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Weaver ant
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Weaver ant
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Weaver ant
Temporal range: Ypresian – Recent
52.1–0 Ma
Weaver ant (Oecophylla smaragdina) major worker (India).
Weaver ant (Oecophylla longinoda) major worker (Tanzania)
Scientific classification Edit this classification
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Arthropoda
Class: Insecta
Order: Hymenoptera
Family: Formicidae
Subfamily: Formicinae
Tribe: Oecophyllini
Emery, 1895
Genus: Oecophylla
Smith, 1860
Type species
Formica virescens (junior synonym of Oecophylla smaragdina)
Diversity[1]
3 extant species
15 extinct species
Map showing range of Oecophylla
Oecophylla range map.
Oecophylla longinoda in blue, Oecophylla smaragdina in red.[2]

Weaver ants or green ants are eusocial insects of the ant family (Formicidae) belonging to the tribe Oecophyllini. Weaver ants live in trees (they are obligately arboreal) and are known for their unique nest building behaviour where workers construct nests by weaving together leaves using larval silk.[3] Colonies can be extremely large consisting of more than a hundred nests spanning numerous trees and containing more than half a million workers. Like many other ant species, weaver ants prey on small insects and supplement their diet with carbohydrate-rich honeydew excreted by scale insects (Hemiptera). Weaver ant workers exhibit a clear bimodal size distribution, with almost no overlap between the size of the minor and major workers.[4][5] The major workers are approximately 8–10 mm (0.31–0.39 in) in length and the minors approximately half the length of the majors. Major workers forage, defend, maintain, and expand the colony whereas minor workers tend to stay within the nests where they care for the brood and 'milk' scale insects in or close to the nests.

Dead weaver ant queen carried by a worker ant

Weaver ants vary in color from reddish to yellowish brown dependent on the species. Oecophylla smaragdina found in Australia often have bright green gasters. Weaver ants are highly territorial and workers aggressively defend their territories against intruders. Because they prey on insects harmful to their host trees, weaver ants are sometimes used by indigenous farmers, particularly in southeast Asia, as natural biocontrol agents against agricultural pests. Although weaver ants lack a functional sting they can inflict painful bites and often spray formic acid[6][7] directly at the bite wound resulting in intense discomfort.

Researchers report Weaver ants display remarkable teamwork, increasing individual effort as group size grows—unlike human teams. They build complex leaf nests using a “force ratchet” system, where some ants pull while others anchor, boosting efficiency. This coordinated labor offers insights for robotics, suggesting that mimicking ant strategies could enhance multi-agent cooperation and improve autonomous systems. Their behavior challenges long-held assumptions about group dynamics and productivity.[8]

Taxonomy

[edit]
Liquid food exchange (trophallaxis) in O. smaragdina

Oecophylla (subfamily Formicinae) is one group of weaver ants containing two closely related living species: O. longinoda and O. smaragdina.[1] They are placed in a tribe of their own, Oecophyllini with the extinct genus Eoecophylla. The weaver ant genus Oecophylla is relatively old, and 15 fossil species have been described from Eocene to Miocene deposits.[2][9] The oldest members of both Oecophyllini and Oecophylla are fossils described from the mid-Ypresian Eocene Okanagan Highlands of Northwestern North America.[10] Two other genera of weaving ants, Polyrhachis and Camponotus,[11][12] also use larval silk in nest construction, but the construction and architecture of their nests are simpler than those of Oecophylla.[13]

Two O. smaragdina transferring food to their colony

The common features of the genus include an elongated first funicular segment, presence of propodeal lobes, helcium at midheight of abdominal segment 3 and gaster capable of reflexion over the mesosoma. Males have vestigial pretarsal claws.[14]

Genera and species

[edit]

Extant species:

Extinct species:

Description

[edit]

Oecophylla have 12-segmented antennae, a feature shared with some other ant genera. The mandibles each have 10 or more teeth, and the fourth tooth from the tip is longer than the third and fifth teeth. The palps are short, with the maxillary palps being 5-segmented and the labial palps being 4-segmented. The mesonotum is constricted and (in dorsal view) narrower than the pronotum and propodeum. The node of the petiole is low and rounded.[15]

Distribution and habitat

[edit]

O. longinoda is distributed in the Afrotropics and O. smaragdina from India and Sri Lanka in southern Asia, through southeastern Asia to northern Australia and Melanesia.[16] In Australia, Oecophylla smaragdina is found in the tropical coastal areas as far south as Broome in Western Australia and across the coastal tropics of the Northern Territory down to Yeppoon in Queensland.[17]

Colony ontogeny and social organization

[edit]
Weaver ants collaborating to pull nest leaves together

Weaver ant colonies are founded by one or more mated females (queens).[18] A queen lays her first clutch of eggs on a leaf and protects and feeds the larvae until they develop into mature workers. The workers then construct leaf nests and help rear new brood laid by the queen. As the number of workers increases, more nests are constructed and colony productivity and growth increase significantly. Workers perform tasks that are essential to colony survival, including foraging, nest construction, and colony defense. The exchange of information and modulation of worker behaviour that occur during worker-worker interactions are facilitated by the use of chemical and tactile communication signals. These signals are used primarily in the contexts of foraging and colony defense. Successful foragers lay down pheromone trails that help recruit other workers to new food sources. Pheromone trails are also used by patrollers to recruit workers against territorial intruders. Along with chemical signals, workers also use tactile communication signals such as attenation and body shaking to stimulate activity in signal recipients. Multimodal communication in Oecophylla weaver ants importantly contributes to colony self-organization.[19][20] Like many other ant species, Oecophylla workers exhibit social carrying behavior as part of the recruitment process, in which one worker will carry another worker in its mandibles and transport it to a location requiring attention.[citation needed]

Nest building behaviour

[edit]
Weaver ant nest on a mango tree

Oecophylla weaver ants are known for their cooperative behaviour used in nest construction. Possibly the first description of weaver ants' nest building behaviour was made by the English naturalist Joseph Banks, who took part in Captain James Cook's voyage to Australia in 1768. An excerpt from Joseph Banks' Journal (cited in Hölldobler and Wilson 1990) is included below:

The ants...one green as a leaf, and living upon trees, where it built a nest, in size between that of a man's head and his fist, by bending the leaves together, and gluing them with whitish paperish substances which held them firmly together. In doing this their management was most curious: they bend down four leaves broader than a man's hand, and place them in such a direction as they choose. This requires a much larger force than these animals seem capable of; many thousands indeed are employed in the joint work. I have seen as many as could stand by one another, holding down such a leaf, each drawing down with all his might, while others within were employed to fasten the glue. How they had bent it down I had not the opportunity of seeing, but it was held down by main strength, I easily proved by disturbing a part of them, on which the leaf bursting from the rest, returned to its natural situation, and I had an opportunity of trying with my finger the strength of these little animals must have used to get it down.[13]

The weaver ants' ability to build capacious nests from living leaves has undeniably contributed to their ecological success. The first phase in nest construction involves workers surveying potential nesting leaves by pulling on the edges with their mandibles. When a few ants have successfully bent a leaf onto itself or drawn its edge toward another, other workers nearby join the effort. The probability of a worker joining the concerted effort is dependent on the size of the group, with workers showing a higher probability of joining when group size is large.[21] When the span between two leaves is beyond the reach of a single ant, workers form chains with their bodies by grasping one another's petiole (waist). Multiple intricate chains working in unison are often used to ratchet together large leaves during nest construction. Once the edges of the leaves are drawn together, other workers retrieve larvae from existing nests using their mandibles. Upon reaching a seam to be joined, these workers tap the head of the clutched larvae, which causes them to excrete silk. They can only produce so much silk, so the larva will have to pupate without a cocoon. The workers then maneuver between the leaves in a highly coordinated fashion to bind them together.[13] Weaver ants' nests are usually elliptical in shape and range in size from a single small leaf folded and bound onto itself to large nests consisting of many leaves and measure over half a meter in length. The time required to construct a nest varies depending on leaf type and eventual size, but often a large nest can be built in significantly less than 24 hours. Although weaver ants' nests are strong and impermeable to water, new nests are continually being built by workers in large colonies to replace old dying nests and those damaged by storms.[22]

Relationship with humans

[edit]

In agriculture

[edit]
O. smaragdina tending scale insects

Large colonies of Oecophylla weaver ants consume significant amounts of food, and workers continuously kill a variety of arthropods (primarily other insects) close to their nests. Insects are not only consumed by workers, but this protein source is necessary for brood development. Because weaver ant workers hunt and kill insects that are potentially harmful plant pests, trees harboring weaver ants benefit from having decreased levels of herbivory.[23] They have traditionally been used in biological control in Chinese and Southeast Asian citrus orchards from at least 400 AD.[24][25] Many studies have shown the efficacy of using weaver ants as natural biocontrol agents against agricultural pests.[26] The use of weaver ants as biocontrol agents has especially been effective for fruit agriculture, particularly in Australia and southeast Asia.[27][28] Fruit trees harboring weaver ants produce higher quality fruits, show less leaf damage by herbivores, and require fewer applications of synthetic pesticides.[28][29] They do on the other hand protect the scale insects which they 'milk' for honeydew. In several cases the use of weaver ants has nonetheless been shown to be more efficient than applying chemical insecticides and at the same time cheaper, leaving farmers with increased net incomes and more sustainable pest control.[30]

Weaver ant husbandry is often practiced in Southeast Asia, where farmers provide shelter, food and construct ropes between trees populated with weaver ants in order to protect their colonies from potential competitors.[31]

Oecophylla colonies may not be entirely beneficial to the host plants. Studies indicate that the presence of Oecophylla colonies may also have negative effects on the performance of host plants by reducing fruit removal by mammals and birds and therefore reducing seed dispersal and by lowering the flower-visiting rate of flying insects including pollinators.[32][33] Weaver ants also have an adverse effect on tree productivity by protecting sap feeding insects such as scale insects and leafhoppers from which they collect honeydew.[33][34] By protecting these insects from predators they increase their population and increase the damage they cause to trees.[35]

As food, feed and medicine

[edit]
Leaf packets of larvae in Isaan typically sell for about 20 Thai Baht each (about 0.65 USD)

Weaver ants are one of the most valued types of edible insects consumed by humans (human entomophagy). In addition to being used as a biological control agent to increase plant production, weaver ants can be utilized directly as a protein and food source since the ants (especially the ant larvae) are edible for humans and high in protein and fatty acids.[36] In some countries the weaver ant is a highly prized delicacy harvested in vast amounts and in this way contribute to local socio-economics.[37] In Northeastern Thailand the price of weaver ant larvae is twice the price of good-quality beef and in a single Thai province ant larvae worth US$620,000 are harvested every year.[38][39] It has furthermore been shown that the harvest of weaver ants can be maintained while at the same time using the ants for biocontrol of pest insects in tropical plantations, since the queen larvae and pupae that are the primary target of harvest, are not vital for colony survival.[40]

The larvae of weaver ants are also collected commercially as an expensive feed for insect-eating birds in Indonesia.

In India and China, the worker ants are used in traditional medicine.[3][41]

See also

[edit]

References

[edit]
[edit]
Revisions and contributorsEdit on WikipediaRead on Wikipedia

Weaver ant

View on Grokipedia
from Grokipedia
Weaver ants (Oecophylla spp.), belonging to the subfamily Formicinae in the family Formicidae, are highly social, arboreal ants renowned for their unique nest construction, in which adult workers use silk extruded by larvae to stitch together leaves into elaborate, multi-chambered nests suspended in tropical tree canopies. These polymorphic insects exhibit distinct worker castes—minor workers, which are smaller and primarily tend brood and forage, and major workers, which are larger, defend territories, and assist in nest weaving—along with larger queens that found colonies through claustral or pleometrotic (multiple-queen) strategies. Native to tropical and subtropical regions, weaver ants are voracious predators that control herbivorous insects and tend hemipteran trophobionts for honeydew, making them keystone species in forest ecosystems and valuable agents for biological pest management in agriculture. The genus Oecophylla comprises two extant : the Asian weaver ant (O. smaragdina), distributed from through , , and Pacific islands, and the African weaver ant (O. longinoda), found across . These thrive in diverse habitats, including rainforests, mangroves, forest edges, orchards, and plantations, where they form expansive polydomous colonies spanning multiple trees and containing tens to hundreds of thousands of individuals. Colonies are eusocial, with sophisticated chemical communication enabling and coordinated behaviors such as territorial patrols and prey capture, where majors form living chains to bridge gaps or overwhelm intruders. Their diet includes prey, exudates, and honeydew from mutualistic like scale bugs, supporting colony growth that can take 2–3 years to mature under natural conditions. Ecologically, weaver dominate arboreal webs as aggressive predators, reducing populations of defoliators and other pests while fostering mutualisms with ant-plants and influencing dynamics through territoriality. In , they have been employed for biocontrol since ancient times—documented in Chinese citrus groves as early as 304 A.D.—effectively suppressing pests in crops such as cocoa, , , and oil palm at densities of 6–48 colonies per , thereby minimizing chemical use. Beyond pest , Oecophylla are harvested as a nutritious source in some cultures, valued for their high protein and content, and occasionally used in . Their evolutionary adaptations, including advanced nest architecture and social organization, position them as a model for studying and strategies.

Taxonomy and evolution

Genera and species

Weaver ants are classified within the subfamily Formicinae of the ant family Formicidae, specifically in the tribe Oecophyllini, with the genus Oecophylla representing the primary taxonomic group encompassing all extant weaver ants. The genus Oecophylla includes two recognized extant species: (Fabricius, 1775), commonly known as the Asian green tree ant, which is distributed across tropical and subtropical regions from through , southern , , northern Australia, and into the Pacific islands; and O. longinoda (Latreille, 1802), the African weaver ant, which occurs throughout sub-Saharan Africa's tropical forests and savannas. Phylogenetically, Oecophylla forms a to the genus Gesomyrmex within Formicinae, reflecting shared arboreal adaptations among these lineages; molecular studies using , such as the cytochrome b gene, have estimated the divergence between O. smaragdina and O. longinoda at approximately 7.5 to 15.3 million years ago during the . Historical taxonomy of O. smaragdina includes several synonyms, notably Oecophylla virescens (Fabricius, 1775) and smaragdina (Fabricius, 1775), which were established in early descriptions but later consolidated under the current .

Fossil record

The record of weaver ants (genus Oecophylla) spans from the Ypresian epoch of the early Eocene, approximately 52 million years ago, to the present day, with the earliest known specimens preserved in deposits from the Highlands of western , including recent 2024 discoveries of Oecophyllini that extend the lineage's antiquity. Additional significant finds occur in Eocene and Miocene , indicating a widespread presence in ancient tropical and subtropical environments across and . These fossils reveal morphological features consistent with arboreal lifestyles, such as elongated legs and powerful mandibles adapted for climbing and manipulating foliage, mirroring adaptations in extant species. Over 15 extinct species of Oecophylla have been described from these deposits, including Oecophylla atavina from Eocene , noted for its well-preserved wing venation. Another example is Oecophylla eckfeldiana from middle Eocene deposits in , which exhibits body proportions and worker castes suggesting arboreal behaviors similar to modern weaver ants. These extinct taxa demonstrate morphological continuity with living Oecophylla , such as O. smaragdina and O. longinoda, but occupied more northerly latitudes during warmer Eocene climates. Paleontological evidence for advanced in weaver comes primarily from a remarkable deposit on Mfwangano Island, , where a preserved of Oecophylla leakeyi includes multiple castes, pupae, larvae, and worker fragments, indicating eusocial structure. This assemblage parallels the observed in contemporary and provides direct proof of communal living in ancient lineages, though nest-weaving behaviors are inferred rather than directly preserved. The fossil record of Oecophylla underscores the deep evolutionary roots of and arboreal adaptations, originating in Eocene tropical forests and persisting through climatic shifts that restricted modern distributions. This antiquity suggests that key traits like polymorphic worker castes evolved early in the Formicinae , enabling adaptation to arboreal niches long before the radiation of angiosperm-dominated ecosystems.

Physical characteristics

Body structure and castes

Weaver ants of the genus Oecophylla exhibit a polymorphic system typical of many advanced societies, with distinct morphological variations among workers, , and males that support their arboreal lifestyle. Workers are divided into minors and majors, reflecting size-based dimorphism that influences their physical build and capabilities. In O. smaragdina, minors measure 3-5 mm in length and possess a slender body structure optimized for tasks within the nest, such as brood care, with a reduced head width of approximately 1.10 mm and length of 1.19 mm. Majors, in contrast, are larger at 8-10 mm long, featuring a more robust physique with an expanded head (width up to 1.60 mm and length 2.07 mm), elongated petiolar region, and narrowed , adaptations suited for and defense activities. Worker sizes in O. longinoda are broadly similar, ranging 3-9 mm across castes. Queens represent the reproductive and are the largest individuals, reaching 20-25 mm in O. smaragdina and 12-14 mm in O. longinoda, with a heavy-bodied form characterized by a well-developed for flight, an expanded housing developed ovaries, and initial wings as alates during the nuptial phase. Males, or drones, are smaller than queens, typically 6-7 mm, and possess wings as alates, with a lighter build focused on reproduction rather than physical labor. Several key anatomical features distinguish weaver ants across castes and enable their canopy-dwelling existence. All castes have long, slender legs that facilitate movement and gripping on surfaces, as well as powerful mandibles adapted for seizing prey, manipulating leaves, and holding larvae during nest construction. Notably, the larvae of final-instar workers possess specialized silk-producing glands, which adults exploit by carrying the larvae to extrude that binds leaves into nests, a process integral to the species' weaving . Sensory adaptations include large compound eyes—laterally positioned and well-developed in both minor and major workers, with majors having more ommatidia (up to 804 per eye compared to 508 in minors in O. smaragdina)—and geniculate antennae attached to the frontal sclerites, aiding in , prey detection, and chemical communication within the forest canopy.

Coloration and adaptations

Weaver ant workers exhibit varied coloration: bright green in some Australian O. smaragdina populations, reddish-brown in Asian O. smaragdina ones, and orange-brown to dark brown, with reddish to bright red hues in some East African populations including Uganda, in O. longinoda, enabling effective against the foliage and branches of their host trees in tropical environments. are characteristically darker, often blackish or dark brown, which may aid in concealing them during vulnerable colony-founding phases. This visual adaptation supports their arboreal lifestyle by reducing visibility to predators. A key chemical defense in weaver ants involves the production and spraying of formic acid from their anal glands, which irritates the skin and eyes of predators and intruders, deterring attacks effectively. Major workers possess higher concentrations of formic acid, approximately 9.7 mg/g of tissue in O. smaragdina, enhancing their role in colony protection. This venomous secretion acts synergistically with hydrocarbons like n-undecane to provoke aggressive responses from nestmates. Physiologically, weaver ants demonstrate a high metabolic rate that sustains their intense activity across expansive territories in hot, humid . They exhibit notable tolerance to elevated temperatures and , allowing sustained activity in environments where other falter, though recovery from stress varies with ramping rates. is evident in weaver ants, particularly in males, who possess reduced mandibles compared to workers, reflecting their primary focus on rather than or defense tasks. This morphological specialization aligns with the division of labor in the , where males contribute solely to and dispersal.

Distribution and habitat

Geographic range

The genus Oecophylla comprises two extant species with markedly disjunct distributions across the tropical regions of the , reflecting ancient biogeographic patterns. Oecophylla longinoda is confined to , while O. smaragdina occupies , , and parts of the western Pacific, with no overlap between the ranges of the two species. This separation is linked to the genus's deep evolutionary history, evidenced by Eocene fossils from indicating a formerly broader distribution that contracted over time. Oecophylla longinoda, the African weaver ant, ranges across humid tropical and subtropical zones of , documented in over 500 sites from 34 countries including , , , , and . Its northern limit reaches approximately 15°N near Niayes, , and the southern extent is about 28.4°S at St Lucia Estuary, , though it is absent from major desert areas such as the and parts of the . The species predominates in Köppen-Geiger climate groups A (tropical rainforests, monsoons, and savannas), with rarer occurrences in semi-arid and subtropical zones. In contrast, spans a vast area from and southern through (including , , , and ) to northern ( and ), , and the in . This species thrives mainly in tropical climates but extends into some subtropical areas, with records broadly distributed across these regions. Its range crosses major biogeographic barriers, such as Wallace's Line between the Asian and Australasian realms, facilitated by the species's winged queens enabling long-distance dispersal. Accidental human-mediated introductions have contributed to its presence on certain Pacific islands beyond its core native range.

Environmental preferences

Weaver ants, particularly the Asian species Oecophylla smaragdina, inhabit tropical and subtropical forests, showing a strong preference for lowland rainforests with dense canopies that provide ample foliage for nesting and foraging. These environments offer the structural complexity necessary for their arboreal colonies, which span multiple interconnected nests within tree crowns. The species avoids open or fragmented landscapes, favoring undisturbed or semi-disturbed forest canopies where vegetation density supports territorial dominance. Abiotic conditions play a critical role in their distribution and activity. Weaver ants thrive in temperatures between 20°C and 30°C, with optimal occurring around 28°C, while extreme highs above 35°C or lows below 20°C reduce efficiency. High relative exceeding 70%, typically ranging from 79% to 87% in their native habitats, is essential for larval production and overall health, leading to avoidance of arid zones where moisture levels drop significantly. They are generally most abundant at lowland elevations but have been recorded up to approximately 2,000 m, where cooler temperatures and lower may limit proliferation. Their strictly arboreal lifestyle underscores reliance on elevated structures, minimizing ground contact to evade predators and . Colonies construct nests exclusively in the canopy, using live leaves bound by larval , which further ties their survival to forested environments with suitable host trees. and associated habitat alterations pose emerging threats. Warming temperatures may drive range shifts, with modeling predicting expansions into new subtropical areas by 2050 and 2070, potentially benefiting agricultural biocontrol but straining native ecosystems. However, other recent modeling suggests potential constriction of suitable habitat for O. smaragdina in regions like the Indian Peninsula under high-emission scenarios by 2070. Concurrently, for plantations, such as rubber, has led to habitat loss in Southeast Asian , reducing canopy availability and disrupting mutualistic interactions, as observed in studies showing altered assembly in converted landscapes. These pressures, including increased fragmentation, could exacerbate local population declines despite overall range potential.

Social organization

Colony founding and growth

Colonies of the weaver ant Oecophylla smaragdina are primarily founded claustrally by a single queen following her , although pleometrotic founding with multiple queens (2–4) can occur and significantly boosts initial brood production. The queen selects a suitable and forms a small chamber, which she seals using produced by her first-generation larvae once they develop, and relies entirely on her metabolic reserves to rear the first brood without . She lays an initial clutch of eggs, which hatch into larvae after about 7–10 days; the queen nourishes these with regurgitated secretions from her salivary glands. Larval development proceeds rapidly, with pupation occurring around 17–23 days post-egg laying, and the first workers typically emerge after 24–30 days under optimal temperatures (24–30°C). These early workers are intermediate in size and number approximately 10 individuals, enabling the queen to shift focus to sustained egg production while they initiate and nest expansion. Once the first workers emerge, colony growth accelerates through a series of phases tied to seasonal cues, particularly peaking during the (November–May) when temperature and rainfall support high activity. Expansion occurs via , a gradual process where workers transport brood and eggs to nearby leaves or trees to establish nests, fostering a polydomous structure of interconnected nests distributed across 45–100+ trees spanning up to 500 . This polydomy enhances resource access and defense, with individual nests housing up to 50,000 but decentralizing during peak growth to optimize trails. Mature colonies can attain 100,000–500,000 workers, with and larval production maximized during the ; early growth can be further hastened by transplanting 30–60 pupae from donor colonies, yielding 110–200% more brood in the first 3 months compared to unassisted founding. Worker roles in and transport briefly support this expansion before specializing further. Similar patterns occur in O. longinoda, though with potentially higher in some populations. Queens exhibit remarkable , sustaining colonies for 8–10 years on average, with one laboratory-reared individual surviving at least 13 months and field colonies lasting up to 8 years before decline. In contrast, workers have shorter lifespans of 1–2 months, influenced by and task allocation; minor workers average 74 days, while majors live about 48 days due to higher energetic demands in defense. Individual nests endure 7–10.8 weeks before relocation or abandonment. Growth is constrained by predation—fledgling colonies face near-100% mortality from predators like birds, other (e.g., Iridomyrmex purpureus), and arthropods—and resource scarcity, including low rainfall (<500 mm), unsuitable temperatures (<17°C or >35°C), and limited tree density or flowering for and honeydew. Polydomy mitigates these risks by dispersing the and brood, reducing vulnerability to localized threats.

Roles within the colony

Weaver ant colonies exhibit a clear division of labor among castes, with primarily responsible for , laying eggs to sustain growth. Workers are divided into minor and major castes based on body size polymorphism; minor workers, being smaller, focus on brood care, nest maintenance, and cleaning tasks within the , while major workers, larger in size, specialize in , defense, and guarding against intruders. This caste-based specialization enhances efficiency by assigning tasks according to physical capabilities. Queen-worker dimorphism is pronounced, with queens larger and more fecund than workers, adapted solely for production in mature colonies that often become oligynous, hosting multiple to boost reproductive output. Worker reproduction is largely suppressed through queen-derived pheromones that inhibit ovarian development in workers, maintaining reproductive monopoly by the queen or ; while —where workers destroy s laid by other workers—occurs in some social insects, in weaver ants it is secondary to chemical suppression. Communication within the colony relies heavily on pheromones for coordination, including trail pheromones from the rectal gland to guide and to sources or new nest sites. Tandem running, where a knowledgeable worker physically leads a follower to a or , serves as a key mechanism, particularly for nest relocation or discovering high-value patches, allowing efficient mobilization without mass chemical trails. Age polyethism further refines task allocation, with young workers tending to internal duties like brood and nest , transitioning to external roles such as and defense as they age and move to the periphery. Recent studies highlight that while morphological strongly dictates specialization in weaver ants, age-dependent shifts provide flexibility in task distribution, especially in response to needs, with models showing age polyethism advantageous when task mortality risks vary. In a 2025 analysis of Asian weaver ant sub-castes, age influenced the progression from minor internal roles to intermediate and major peripheral activities, underscoring dynamic allocation beyond strict boundaries.

Nest construction

Building process

Weaver ants (Oecophylla spp.) initiate nest construction by selecting suitable leaves on host trees, typically gripping the edges or tips with their mandibles to begin pulling them into position. Workers identify non-random sites, such as leaf tips, where initial bites occur preferentially to facilitate manipulation (Bochynek & Robson, 2014). This pulling action involves individual ants walking backward while clamped to the leaf, exerting force to bend or draw it toward adjacent foliage, often forming living bridges between leaves or branches to align them for binding (Bochynek & Robson, 2014). The process is similar in both O. smaragdina and O. longinoda. Cooperative pulling escalates as additional workers join the effort, grasping the bodies of preceding to form extensible chains that amplify force. These chains can involve up to dozens of , with workers self-assembling through mechanisms that cluster activity spatially and temporally at pulling sites (Stewardson et al., 2025); (Bochynek & Robson, 2014). The process operates via a "force ratchet" mechanism, where active pullers at the chain's end generate incremental force, stored elastically and released through frictional resistance among passive chain members, enabling superefficient that counters typical coordination losses in larger groups (Stewardson et al., 2025). Experimental measurements show force output per nearly doubles as team size increases, allowing effective deformation of stiff leaves (Stewardson et al., 2025). Once leaves are approximated, workers apply silk by holding mature larvae—whose silk glands produce the binding material—as "living glue" dispensers, shuttling them between leaf edges to weave threads into a cohesive mesh (Bochynek & Robson, 2014); (Stewardson et al., 2025). This larval silk, detailed in studies of caste-specific adaptations, solidifies rapidly to secure the structure without additional materials in initial phases (Bochynek & Robson, 2014). A single nest is typically completed within 1-2 days through these coordinated steps, though large colonies may construct multiple nests concurrently over extended periods.

Nest design and function

Weaver ant nests are typically ovoid and multi-chambered structures, measuring 10-30 cm in height and constructed by weaving together living leaves using produced by the larvae. These nests are built in the crotches of branches within the canopy, often at heights averaging 3.2 m, to optimize access to and resources while minimizing ground-based threats. Small circular entrances, reinforced with sheets, facilitate worker movement and provide ventilation to regulate internal and airflow, preventing overheating or stagnation within the chambers. Colonies of are polydomous, comprising interconnected networks of up to 151 sub-nests distributed across multiple trees, supporting populations of hundreds of thousands to half a million . These sub-nests are linked by arboreal trails marked with persistent pheromones from the ' rectal glands, which guide and , supplemented by strands for structural stability in some connections. This decentralized arrangement enhances colony efficiency by decentralizing brood distribution and resource access, with each sub-nest housing up to 50,000 individuals. The primary functions of these nests include brood protection and , achieved through a stable internal maintained at 20-34°C via clustering to generate metabolic during cooler periods and nest positioning for solar insolation. Nests shield brood and adults from heavy rain by enclosing them in waterproof enclosures and deter intruders through vigilant patrolling at entrances, reducing vulnerability to predators and environmental stressors. Major workers reinforce external structures, while minors manage internal chambers for pupal development under optimal conditions of 24-30°C and high . Nests are relocated or rebuilt seasonally, typically occupied for 7-18 weeks before abandonment due to leaf senescence, colony expansion, or disturbances, with rebuilding peaking in the (November-March) to coincide with new foliage growth. This adaptability confers resilience to storms, as colonies can repair or relocate post-cyclone damage, with surviving fledgling groups demonstrating rapid recovery in tropical environments. Relocations often occur at , involving coordinated transport of brood along trails to new sites.

Behavior

Foraging and diet

Weaver ants (Oecophylla spp.) maintain a primarily carnivorous diet, preying on small arthropods including flies, caterpillars, and other such as bagworms and silkworms. Workers employ coordinated group ambushes to capture prey, swarming the target en masse to subdue it rapidly, often within minutes for early larval stages. This collective predation enables the colony to exploit resources beyond the capacity of solitary foragers, with major workers leading these efforts. A significant portion of their comes from trophobiosis, where harvest honeydew—a carbohydrate-rich —from hemipteran such as scale insects. Weaver actively protect these hemipterans by incorporating them into nests or guarding them on foliage, deterring predators and parasitoids to sustain the honeydew supply. This mutualistic relationship complements their protein intake from prey, balancing the colony's nutritional needs. Foraging occurs along established arboreal trails extending considerable distances from the nest, primarily during daylight hours with bimodal peaks and driven by favorable and conditions. Activity is diurnal overall, relying on visual cues for prey detection, though intensity varies with brood hunger levels and environmental factors. Once collected, food is distributed colony-wide via trophallaxis, in which foragers regurgitate liquefied portions to nestmates, while solid prey is preferentially fed to larvae serving as the primary protein reservoir for adult consumption.

Defense and territoriality

Weaver ants (Oecophylla spp.) maintain exclusive arboreal territories through aggressive defense strategies that involve coordinated patrols and rapid responses to intrusions. Territories can extend up to 1500 in area, with colonies establishing barrack nests at boundaries to station guard forces of major workers, which actively patrol to monitor and repel potential threats. These patrols are primarily conducted by larger major workers, who exhibit heightened in defending against conspecific rivals or other ant species encroaching on their domain. A key component of territorial defense is the formation of living barriers by major workers, who link together using their mandibles to create chain-like formations that block access to nest areas and spray chemical secretions at intruders. These workers bite with powerful mandibles and eject irritant compounds from the poison gland, primarily hydrocarbons such as , which deter attackers by causing physical and chemical irritation. Although hydrocarbons dominate the poison gland content, is also present in worker tissues at concentrations around 9.7 mg/g in majors, contributing to the defensive spray that enhances the painful effect of bites. This is particularly effective against or neighboring colonies seeking to expand, as it inflicts immediate harm and signals colony strength. Swarm raids represent a collective offensive strategy, where alarm pheromones trigger mass mobilization of workers to overwhelm large prey or rival colonies. Upon detecting a threat, a scout releases pheromones from the mandibular gland, prompting nearby workers to join in biting and spraying attacks that can decimate intruders. These raids often target competing ant species, enforcing interspecific territoriality through selective aggression that results in a mosaic distribution of colonies in shared habitats. Territorial boundaries are reinforced through persistent pheromone deposition along patrol routes, which marks and communicates limits while deterring competitors. Weaver ants distribute these across host trees, creating a chemical that maintains exclusivity and facilitates ongoing conflicts with other , such as excluding non-nesting from areas. This system ensures that costs of defense, including energy expenditure on patrols, are balanced by the benefits of resource control in tropical ecosystems.

Cooperative mechanisms

Weaver ants (Oecophylla spp.) exhibit sophisticated cooperative mechanisms that enable decentralized group coordination without centralized control, allowing colonies to tackle complex tasks such as resource acquisition and . These behaviors rely on interactions among individuals, integrating chemical, tactile, and visual cues to achieve collective outcomes that surpass individual capabilities. Studies as of 2025 highlight how these mechanisms demonstrate emergent efficiency in and force application, providing insights into biological . Recruitment in weaver ants involves multiple decentralized strategies for task allocation, primarily and , which facilitate the mobilization of workers to , new nest sites, or defense sites without a hierarchical leader. In , an experienced physically guides a naïve nestmate to a by maintaining close contact, allowing through tactile and chemical signals, a process observed during and initial . Complementing this, workers lay from to mark paths, attracting additional nestmates in a fashion that amplifies group response to high-value targets. These systems, numbering at least five in O. longinoda, enable rapid scaling of effort based on need, ensuring efficient across the . During cooperative transport of heavy prey, weaver ants employ leaderless , where groups pool directional preferences through physical interactions to resolve navigation conflicts and select optimal paths. This "" approach allows small teams of 4–10 to transport loads at efficiencies exceeding individual efforts by integrating individual opinions via tugging and alignment, achieving consensus in seconds without a dominant leader. Experimental observations using tethered objects show that adjust pulling directions based on collective feedback, minimizing deviations and maximizing progress even on uneven surfaces. A striking example of advanced coordination is chain formation, where workers interlink their bodies to bridge gaps or collectively pull objects like leaves for nest construction, inverting the observed in human groups by increasing per capita force output as team size grows. In experiments as of , chains generated forces scaling superlinearly with size due to a division of labor where "pullers" at the front exert effort while "anchors" at the rear provide passive stability via friction hairs and adhesive pads. This superefficiency arises from adaptive load-sharing and enhanced grip, enabling the colony to manipulate objects far beyond solitary capabilities. Findings from these mechanisms have inspired robotics research, suggesting algorithms for multi-robot systems to achieve similar scalable in tasks like or swarm .

Ecological interactions

Relationships with other species

Weaver ants (Oecophylla spp.) engage in mutualistic relationships with honeydew-producing hemipterans, such as aphids and scale insects, where the ants provide protection from predators and parasites in exchange for the sugary honeydew excretion. These interactions are widespread in tropical ecosystems, with O. smaragdina dominating collections of honeydew from multiple hemipteran genera, accounting for over half of observed ant-hemipteran contacts in some fire-prone habitats. Similar mutualisms occur with O. longinoda in African systems, tending species like mealybugs. By tending these trophobionts on host plants, weaver ants enhance hemipteran survival and reproduction while securing a reliable carbohydrate source, though excessive tending can lead to plant damage from hemipteran feeding. Predators of weaver ants include various vertebrates and that target workers, larvae, and pupae. Birds such as drongos and prey on workers, exploiting the ' arboreal lifestyle despite their aggressive defenses. Myrmecophilous arthropods, including certain beetles from the Paussinae, inhabit weaver ant nests, feeding on brood while evading host aggression through chemical or behavioral adaptations. In competitive interactions, weaver ants aggressively exclude other species from their territories using physical attacks and chemical defenses, particularly formic acid sprays that deter intruders. This territorial dominance forms "ant mosaics" in canopies, reducing overlap with subordinate species and limiting their access to resources. Occasional social parasitism occurs, with rare incursions by slave-making that raid nests to capture brood, though such events are infrequent due to the weaver ants' robust colony defenses. Recent studies indicate climate-driven shifts are altering weaver ant interactions, with projected range expansions under warming scenarios potentially intensifying competitive exclusion of native and altering mutualisms in newly invaded areas. In regions like and , invasive spread facilitated by habitat changes has led to heightened conflicts with local fauna, including increased predation pressure on hemipteran partners in altered ecosystems.

Role in ecosystems

Weaver ants (Oecophylla spp.) serve as key predators in tropical ecosystems, significantly contributing to by reducing populations of herbivorous arthropods that damage foliage and fruits. This predation indirectly enhances plant diversity by alleviating pressure on vegetation, allowing a broader range of tree species to thrive in forested habitats. Studies have documented their effectiveness in suppressing pests across diverse tropical environments, where their aggressive foraging behavior maintains ecological balance without relying on chemical interventions. In terms of nutrient cycling, weaver ants facilitate the exchange of essential macronutrients, such as carbon and , between themselves and host plants through trophobiosis and waste deposition. Their foraging activities deposit organic waste from captured prey onto the , enriching and supporting microbial activity. Additionally, debris from their leaf-woven nests provides microhabitats for organisms, accelerating the breakdown of and promoting nutrient return to the . This process underscores their role as ecosystem engineers in tropical canopies. As indicators, the presence and abundance of weaver ants signal the health of ecosystems, reflecting intact canopy structures and minimal disturbance. Their populations decline in fragmented habitats, where and reduced connectivity disrupt foraging and nesting, serving as an early warning for broader . Recent 2025 research highlights their resilience to , predicting potential range expansions that could bolster stability in warming tropics.

Human relationships

Agricultural uses

Weaver ants (Oecophylla spp.) have a long history of use in agricultural pest management, particularly as biological control agents against pests in orchards. In , farmers deployed O. smaragdina to combat citrus pests as early as the fourth century AD, marking one of the earliest documented applications of biological control in . This practice involved introducing ant colonies to trees, leveraging their predatory behavior to reduce pest populations such as , scale insects, and caterpillars, which can significantly damage fruit quality and yield. Studies have shown that O. smaragdina predation can increase fruit yields by up to 49% in treated plots compared to untreated ones, primarily through direct consumption of pests and indirect deterrence via territorial aggression. Modern methods for integrating weaver into farming systems focus on nest transplantation and enhancement to establish stable colonies in orchards. Nests are collected from natural areas and relocated to crop trees, often with the addition of bridges or ropes to facilitate ant movement between and supplemental feeding to support colony growth. This approach is commonly applied in (IPM) programs for and plantations across using O. smaragdina and in using O. longinoda, where effectively suppress key pests like fruit borers and coreid bugs while minimizing reliance on chemical pesticides. Their territorial behaviors further aid in pest exclusion by patrolling foliage and attacking intruders. The benefits of weaver ant biocontrol include providing a non-toxic, alternative to synthetic pesticides, reducing chemical residues on and supporting in agroecosystems. Economically, adoption in regions like has led to net income increases of over 70% for farmers through higher yields and lower input costs, contributing significantly to sustainable farming in and . However, challenges persist, including the labor-intensive of transplantation, which can induce stress and high mortality in relocated nests if not managed carefully. Post-2020 field trials continue to affirm efficacy, such as demonstrations of ant-released volatiles repelling pests in orchards, though ongoing research addresses variability in colony establishment under changing climates.

Culinary and medicinal applications

Weaver ant larvae and pupae are harvested as a nutritious food source in regions such as Thailand and India, where they provide high protein content ranging from approximately 46% to 60% on a dry weight basis, making them a valuable edible insect option. In northeastern Thailand, particularly in Nakhon Ratchasima province, the annual market value of harvested weaver ants exceeds $620,000, supporting local economies through wild collection and small-scale farming. Culinary applications of weaver ants emphasize their larvae, pupae, and adults, which are often fried or roasted to enhance flavor and texture, or incorporated into salads and soups for added protein. The ants impart a distinctive citrusy tang derived from in their bodies, serving as a natural flavoring agent in dishes across . Additionally, processed weaver ant brood is used as feed for fish and , providing a high-protein supplement that improves growth rates in and livestock farming. In , weaver ant extracts have been employed as a folk remedy for in parts of and , where the bioactive compounds are believed to reduce and joint pain. Modern studies have explored weaver ant extracts for their antibacterial properties, demonstrating inhibition of pathogens such as Staphylococcus aureus and Monilinia fructigena. Sustainability concerns arise from overharvesting, which can deplete wild populations and disrupt local ecosystems, prompting recommendations for regulated farming to balance commercial demand with conservation. While nutritional analyses confirm the ants' value, further research on commercialization could mitigate risks and expand safe harvesting practices.

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