled preheat zones, enabling high-throughput production while maintaining precise control over solder wave dynamics. Integration of and in recent models facilitates automated defect detection, such as cold solder joints or bridging, thereby improving yield rates and reducing rework in high-volume . Advanced systems also include integrated flux recovery and cleaning mechanisms, as introduced by manufacturers like ITW EAE, to enhance and . Selective enhancements complement by employing programmable nozzles that generate targeted miniature waves for through-hole components, reducing unnecessary heat exposure and compared to traditional broad-wave methods. This hybrid approach, combining elements of wave and fountain soldering, supports precise application on mixed-technology PCBs, lowering error rates, scrap, and maintenance downtime. In selective systems, extends to articulating board cradles for optimal positioning, CCD camera-based process monitoring, and offline programming compatible with Gerber files, allowing for versatile handling of double-sided assemblies and complex geometries. optimizations, including pin-to-hole ratios where equals pin plus 0.4 and wettable nozzles providing extended contact times of up to 3.6 seconds, further mitigate defects like incomplete filling or bridging. These enhancements enable selective wave soldering to achieve higher precision and repeatability, particularly in low-to-medium volume production scenarios.

Adaptations for Lead-Free and High-Mix Production

Lead-free wave soldering necessitates elevated solder bath temperatures, typically 255–265°C for Sn-Ag-Cu alloys, compared to 240–250°C for traditional Sn-Pb s, to achieve adequate fluidity and despite the higher of approximately 217–220°C. Equipment adaptations include corrosion-resistant solder pots constructed from high-grade , , or gray to mitigate formation and tin , which are exacerbated by lead-free alloys' reactivity. Flux formulations must be optimized for thermal stability at these temperatures, often incorporating low-solids or no-clean variants to reduce residue and bridging risks, with process parameters adjusted for longer dwell times and slower rates to ensure . In high-mix production environments, where small batches of diverse PCB assemblies predominate, wave soldering systems incorporate modular designs for rapid changeovers, such as quick-release solder pots and adjustable multi-zone preheaters to accommodate varying board thicknesses and component densities without extensive downtime. Conveyor systems feature programmable speeds and angles, often set at 7° for optimal drainage in lead-free processes, enabling to mixed through-hole and surface-mount technologies while minimizing defects like solder spikes or insufficient fill. Selective enhancements, including drop-jet ers and nitrogen inerting tunnels, further support high-mix flexibility by targeting flux application and reducing oxidation on varied assemblies, though full conversion from leaded to lead-free requires dedicated pots to prevent contamination. Combining these demands, modern wave solderers like inline selective hybrids employ software-controlled profiles for real-time parameter tweaks, such as dynamic wave heights and contact times, to handle lead-free alloys across low-volume, high-variety runs—evident in systems rated for up to 55 cm board widths with throughput exceeding 100 boards per hour in flexible modes. These adaptations address lead-free challenges like pinhole formation through precise preheat gradients (e.g., 150–200°C bottom-side) while enabling batch switching in under 30 minutes, prioritizing yield over the high-volume rigidity of traditional setups.

References

  1. https://www.protoexpress.com/blog/making-sense-wave-soldering/
  2. https://www.elepcb.com/blog/wave-soldering/
  3. https://leadsintec.com/wave-soldering-operation-guide-for-pcb-assembly/
  4. https://www.acdi.com/the-evolution-of-soldering-in-electronics-manufacturing/
  5. https://www.linkedin.com/pulse/wave-soldering-advantages-disadvantages-qnezc
  6. https://www.tstronic.eu/en/mastering-tht-wave-soldering-design-process-and-selective-wave-soldering-best-practices-for-pcb-assembly
  7. https://www.epdtonthenet.net/article/8488/50-years-of-wave-solder.aspx
  8. https://www.gracesguide.co.uk/Frys_Metal_Foundries
  9. https://www.raypcb.com/wave-soldering-temperature/
  10. https://reversepcb.com/wave-soldering/
  11. https://www.yontro.com/blog/the-evolution-of-wave-soldering-machines/
  12. https://resources.pcb.cadence.com/blog/2022-the-advantages-of-wave-soldering
  13. https://www.electronics.org/ipc-document-revision-table
  14. https://www.superengineer.net/blog/ipc-j-std-001
  15. https://www.tortai-tech.com/introduction-to-common-standards-for-printed-circuit-boards/
  16. https://www.pcbway.com/blog/Engineering_Technical/Wave_Flow_Soldering_Process.html
  17. https://www.indium.com/blog/how-to-evaluate-a-wave-solder-flux/
  18. https://www.allpcb.com/blog/pcb-assembly/wave-soldering-flux-selecting-the-right-type-for-optimal-wetting-and-minimal-residue.html
  19. https://www.superengineer.net/blog/soldering-wave-profile
  20. https://www.macrofab.com/blog/practical-guide-solder-flux/
  21. https://www.aimsolder.com/wp-content/uploads/wave_solder_profile_supplement.pdf
  22. https://www.protoexpress.com/kb/wave-soldering-design-considerations/
  23. https://www.eletimes.ai/wave-soldering-definition-process-working-uses-advantages
  24. https://www.acceleratedassemblies.com/blog/5-important-steps-of-a-wave-soldering-process
  25. https://www.itweae.com/applications/wave-soldering/fluxing-applications
  26. https://www.allpcb.com/allelectrohub/wave-soldering-smt-a-comprehensive-guide
  27. https://www.pcbasic.com/blog/wave_soldering.html
  28. https://www.indium.com/blog/preheating-part-iii-calrod-wave-soldering/
  29. https://jhdpcb.com/blog/wave-and-reflow-soldering/
  30. https://www.electronics.org/system/files/technical_resource/E18&S17-3.pdf
  31. https://www.nextpcb.com/blog/wave-soldering-process
  32. https://www.chuxin-smt.com/slug-a-comprehensive-guide-to-wave-soldering-temperature/
  33. https://ieeexplore.ieee.org/document/5642946/
  34. https://ieeexplore.ieee.org/document/6922797/
  35. http://ieeexplore.ieee.org/document/485095/
  36. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC4147262/
  37. https://asmedigitalcollection.asme.org/electronicpackaging/article/144/1/011011/1108155/Numerical-Modeling-of-the-Wave-Soldering-Process
  38. https://ieeexplore.ieee.org/document/1491075/
  39. https://ieeexplore.ieee.org/document/1452331/
  40. https://www.osti.gov/servlets/purl/1315661
  41. https://www.wevolver.com/article/demystifying-soldering-techniques-a-comparison-of-wave-soldering-and-reflow-soldering
  42. https://www.ideaspcb.com/info/why-cool-down-after-wave-soldering-71155674.html
  43. https://core-emt.com/wave-soldering-for-pcb-assembly-smt-dip-line
  44. https://resources.altium.com/p/make-sure-clean-your-no-clean-flux
  45. https://kyzen.com/industries-applications/electronics-assembly-cleaning/maintenance-cleaning/wave-selective-solder/
  46. https://www.techspray.com/smtwave-maintenance
  47. https://www.microcare.com/en-US/Resources/Resource-Center/FAQs/How-Can-I-Clean-a-Spray-Fluxer-in-a-Wave-Solder-Ma
  48. https://www.kolb-ct.com/cleaning-tasks/maintenance-cleaning/solder-frames-cleaning
  49. https://www.circuitinsight.com/programs/50178.html
  50. https://technotes.alconox.com/detergents/detergent-8/cleaning-solder-flux-residue/
  51. https://www.xometry.com/resources/materials/types-of-solder/
  52. https://www.nextpcb.com/blog/60-40-vs-63-37-solder-what-are-their-similarities-and-differences
  53. https://www.nextpcb.com/blog/lead-vs-lead-free-solder
  54. https://www.aimsolder.com/products/sac305-lead-free-solder-alloy/
  55. https://www.pcbasic.com/blog/lead_free_solder.html
  56. https://www.protoexpress.com/blog/ipc-j-std-001-standard-soldering-requirements/
  57. https://www.allpcb.com/allelectrohub/selecting-the-right-lead-free-solder-alloy-for-your-pcb-assembly
  58. https://www.aimsolder.com/wp-content/uploads/legacy-files/lead-free_comparison_of_snagcu_alloys.pdf
  59. https://www.protoexpress.com/blog/soldering-flux-acids-solids-and-solvents/
  60. https://www.electronics.org/system/files/technical_resource/E10%2526S35_01.pdf
  61. https://www.inventec.dehon.com/solutions/soldering/wave-soldering-flux-solutions/
  62. https://www.indium.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/03/WF-9955-Wave-Solder-Flux-PDS-98689-A4-R3-1.pdf
  63. https://superiorflux.com/products/electronics-soldering-flux/wave-solder-flux-no-clean-voc-free/
  64. https://www.chemtronics.com/essential-guide-to-flux-for-soldering-electronics
  65. https://fctsolder.com/wp-content/uploads/2017/08/Formulation-of-a-New-Liquid-Flux-for-High-Temperature-Soldering.pdf
  66. https://www.indium.com/products/fluxes/pcba-fluxes/wave-flux/
  67. https://www.alithermal.com/blog/what-are-the-key-components-in-a-wave-soldering-machine-1097126.html
  68. https://www.nextpcb.com/blog/wave-soldering-principles-and-parameters
  69. https://www.pcbx.com/article/Wave-Soldering-Principles-and-Parameters
  70. https://www.pcbyes.com/index.php?route=information/news&news_id=58
  71. https://smtnet.com/library/files/upload/Contact-Time-Soldering.pdf
  72. https://www.ipc.org/system/files/technical_resource/E10%2526S34_01.pdf
  73. https://blog.ltpcba.com/key-points-controlling-smt-wave-soldering-process-parameters/
  74. https://www.allpcb.com/blog/pcb-assembly/wave-goodbye-to-weak-joints-optimizing-wave-soldering-for-robust-solder-joint-formation.html
  75. https://www.researchgate.net/figure/Wave-Solder-Process-Parameters_tbl1_266870017
  76. https://www.ipc.org/system/files/technical_resource/E20%252600016.pdf
  77. https://www.allpcb.com/allelectrohub/optimizing-pcb-wave-soldering-parameters-for-high-reliability-electronics
  78. https://www.electronics.org/TOC/IPC-7530B-TOC.pdf
  79. https://www.protoexpress.com/blog/thermal-profiling-pcb-assembly-unsung-hero/
  80. https://www.allpcb.com/blog/pcb-assembly/optimizing-wave-soldering-temperature-a-key-factor-for-reliable-pcb-joints.html
  81. https://piektraining.com/en/ipc-7530a-guidelines-temperature-profiling-mass-soldering-processes-reflow-wave/
  82. https://www.witpress.com/Secure/elibrary/papers/HPSM16/HPSM16018FU1.pdf
  83. https://www.academia.edu/4852137/Solidification_shrinkage_defects_in_electronic_solders
  84. https://www.electronics.org/system/files/technical_resource/E5%2526S11_02.pdf
  85. https://www.qosmt.com/a/blog/technical/2024/0121/1216.html
  86. https://www.chuxin-smt.com/reflow-soldering-cooling-system-importance-optimization/
  87. https://www.wevolver.com/article/soldering-temperature-optimizing-heat-for-reliable-electronic-assemblies
  88. https://www.chuxin-smt.com/preheating-systems-cooling-smt-curing-ovens-pcb-reliability/
  89. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0167931724000984
  90. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/226681351_Effect_of_cooling_rate_on_growth_of_the_intermetallic_compound_and_fracture_mode_of_near-eutectic_Sn-Ag-CuCu_Pad_Before_and_after_aging
  91. https://www.circuitinsight.com/programs/52185.html
  92. https://www.circuitnet.com/news/uploads/2/Importance_of_Wave_Height_Measurement.pdf
  93. https://www.chuxin-smt.com/cs/how-to-adjust-solder-wave-height-for-pcb-soldering-quality/
  94. https://www.omron.com/global/en/assets/file/technology/omrontechnics/vol51/OMT_Vol51_019EN.pdf
  95. https://www.chuxin-smt.com/id/wave-soldering-process-setup-defect-troubleshooting-guide/
  96. https://support.itweae.com/support/solutions/articles/42000072841-wave-solder-conveyor-angle
  97. https://www.chuxin-smt.com/fi/slug-a-deep-dive-into-solder-wave-dynamics/
  98. https://www.qosmt.com/a/blog/technical/2024/0124/1251.html
  99. https://m.minintelpcb.com/news/wave-soldering-formation-and-application-of-wave-dynamics-theory-5/
  100. https://www.pblprojects.org/wp-content/uploads/2019/03/Wave_Soldering_Video.pdf.pdf
  101. https://www.ipc.org/system/files/technical_resource/E18&S17-3.pdf
  102. https://www.ipc.org/system/files/technical_resource/E9%2526S33_03.pdf
  103. https://www.allpcb.com/blog/pcb-manufacturing/navigating-the-waters-of-wave-soldering-for-through-hole-components-in-mass-production.html
  104. https://arshon.com/blog/wave-soldering-a-key-pcb-assembly-technique/
  105. https://rpsautomation.com/3-advantages-of-wave-soldering-compared-to-other-methods/
  106. https://www.chuxin-smt.com/ko/wave-soldering-advantages-for-mass-production-electronics/
  107. https://www.jt-int.com/the-advantages-of-wave-soldering/
  108. https://www.indium.com/applications/pcb-assembly/wave-soldering/
  109. https://www.mpe-electronics.co.uk/2025/06/10/understanding-the-smt-wave-soldering-process-a-comprehensive-guide
  110. https://resources.altium.com/p/wave-or-not-wave-wave-soldering-advantages-and-disadvantages
  111. https://jlcpcb.com/blog/how-to-solve-common-wave-soldering-defects
  112. https://www.allpcb.com/blog/pcb-assembly/the-ultimate-guide-to-wave-soldering-defects-identification-causes-and-prevention.html
  113. https://www.aimsolder.com/wp-content/uploads/legacy-files/documents/wave_ts.pdf
  114. https://www.pcbonline.com/blog/wave-soldering.html
  115. https://www.mclpcb.com/blog/wave-soldering-issues/
  116. https://www.epectec.com/pcb/wave-soldering-defects/inconsistent-or-poor-hole-fill.html
  117. https://www.indium.com/blog/rohs-ten-years-later-the-transition-to-lead-free-electronics-assembly/
  118. https://www.kester.com/downloads?Command=Core_Download&EntryId=45147
  119. https://www.superengineer.net/blog/soldering-alloy-lead-free
  120. https://thor.inemi.org/webdownload/newsroom/Articles/Lead-Free_Watch_Series/May05.pdf
  121. https://www.violintec.com/electronics/lead-vs-lead-free-soldering-in-electronics-production/
  122. https://www.wevolver.com/article/comparing-the-contrasts-lead-based-vs-lead-free-solder
  123. https://ehs.oregonstate.edu/sites/ehs.oregonstate.edu/files/pdf/si/soldering_safety_si.pdf
  124. https://www.cdc.gov/niosh/hhe/reports/pdfs/2007-0201-3086.pdf
  125. https://www.cdc.gov/niosh/hhe/reports/pdfs/80-151-821.pdf
  126. https://www.osti.gov/servlets/purl/750361
  127. https://stacks.cdc.gov/view/cdc/193988
  128. https://www.allpcb.com/blog/pcb-manufacturing/green-soldering-lead-free-alternatives-and-recyclable-solder-materials-for-pcbs.html
  129. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/379783020_Environmental_Aspects_of_Lead_Free_Soldering_and_Study_of_Legislations_Banning_Lead_Based_Solders_in_Different_Countries
  130. https://19january2017snapshot.epa.gov/sites/production/files/2013-12/documents/lead_free_solder_lca_summary.pdf
  131. https://www.us-tech.com/RelId/1321952/ISvars/default/EPA_Compliance_Understanding_Management_of_Solder_Waste.htm
  132. https://19january2017snapshot.epa.gov/sites/production/files/2015-04/documents/solder_ch2.pdf
  133. https://www.globalgrowthinsights.com/market-reports/wave-soldering-machine-market-109695
  134. https://rpsautomation.com/what-is-selective-wave-soldering/
  135. https://www.jt-int.com/selective-wave-soldering-enhancing-efficiency-and-quality/
  136. https://www.itweae.com/sites/default/files/technical-papers/GJD%20Paper%20-%20Design%20Improvements%20for%20Selective%20Soldering%20Assemblies%2012-9-2015.pdf
  137. https://www.chuxin-smt.com/vi/slug-mastering-the-lead-free-wave-soldering-profile-a-comprehensive-guide/
  138. https://www.mouser.com/pdfdocs/aim-solder-considerations-for-lead-free-wave-soldering.pdf
  139. https://www.electronics.org/system/files/technical_resource/E10%2526S29_02.pdf
  140. https://www.kester.com/Portals/0/Documents/Knowledge%2520Base/Lead-free_Wave-Insight_on_Optimization.pdf
  141. https://www.itweae.com/applications/wave-soldering/lead-free-soldering
  142. https://www.itweae.com/taxonomy/term/5
  143. https://www.smtmachine.eu/wave-soldering-machine-i-c-t-acrab-series/
  144. https://www.circuitinsight.com/programs/50855.html
  145. https://www.circuitnet.com/experts/40101.html
  146. https://kurtzersa.com/products/electronics-production/soldering-machines/selective-systems/versaflow-4-55
  147. https://www.ddmnovastar.com/product/novaselect-series
  148. https://www.allpcb.com/blog/pcb-assembly/troubleshooting-common-wave-soldering-problems-a-practical-guide-for-engineers.html
Add your contribution
Related Hubs
User Avatar
No comments yet.