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Cashew
Ripe fruit and attached drupe, which contains the edible seed
Scientific classification Edit this classification
Kingdom: Plantae
Clade: Tracheophytes
Clade: Angiosperms
Clade: Eudicots
Clade: Rosids
Order: Sapindales
Family: Anacardiaceae
Genus: Anacardium
Species:
A. occidentale
Binomial name
Anacardium occidentale

Cashew is the common name of a tropical evergreen tree Anacardium occidentale, in the family Anacardiaceae. It is native to South America and is the source of the cashew nut and the cashew apple, an accessory fruit. The tree can grow as tall as 14 meters (46 feet), but the dwarf cultivars, growing up to 6 m (20 ft), prove more profitable, with earlier maturity and greater yields. The cashew nut is edible and is eaten on its own as a snack, used in recipes, or processed into cashew cheese or cashew butter. The nut is often simply called a 'cashew'. The cashew apple is a light reddish to yellow fruit, whose pulp and juice can be processed into a sweet, astringent fruit drink or fermented and distilled into liquor.

In 2023, 3.9 million tons of cashew nuts were harvested globally, led by the Ivory Coast and India. In addition to the nut and fruit, the shell yields derivatives used in lubricants, waterproofing, and paints.[2]

Description

[edit]

The cashew tree is large and evergreen, growing to 14 metres (46 feet) tall, with a short, often irregularly shaped trunk.[3] The leaves are spirally arranged, leathery textured, elliptic to obovate, 4–22 centimetres (1+1⁄2–8+3⁄4 inches) long and 2–15 cm (3⁄4–6 in) broad, with smooth margins. The flowers are produced in a panicle or corymb up to 26 cm (10 in) long; each flower is small, pale green at first, then turning reddish, with five slender, acute petals 7–15 millimeters (1⁄4–5⁄8 in) long. The largest cashew tree in the world covers an area around 7,500 m2 (81,000 sq ft) and is located in Parnamirim, Brazil.[citation needed]

The fruit of the cashew tree is an accessory fruit (sometimes called a pseudocarp or false fruit).[4][5] What appears to be the fruit is an oval or pear-shaped structure, a hypocarpium, that develops from the pedicel and the receptacle of the cashew flower.[6][7][3] Called the cashew apple, better known in Central America as marañón, it ripens into a yellow or red structure about 5–11 cm (2–4+1⁄4 in) long.[4][7]

The true fruit of the cashew tree is a kidney-shaped or boxing glove-shaped drupe that grows at the end of the cashew apple.[4] The drupe first develops on the tree and then the pedicel expands to become the cashew apple.[4] The drupe becomes the true fruit, a single shell-encased seed, which is often considered a nut in the culinary sense.[4][7][8] The seed is surrounded by a double-shell that contains an allergenic phenolic resin,[7] anacardic acid - which is a potent skin irritant[3] chemically related to the better-known and also toxic allergenic oil urushiol, which is found in the related poison ivy and lacquer tree.

  • Botanical illustration
    Botanical illustration
  • Tree in Mozambique, southeastern Africa
    Tree in Mozambique, southeastern Africa
  • Trunk in Bangladesh
    Trunk in Bangladesh
  • Flowers
    Flowers
  • Pollen grains of Cashew tree
    Pollen grains of Cashew tree
  • Young fruits
    Young fruits
  • Fruits sold as produce
    Fruits sold as produce

Etymology

[edit]

The English name derives from the Portuguese name for the fruit of the cashew tree: Caju (Portuguese pronunciation: [kaˈʒu]), also known as acaju, which itself is from the Tupi word acajú, literally meaning "nut that produces itself".[4][5]

The generic name Anacardium is composed of the Greek prefix ana- (ἀνά-, aná, 'up, upward'), the Greek cardia (καρδία, kardía, 'heart'), and the Neo-Latin suffix -ium. It possibly refers to the heart shape of the fruit,[9] to "the top of the fruit stem"[10] or to the seed.[11] The word anacardium was earlier used to refer to Semecarpus anacardium (the marking nut tree) before Carl Linnaeus transferred it to the cashew; both plants are in the same family.[12] The epithet occidentale derives from the Western (or Occidental) world.[13]

Distribution and habitat

[edit]

The species is native to tropical South America[14] and later was distributed around the world in the 1500s by Portuguese explorers.[4][15][7] Portuguese colonists in Brazil began exporting cashew nuts as early as the 1550s.[16] The Portuguese took it to Goa, formerly Estado da Índia Portuguesa in India, between 1560 and 1565. From there, it spread throughout Southeast Asia and eventually Africa.[citation needed]

Cultivation

[edit]
Cashew production
(with shell) 2023
Country Tonnes
 Ivory Coast
1,044,450
 India
782,000
 Vietnam
347,634
 Indonesia
164,152
 Philippines
136,264
World 3,934,839
Source: FAOSTAT of the United Nations[17]

The cashew tree is cultivated in the tropics between 25°N and 25°S, and is well-adapted to hot lowland areas with a pronounced dry season, where the mango and tamarind trees also thrive.[18] The traditional cashew tree is tall, up to 14 m (46 ft), requiring three years from planting before it starts production, and eight years before economic harvests.[19][20]

More recent breeds, such as the dwarf cashew trees, are up to 6 m (20 ft) tall and start producing after the first year, with economic yields after three years. The cashew nut yields for the traditional tree are about 0.25 t (0.25 long tons; 0.28 short tons) per hectare, in contrast to over a ton per hectare for the dwarf variety. Grafting and other modern tree management technologies improve and sustain cashew nut yields in commercial orchards.[19][21]

Production

[edit]

In 2023, global production of cashew nuts (as the kernel) was 3.9 million tonnes, led by Ivory Coast and India with a combined 46% of the world total (table).

Trade

[edit]

Almost all cashews produced in Africa between 2000 and 2019 were exported as raw nuts which are much less profitable than shelled nuts.[22] One of the goals of the African Cashew Alliance is to promote Africa's cashew processing capabilities to improve the profitability of Africa's cashew industry.[23] Half of the world's cashews were sold by American retailer Costco, as of 2025.[24]

Toxicity

[edit]

Some people are allergic to cashews, but they are a less frequent allergen than other tree nuts or peanuts.[25] For up to 6% of children and 3% of adults, consuming cashews may cause allergic reactions, ranging from mild discomfort to life-threatening anaphylaxis.[26][27][28][29] These allergies are triggered by the proteins found in tree nuts, and cooking often does not remove or change these proteins.[30] Reactions to cashew and tree nuts can also occur as a consequence of hidden nut ingredients or traces of nuts that may inadvertently be introduced during food processing, handling, or manufacturing.[27][28]

The shell of the cashew nut contains oil compounds that can cause contact dermatitis similar to poison ivy, primarily resulting from the phenolic lipids, anacardic acid, and cardanol.[7][31] Because it can cause dermatitis, cashews are typically not sold in the shell to consumers.[32] Readily and inexpensively extracted from the waste shells, cardanol is under research for its potential applications in nanomaterials and biotechnology.[33]

Uses

[edit]

Nutrition

[edit]
Cashews, raw
Nutritional value per 100 g (3.5 oz)
Energy553 kcal (2,310 kJ)
30.19 g
Starch23.49 g
Sugars 5.91 g
0.00 g
Dietary fiber3.3 g
43.85 g
Saturated7.783 g
Monounsaturated23.797 g
Polyunsaturated7.845 g
18.22 g
Vitamins and minerals
VitaminsQuantity
%DV†
Vitamin A0 IU
Thiamine (B1)
35%
0.423 mg
Riboflavin (B2)
4%
0.058 mg
Niacin (B3)
7%
1.062 mg
Pantothenic acid (B5)
17%
0.86 mg
Vitamin B6
25%
0.417 mg
Folate (B9)
6%
25 μg
Vitamin B12
0%
0 μg
Vitamin C
1%
0.5 mg
Vitamin D
0%
0 μg
Vitamin E
6%
0.90 mg
Vitamin K
28%
34.1 μg
MineralsQuantity
%DV†
Calcium
3%
37 mg
Copper
244%
2.2 mg
Iron
37%
6.68 mg
Magnesium
70%
292 mg
Manganese
72%
1.66 mg
Phosphorus
47%
593 mg
Potassium
22%
660 mg
Selenium
36%
19.9 μg
Sodium
1%
12 mg
Zinc
53%
5.78 mg
Other constituentsQuantity
Water5.20 g
Link to USDA Database entry
†Percentages estimated using US recommendations for adults,[34] except for potassium, which is estimated based on expert recommendation from the National Academies.[35]

Raw cashew nuts are 5% water, 30% carbohydrates, 44% fat, and 18% protein (table). In a 100-gram reference amount, raw cashews provide 553 kilocalories, 67% of the Daily Value (DV) in total fats, 36% DV of protein, 13% DV of dietary fiber, and 11% DV of carbohydrates.[36] Cashew nuts are rich sources (20% or more of the DV) of dietary minerals, including particularly copper, manganese, phosphorus, and magnesium (79-110% DV), and of thiamin, vitamin B6, and vitamin K (32-37% DV).[36] Iron, potassium, zinc, and selenium are present in significant content (14-61% DV) (table).[36] Cashews (100g, raw) contain 113 milligrams (1.74 gr) of beta-sitosterol.[36]

Nut and shell

[edit]

Culinary uses for cashew seeds in snacking and cooking are similar to those for all tree seeds called nuts.[4][7]

Cashews are commonly used in Indian cuisine, whole for garnishing sweets or curries, or ground into a paste[7] that forms a base of sauces for curries (e.g., korma), or some sweets (e.g., kaju barfi). It is also used in powdered form in the preparation of several Indian sweets and desserts. In Goan cuisine, both roasted and raw kernels of Goa Kaju are used whole for making curries and sweets. Cashews are also used in Thai and Chinese cuisines, generally in whole form. In the Philippines, cashew is a known product of Antipolo and is eaten with suman. The province of Pampanga also has a sweet dessert called turrones de casuy, which is cashew marzipan wrapped in white wafers. In Indonesia, roasted and salted cashews are called kacang mete or kacang mede, while the cashew apple is called jambu monyet (lit. 'monkey rose apple').[citation needed]

In the 21st century, cashew cultivation increased in several African countries to meet the manufacturing demands for cashew milk, a plant milk alternative to dairy milk.[37] In Mozambique, bolo polana is a cake prepared using powdered cashews and mashed potatoes as the main ingredients. This dessert is common in South Africa.[38]

  • Women shelling cashews in Burkina Faso, West Africa
    Women shelling cashews in Burkina Faso, West Africa
  • A woman using a machine to shell cashews in Thailand, wearing gloves to protect against contact dermatitis
    A woman using a machine to shell cashews in Thailand, wearing gloves to protect against contact dermatitis
  • Salted, roasted cashew nuts
    Salted, roasted cashew nuts
  • Cashew sprouts are eaten raw or cooked.
    Cashew sprouts are eaten raw or cooked.

Husk

[edit]

The cashew nut kernel has a slight curvature and two cotyledons, each representing around 20-25% of the weight of the nut. It is encased in a reddish-brown membrane called a husk, which accounts for approximately 5% of the total nut. Cashew nut husk is used in emerging industrial applications, such as an adsorbent, composites, biopolymers, dyes, and enzyme synthesis.[39]

Apple

[edit]
See also: Cajuína

The mature cashew apple can be eaten fresh, cooked in curries, or fermented into vinegar, citric acid,[40] or an alcoholic drink.[7] It is also used to make preserves, chutneys, and jams in some countries, such as India and Brazil.[7] In many countries, particularly in South America, the cashew apple is used to flavor drinks, both alcoholic and nonalcoholic.[4][3]

In Brazil, cashew fruit juice and fruit pulp are used to make sweets, and juice mixed with alcoholic beverages such as cachaça, and as flour, milk, or cheese.[41] In Panama, the cashew fruit is cooked with water and sugar for a prolonged time to make a sweet, brown, paste-like dessert called dulce de marañón (marañón being a Spanish name for cashew).[42]

Cashew nuts are more widely traded than cashew apples, because the fruit, unlike the nut, is easily bruised and has a very limited shelf life.[43] Cashew apple juice, however, may be used for manufacturing blended juices.[43]

When the apple is consumed, its astringency is sometimes removed by steaming the fruit for five minutes before washing it in cold water. Steeping the fruit in boiling salt water for five minutes reduces the astringency.[44]

In Cambodia, where the plant is usually grown as an ornamental rather than an economic tree, the fruit is a delicacy and is eaten with salt.[45]

Alcohol

[edit]

In the Indian state of Goa, the ripened cashew apples are mashed, and the juice, called "neero", is extracted and kept for fermentation[7] for a few days. This fermented juice then undergoes a double distillation process. The resulting beverage is called feni or fenny. Feni is about 40-42% alcohol (80-84 proof). The single-distilled version is called urrak, which is about 15% alcohol (30 proof).[46] In Tanzania, the cashew apple (bibo in Swahili) is dried and reconstituted with water and fermented, then distilled to make a strong liquor called gongo.[47]

  • Distilling cashew apple liquor (muchekele) in Mozambique, southeastern Africa
    Distilling cashew apple liquor (muchekele) in Mozambique, southeastern Africa
  • Cashew apples spread for drying and subsequent storage before reconstitution in water and later fermentation, Mozambique
    Cashew apples spread for drying and subsequent storage before reconstitution in water and later fermentation, Mozambique

Nut oil

[edit]

Cashew nut oil is a dark yellow oil derived from pressing the cashew nuts (typically from lower-value broken chunks created accidentally during processing) and used for cooking or salad dressing. The highest quality oil is produced from a single cold pressing.[48]

Shell oil

[edit]
See also: Urushiol

Cashew nutshell liquid (CNSL) or cashew shell oil (CAS registry number 8007-24-7) is a natural resin with a yellowish sheen found in the honeycomb structure of the cashew nutshell, and is a byproduct of processing cashew nuts. Since it is a strong irritant, it should not be confused with edible cashew nut oil. It is dangerous to handle in small-scale processing of the shells, but is itself a raw material with multiple uses.[33] It is used in tropical folk medicine and for anti-termite treatment of timber.[49] Its composition varies depending on how it is processed.

  • Cold, solvent-extracted CNSL is mostly composed of anacardic acids (70%),[50] cardol (18%), and cardanol (5%).[33][51]
  • Heating CNSL decarboxylates the anacardic acids, producing a technical grade of CNSL that is rich in cardanol. Distillation of this material gives distilled, technical CNSL containing 78% cardanol and 8% cardol (cardol has one more hydroxyl group than cardanol).[51] This process also reduces the degree of thermal polymerization of the unsaturated alkyl-phenols present in CNSL.
  • Anacardic acid is also used in the chemical industry for the production of cardanol, which is used for resins, coatings, and frictional materials.[50][51]

These substances are skin allergens, like lacquer and the oils of poison ivy, and they present a danger during manual cashew processing.[49]

This natural oil phenol has interesting chemical structural features that can be modified to create a wide spectrum of biobased monomers. These capitalize on the chemically-versatile construct, which contains three functional groups: The aromatic ring, the hydroxyl group, and the double bonds in the flanking alkyl chain. These include polyols, which have recently seen increased demand for their biobased origin and key chemical attributes such as high reactivity, range of functionalities, reduction in blowing agents, and naturally occurring fire retardant properties in the field of rigid polyurethanes, aided by their inherent phenolic structure and larger number of reactive units per unit mass.[33]

CNSL may be used as a resin for carbon composite products.[52] CNSL-based novolac is another versatile industrial monomer deriving from cardanol typically used as a reticulating agent (hardener) for epoxy matrices in composite applications[53] providing good thermal and mechanical properties to the final composite material.[54]

Animal feed

[edit]

Discarded cashew nuts are unfit for human consumption and the residues of oil extraction from cashew kernels can be fed to livestock. Animals can also eat the leaves of cashew trees.[55]

Other uses

[edit]

In addition to its nut and fruit, the plant has several other uses. In Cambodia, the bark gives a yellow dye, the timber is used in boat-making, and for house-boards, and the wood makes excellent charcoal.[45] The shells yield a black oil used as a preservative and water-proofing agent in varnishes, cement, and as a lubricant or timber seal.[7] Timber is used to manufacture furniture, boats, packing crates, and charcoal.[7] Its juice turns black on exposure to air, providing an indelible ink.[7]

See also

[edit]

References

[edit]
[edit]
Revisions and contributorsEdit on WikipediaRead on Wikipedia

Cashew

View on Grokipedia
from Grokipedia
The cashew (Anacardium occidentale) is a tropical evergreen tree in the family, native to northeastern , known for producing an edible kidney-shaped nut encased in a toxic shell and a juicy, pear-shaped called the cashew apple. The tree typically reaches 6–12 meters in height with a spreading, globose canopy up to 15 meters wide, leathery obovate leaves 10–20 cm long, and small, fragrant flowers that develop into the distinctive structure where the true (nut) hangs below the enlarged, edible peduncle (apple). Introduced to and by Portuguese explorers in the , it has since become a major crop in tropical regions worldwide, thriving in well-drained sandy soils, full sun, temperatures of 22–32°C, and annual rainfall of 1,000–2,000 mm, though it tolerates seasonal dryness and poor soils. Cashew cultivation begins with flowering in the third to fifth year, stabilizing production by the eighth year, with trees productive for up to 35 years; propagation is commonly by seed or grafting for dwarf varieties that yield earlier and higher. Global raw cashew nut production reached approximately 5.4 million metric tons in the 2023/24 season (with estimates for 2024/25 at around 5.1 million metric tons), driven by expansion in cultivated areas and improved management, with top producers including Côte d'Ivoire (leading with over 1.2 million tons), India, Tanzania, Benin, and Vietnam. The nuts, comprising 18–27% of the whole fruit by weight, are processed to remove the caustic shell containing anacardic acid, yielding kernels rich in monounsaturated fats (up to 60%), proteins (19–36%), and minerals like magnesium and phosphorus, making them a nutritious snack and ingredient in global cuisine. The cashew apple, high in vitamin C (up to 200 mg/100 g) and sugars, is underutilized outside producing regions but supports local beverages, jams, and ethanol production, while by-products like nutshell liquid serve industrial applications in resins and pesticides. Economically vital for smallholder farmers in developing countries, the cashew industry generates significant export revenue but faces challenges from pests, climate variability, and processing constraints.

Botanical Description

Tree Morphology

The cashew tree (Anacardium occidentale) is an species belonging to the family, typically growing as a medium-sized that reaches heights of up to 14 meters in its natural habitat, featuring a broad, spreading canopy that can extend as wide as the tree is tall. The tree often develops as a shrub-like form in suboptimal conditions but attains a more pronounced arboreal structure in favorable tropical environments, with extensive branching that contributes to its dome-shaped crown. The leaves are simple, leathery in texture, and obovate to elliptic in , measuring 4–22 cm long and 2–15 cm broad, with smooth margins and a spirally arranged along the stems. These leaves emerge in flushes following the rainy season, providing a dense but thin peripheral foliage that enhances the tree's ornamental appearance. The trunk is short and irregularly shaped, with smooth gray bark that exudes a clear gum when injured, while branches arise low on the bole, often allowing lower limbs to touch the ground and root adventitiously. The consists of a persistent extending up to 3 meters deep, complemented by spreading lateral roots and sinker roots that can reach 6 meters, enabling resilience in dry soils with access to moisture. Dwarf cultivars, selected for commercial cultivation, are restricted to about 6 meters in height, promoting easier harvesting and higher nut yields compared to standard varieties. Notable for its impressive scale, the largest recorded cashew tree in Pirangi, , spans an area of approximately 7,500 m², equivalent to the coverage of about 70 typical trees, with a perimeter exceeding 500 meters. Growth is characterized by a slow initial phase, with trees reaching 2–3 meters in height by 4–5 years, followed by stabilization of production around the 8th year and full maturity in 8–10 years for traditional varieties, after which they can remain productive for 30–40 years.

Flowers and Fruit Structure

The cashew tree (Anacardium occidentale) produces small flowers arranged in terminal s measuring 10–25 cm in length, with each containing 200–1,600 flowers that open over 5–6 weeks. The flowers are radially symmetrical, featuring five sepals, five petals approximately 1 cm long that are initially greenish and turn pinkish-red upon opening, and ten stamens. The species is andromonoecious, bearing both male flowers (lacking a functional pistil) and hermaphroditic flowers (with a pistil and reduced stamens) on the same tree; the ratio of male to hermaphroditic flowers varies by , location, and flowering stage, typically ranging from 60% male to 40% hermaphroditic in many varieties to over 90% male in some dwarf clones. Pollination in cashew is primarily entomophilous, facilitated by insects such as honey bees, flies, and ants, which are attracted to the sweet-scented flowers and sticky pollen; wind plays a minor role. Hermaphroditic flowers are self-fertile and support both self- and cross-pollination, though cross-pollination is favored due to protogyny (stigma receptivity preceding pollen release), promoting genetic diversity; self-incompatibility is not observed in most varieties. Fewer than 10% of hermaphroditic flowers typically develop into mature fruit, limited by resource competition from male flowers. The cashew fruit consists of two distinct parts: the true fruit, a kidney-shaped approximately 2.5–4 cm long containing the edible seed (kernel), and the cashew apple, an formed by the swollen peduncle or receptacle. The drupe hangs below the apple and features a double-layered shell: an outer exocarp, a resinous mesocarp rich in caustic phenolic compounds like anacardic acid for protection against herbivores and pathogens, and an inner hard endocarp enclosing the kernel. Fruit development begins with the formation of the at the tip about 50–60 days after flowering, followed by the expansion of the peduncle into the fleshy apple, which reaches maturity 20–30 days later, resulting in a pear-shaped structure 5–11 cm long. The apple's skin changes from green to yellow or red as it ripens, while the turns from pink to grayish-brown; the entire unit detaches when mature, with the apple often drying post-harvest. Varietal differences influence apple color, with some cultivars producing predominantly yellow fruits and others red, affecting visual appeal and potential processing uses, though both types share similar anatomical features.

Etymology and History

Etymology

The English term "cashew" derives from the word caju, which itself originates from the Tupi-Guarani spoken by of , specifically acajú or akajú, meaning "nut that produces itself." This name poetically refers to the unique botanical relationship where the nut emerges externally from the swollen peduncle, known as the cashew apple, rather than being enclosed within a typical structure. The word entered English in the late , with its first documented use appearing in 1598. The scientific genus name Anacardium for the cashew tree (Anacardium occidentale) comes from Greek roots: ana- meaning "upward" or "against," and kardia meaning "heart," translating to "upward heart" or "inverted heart." This nomenclature, coined by in the , alludes to the nut's distinctive position, where the kernel sits externally at the base of the apple-like receptacle, resembling a heart pointing upward away from the fruit's typical orientation. The species name occidentale simply denotes its origin. Cashew nomenclature reflects its cultural and linguistic spread through Portuguese colonization, with variations including cajueiro in for the tree and caju for the fruit. In Spanish-speaking regions, common names include mar añón in parts of and anacardo more broadly, highlighting regional adaptations. The plant belongs to the family, which also encompasses () and (), sharing traits like resinous sap. The first detailed European description of the cashew was provided by French botanist André Thevet in 1558 during his travels in , noting the tree's prevalence and the fruit's peculiar form. This account marked the beginning of its documentation in colonial literature, influencing subsequent botanical records as explorers disseminated the plant and its names globally.

Origin and Global Spread

The cashew tree (Anacardium occidentale) is native to northeastern , where it thrives in the coastal regions of the and surrounding areas, including parts of , , and other South American countries. Indigenous Amazonian peoples, particularly the Tupi-Guarani groups, domesticated the thousands of years before European contact, cultivating it for its edible nuts, , and other uses; archaeological and ecological shows that cashew trees are significantly more abundant near pre-Columbian settlement sites, indicating intentional and dispersal by these communities starting as early as 6,000 years ago. These indigenous groups harvested the cashew apple for and beverages, roasted the nuts for consumption, and utilized the tree's and bark for medicinal purposes, while the durable served in crafting tools and utensils. A 2017 study analyzing tree distributions across the Amazon confirmed this human-mediated , highlighting cashew as one of 85 species enriched by ancient practices that shaped the region's . Subsequent research, including a 2020 review, has refined timelines for Amazonian cultivation, reinforcing pre-Columbian patterns for cashew. European colonization marked the beginning of the cashew's global dissemination, with Portuguese explorers exporting seeds from in the 1550s. The tree was first introduced to , , between 1560 and 1565, primarily as a soil erosion control measure along coastal slopes, where its deep roots and fast growth proved effective; from there, it spread to other parts of and was planted for similar environmental purposes. By the 1570s, the had transported cashew to their East African colonies, notably , establishing early plantations that leveraged the tree's adaptability to tropical climates. Subsequent introductions reached other parts of in the late 16th and 17th centuries. The cashew was introduced to in the 19th century, with initial plantings limited but laying the groundwork for later expansion. These efforts transformed the cashew from a regional staple into a colonial , with records from Portuguese botanists documenting its propagation across their to support agriculture and trade. In the 19th and early 20th centuries, British colonial authorities in India promoted cashew cultivation more aggressively for commercial potential, expanding plantations in regions like Kerala and Tamil Nadu to meet growing demand for nuts in confectionery and exports, which spurred yields and processing innovations. Post-World War II economic recovery and rising global demand fueled a boom in cashew production across Africa and Asia; in the 1950s, large-scale plantations were established in East and West African countries such as Tanzania, Nigeria, and Mozambique, often through colonial and post-independence agricultural programs that emphasized cash crops. Vietnam experienced a dramatic surge in the 1980s, as government policies under economic reforms (Đổi Mới) encouraged planting on marginal lands, increasing cultivated area from 30,000 hectares in 1980 to over 250,000 hectares by the mid-1990s and positioning the country as a processing powerhouse. Recent genetic studies, including DNA analyses from 2017 and later, have reinforced the South American origins of domesticated cashew varieties, aiding breeding efforts. In the 21st century, Brazil has seen a revival of cashew production, with initiatives in states like São Paulo introducing dwarf clones for higher yields and fresh fruit markets, reclaiming some of its historical role amid global competition.

Distribution and Habitat

Native Range

The cashew tree (Anacardium occidentale), a member of the family, originates from the coastal regions of northeastern , spanning from the state of southward to the Amazonian fringes, where it thrives in diverse ecosystems including savannas, coastal forests, and disturbed areas. This native range encompasses the transition zones between the Atlantic coastal forests and the , with the species historically documented in lowland tropical environments characterized by seasonal dry periods. In its wild state, the cashew prefers tropical climates with well-drained sandy or loamy soils, often at altitudes ranging from sea level up to approximately 1,200 meters, where it demonstrates notable tolerance to drought through its extensive taproot system but remains highly sensitive to frost. These trees typically occur as scattered individuals within cerrado savanna ecosystems, acting as pioneer species that colonize open or disturbed habitats, and they form symbiotic associations with arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi to enhance nutrient uptake, particularly phosphorus, in nutrient-poor soils. The genus exhibits in this region, with closely related species such as Anacardium spruceanum co-occurring in Amazonian areas, sharing similar ecological adaptations but differing in fruit size and distribution. Wild cashew populations face ongoing threats from and , which have reduced suitable areas in northeastern , though the species remains abundant overall and is classified as Least Concern globally. From this native South American homeland, the cashew has since spread worldwide through human introduction.

Current Cultivation Areas

Cashew cultivation is primarily confined to the tropical regions between 25°N and 25°S latitudes, where the tree thrives in hot, lowland climates with a distinct dry season. The major cultivation areas span West Africa, Indian subcontinent, East Africa, and parts of South America, driven by the crop's adaptability to diverse tropical environments and increasing global demand. West Africa dominates production, accounting for approximately 55% of the world's cashew output as of 2023/24, with key countries including Côte d'Ivoire, Benin, Burkina Faso, Ghana, and Nigeria. In Asia, India and Vietnam are prominent, while East Africa's Tanzania and Mozambique contribute significantly, and Brazil remains a longstanding producer in South America. In , cashew farming flourishes on well-drained sandy soils, which support the tree's deep root system and tolerance for drought-prone conditions. Côte d'Ivoire leads globally, with over 1 million metric tons produced as of 2023, primarily in the northern zones. In , cultivation is concentrated along the coastal belts of , where humid conditions and red lateritic soils in districts like and enable high yields, representing about 12% of the country's production. Vietnam's expansion since the has centered in the and southeastern provinces, where over 300,000 hectares are under cultivation as of 2024, boosted by government initiatives and favorable alluvial soils. East Africa's grows cashews in the southern regions of and , leveraging sandy coastal soils, while Brazil's plantations are mainly in the northeastern states. Emerging cultivation areas reflect both investment-driven growth and climate influences. In West Africa, Ghana and Nigeria saw expansions in 2024, with Nigeria reaching 236,000 metric tons through processing investments under projects like Prosper Cashew, which aims to increase local value addition. Ghana's Bono and Ahafo regions, despite a 30% production dip to 161,000 metric tons in 2024 due to weather, are poised for rebound via improved practices and expanded acreage. For the 2024/25 season, global production is estimated at 4.8 million metric tons, with Tanzania achieving a record 528,000 metric tons and Benin forecasting a 12% increase. Revivals in northern Brazil and limited commercial plantings in northern Australia highlight potential new frontiers, as warming temperatures shift viable zones southward and expand suitability at higher latitudes by up to 17% globally by 2050. However, core producing regions face risks from intensified droughts and erratic rainfall, necessitating adaptation strategies.

Cultivation Practices

Climate and Soil Requirements

Cashew trees ( occidentale) are adapted to tropical and subtropical climates, where they exhibit optimal growth at average temperatures between 20°C and 30°C. These conditions support vigorous vegetative development and reproductive phases, though the trees are highly sensitive to and experience damage at temperatures below 4°C. Annual rainfall of 1,000 to 2,000 mm is ideal, distributed to include distinct dry periods that encourage flowering and prevent excessive vegetative growth during nut maturation. For , cashews prefer well-drained sandy loams with a range of 5.5 to 7.5, which facilitates root penetration and nutrient uptake. The trees tolerate soils of low fertility but perform poorly in heavy clays or areas prone to waterlogging, as stagnant water can lead to . Cultivation is feasible from up to altitudes of 1,200 m, where cooler temperatures at higher elevations may slightly delay maturation but do not preclude growth. Traditional planting density for standard varieties uses an 8 m × 8 m spacing to accommodate canopy expansion, while dwarf cultivars allow closer arrangements of 4 m × 4 m to 5 m × 5 m for higher initial productivity. The demonstrates notable adaptations to environmental stresses, including resistance through an extensive deep that accesses subsoil moisture during extended dry spells. In semi-arid zones with rainfall below 1,000 mm, supplemental is essential during critical growth stages to sustain yields. This resilience mirrors the tree's native lowland habitats in northeastern , where similar seasonal variations prevail.

Propagation, Planting, and Maintenance

Cashew trees are primarily propagated by , which are recalcitrant and best planted fresh to maximize viability, though proper storage in cool, dry conditions can extend viability to 6–12 months. are sown in polybags with well-drained , using 2–3 per bag at a depth of 2 inches, under shaded conditions with consistent . Vegetative via is preferred for dwarf varieties to ensure uniformity, precocious bearing, and enhanced traits; top-working or side-grafting is performed on 6–12-month-old rootstocks during the rainy season. , such as T-budding, is also employed in the rainy season to propagate disease-resistant cultivars, achieving high success rates while preserving desirable genetic qualities. Planting occurs at the onset of the rainy season, typically from to mid-July, to leverage natural moisture for establishment. Pits measuring 45 cm × 45 cm × 45 cm are prepared, and seedlings or grafts are transplanted at spacings of 7–10 m between trees (e.g., 7 m for standard varieties accommodating about 200 trees per , or 10 m × 10 m for 100 trees per ), allowing ample room for canopy development. Initial fertilization follows one month after planting, applying NPK in balanced ratios such as 70 g , 40 g , and 60 g per young tree, often split into doses during the rainy season to support and vegetative growth. Maintenance begins with nursery care, including regular watering, shading, and weeding to promote healthy seedlings, transitioning to field practices post-transplant. is essential for shaping; in the first 3–4 years, low branches are removed up to 1 m trunk and dried twigs are eliminated annually to form an open canopy, with minimal thereafter except to remove interlocking branches in July–August. Weeding is conducted manually around a 2 m per , particularly in the , to reduce . supplements rainfall during prolonged dry spells, with young trees receiving weekly (15–25 liters per ) for the first 2–3 years to prevent stress, while mature trees require it only as needed. Recent advances as of 2025 include precision irrigation systems, which can boost yields by up to 30% through optimized management. with such as groundnuts or pulses is recommended in the early years (up to canopy closure) within 1 m of the trunk, enhancing through without competing for resources. The growth timeline starts with seed germination in 2–4 weeks under warm (25–30°C), moist conditions, followed by nursery rearing for 6–12 months until seedlings reach 30–50 cm in height for at the rainy season's start. Vegetative growth dominates the first 2–3 years, with initial fruiting possible by year 3 in grafted or dwarf varieties; traditional seedling-grown trees typically achieve economic yields (3–4 kg nuts per tree annually) from year 8 onward, though peak production occurs after 10–15 years.

Harvesting, Yields, and Pests/Diseases

Cashew harvesting is primarily a manual process, where mature fruits are collected after the cashew apples naturally fall to the ground, signaling ripeness of the attached nuts. In major producing regions like , the harvest season spans February to June, with peak activity from March to May depending on local climate variations. Recent developments as of 2025 include tools for detecting fruit maturity and quality, improving harvest efficiency. Following collection, the nuts are detached from the apples and sun-dried for 2–4 days on surfaces or mats to lower their moisture content to 7–8%, preventing mold growth and facilitating storage. This step is crucial for maintaining nut quality, as higher moisture levels can lead to deterioration during subsequent handling. Yields vary significantly based on tree variety, cultivation practices, and environmental conditions. Traditional tall cashew varieties typically produce 0.25–1 of nuts per , while dwarf or semi-dwarf cultivars, which mature earlier and allow denser planting, can reach 1.5–2 per under optimal management. The raw cashew nut constitutes approximately 10% of the total , with the remainder being the fleshy apple; however, kernel recovery after shelling ranges from 20–30% of the nut's . These yields are influenced by factors such as tree age—full production often begins 3–5 years after planting in grafted dwarfs—and , with higher outputs in well-maintained orchards. Cashew crops are susceptible to several pests and diseases that can substantially reduce yields. Key pests include the tea mosquito bug (Helopeltis spp.), which pierces tender shoots, leaves, and nuts, causing and up to 30–100% crop loss in severe cases, and stem borers (Plocaederus ferrugineus), which tunnel into trunks and roots, potentially killing young trees. Major diseases encompass anthracnose, caused by Colletotrichum gloeosporioides, which manifests as dark lesions on leaves, inflorescences, and fruits, leading to premature drop and reduced nut quality, and , induced by Lasiodiplodia theobromae, characterized by oozing gum from cankers on trunks and branches, often resulting in dieback. Recent studies indicate heightened pest and disease pressure in African cashew regions, with outbreaks linked to variability, including erratic rainfall and warmer temperatures exacerbating fungal spread and insect proliferation. Management relies on integrated pest management (IPM) strategies that combine cultural, biological, and chemical controls to minimize environmental impact. For pests like the tea mosquito, practices include pruning to improve canopy aeration, encouraging natural predators such as red ants (Oecophylla smaragdina), and targeted applications of insecticides like imidacloprid during peak infestation periods (September–April). Diseases such as anthracnose and gummosis are addressed through sanitation—removing and burning infected parts—copper-based fungicides like oxychloride applied post-monsoon, and soil drenches with systemic options like carbendazim for gummosis cankers. Breeding programs emphasize resistant varieties; for instance, clones like BRS 226 and CCP 1001 show tolerance to powdery mildew and anthracnose, while ongoing research at India's Directorate of Cashew Research explores CRISPR-Cas9 genome editing to enhance resistance against key pathogens and pests in the 2020s.

Production and Trade

Global Production Statistics

Global production of raw cashew nuts (RCN) reached 5.39 million tonnes in the 2023/24 season. This figure reflects steady growth in the sector, with estimates for the 2024/25 season at 4.81 million tonnes due to weather challenges in key regions, and projections estimating around 5.21 million tonnes for the 2025/26 season. Since 2000, when global output stood at approximately 2 million tonnes, production has expanded at a (CAGR) of about 4%, fueled primarily by rapid increases in African production areas. Production is measured in RCN, the in-shell form harvested from trees, from which edible kernels are extracted at a yield rate of 20–25%, depending on nut quality and processing efficiency. In 2024, estimates indicate output at around 1.1 million tonnes, while Vietnam's domestic production was approximately 350,000 tonnes. The global cashew market is projected to be valued at USD 9.9 billion in 2025, underscoring the crop's economic significance. Yield variations remain a key challenge, with smallholder farms typically achieving 0.5 tonnes per hectare, compared to up to 2 tonnes per hectare on larger plantations, highlighting opportunities for improved agronomic practices to close these gaps.

Major Producers and Trade Patterns

leads global cashew production, harvesting approximately 1.04 million metric tons of raw cashew nuts (RCN) in 2023, accounting for about 20% of the worldwide total of around 5 million metric tons. follows as the second-largest producer with 782,000 metric tons in the same year, while produced around 348,000 metric tons, focusing more on processing imported nuts. Other key producers include (approximately 200,000 metric tons), (147,000 metric tons), and , with African countries collectively contributing over 60% of global output. The cashew trade is characterized by a distinct where roughly 70-80% of Africa's raw cashew nut production—primarily from West African nations like and —is exported unprocessed to major processing hubs in and . These countries import over 2 million metric tons of RCN annually to shell and grade the nuts, exporting finished kernels to consuming markets. In contrast, the and , which together account for about 50-60% of global kernel imports, primarily purchase processed cashew nuts, with the U.S. importing approximately 170,000 metric tons of shelled cashews valued at $985 million for the 2023/24. Efforts to shift trade patterns toward local value addition in have gained momentum through the African Cashew Alliance (ACA), established in the early 2010s, which promotes investments in processing facilities to retain more economic benefits on the continent. The ACA's initiatives, including partnerships for and , have supported the development of over 100 processing plants in member countries since 2015, aiming to increase 's share of kernel exports from under 10% to 20% by 2030. remains the dominant exporter of processed cashews, shipping 730,000 metric tons in 2024—a 20% year-over-year increase—primarily to , the U.S., and the , with projections for $4.5 billion in exports in 2025.
Top Cashew Producers (2023, metric tons RCN)Production
1,044,000
782,000
348,000
200,000
147,000
Challenges in the include price volatility driven by supply fluctuations and weather events, with raw cashew prices dipping to lows of around $3 per kg in mid-2023 before surging to $6.50 per kg by late 2024 due to crop shortfalls in key regions. The sector is dominated by smallholder farmers, who produce about 80% of global cashew nuts on plots averaging 1-2 hectares, often facing limited access to markets and inputs. To encourage domestic processing, several origin countries impose export duties on raw nuts, such as Ivory Coast's 10% levy and Tanzania's graduated tariffs up to 18%, redirecting more volume toward local facilities. As of November 2025, the 2024/25 season shows a projected global decline to 4.81 million tonnes, influenced by adverse weather in and , impacting early trade volumes and raising concerns for smallholder incomes.

Plant Parts

The Cashew Nut

The cashew nut, the true fruit of the Anacardium occidentale tree, is a kidney-shaped measuring 2 to 3 cm in length and width, with the edible kernel encased within a hard, double-walled shell. The outer shell consists of a leathery epicarp and a toxic mesocarp containing cashew nut shell liquid, while the inner endocarp is thin and hard; between these layers lies a honeycomb-like structure that provides and houses the . This unique protects the kernel until , when the entire hangs pendant from the base of the swollen, fleshy pseudofruit known as the cashew apple. The kernel develops inside the apple over approximately three months following flowering, maturing before the peduncle swells into the apple; at harvest, each nut typically weighs 5 to 10 g, representing about 10% of the total fruit mass; the edible kernel accounts for 20-30% of this weight, with the remainder being shell and testa. Raw cashew kernels are nutrient-dense, comprising roughly 18% protein and 44% fat by weight, with the fats predominantly unsaturated (around 80%, including high levels of oleic and linoleic acids). When stored in cool, dry conditions (below 20°C and 65% relative humidity), raw kernels maintain quality for 1 to 2 years, though exposure to heat or moisture can accelerate rancidity due to their high oil content. Cashew kernels are graded primarily by size, shape, and color, with common categories including white wholes (large, unbroken, pale kernels), splits (halves from natural breaks), and pieces (smaller fragments from ). Grades such as WW-320 indicate approximately 320 wholes per 454 g pound, prioritizing uniformity for market value. Organic cashews differ from conventional ones in cultivation: they are grown without synthetic pesticides or fertilizers, potentially resulting in lower residue levels, enhanced , and higher retention of certain nutrients like magnesium and , though overall nutritional profiles are comparable; conventional varieties may involve chemical inputs for higher yields but require stricter post-harvest testing for contaminants.

The Cashew Apple

The cashew apple, scientifically termed the pseudofruit or accessory fruit of Anacardium occidentale, forms through the swelling of the peduncle or hypocotyl directly below the true fruit (the cashew nut). This structure typically measures 5 to 11 cm in length and 4 to 6 cm in diameter, presenting a pear-like, oval, or conical shape with a thin, waxy skin enclosing a spongy, juicy pulp. Immature apples are green, transitioning to vibrant yellow or red upon ripening, which signals peak edibility and nutritional value. The pulp's high water content, ranging from 84% to 90%, imparts a crisp yet fibrous texture, making it distinct from the nut in both form and function. Chemically, the cashew apple is composed of approximately 11% total sugars on a fresh weight basis, predominantly glucose and , which contribute to its mild sweetness despite the overall low soluble solids (5–15° ). It boasts exceptionally high levels, often 3 to 5 times greater than in (around 200–250 mg per 100 g fresh weight), positioning it as a potent source of ascorbic acid among tropical fruits. However, , present at concentrations of 0.5% to 1.2% fresh weight, confer a pronounced astringency by binding to salivary proteins, which limits direct consumption without processing. Size and other traits vary regionally and by , with Brazilian varieties often larger (up to 10 cm) due to for fruit development, while Indian cultivars tend to be smaller (around 5–7 cm) and more nut-focused. This perishability stems from the elevated moisture and metabolic activity, resulting in a post-harvest of just 2 to 3 days at ambient temperatures before spoilage sets in. Despite its nutritional promise, up to 90% of cashew apples are discarded in major producing regions immediately after nut separation, largely owing to handling challenges and market priorities. Recent initiatives as of aim to increase utilization through processing into juices, flours, and protein isolates to reduce the high discard rates. Nonetheless, the residue () holds significant potential, containing up to 35% galacturonic acid on a dry basis, enabling efficient extraction yields of 10% to 25% for applications in gelling agents and stabilizers.

Shell and Husk

The cashew shell, also known as the pericarp, is a hard, protective outer layer surrounding the kernel and testa, typically measuring 1 to 3 mm in thickness. It consists of three distinct layers: a leathery epicarp on the exterior, a spongy mesocarp with a honeycomb-like structure that houses the cashew nut shell liquid (CNSL), and a stony endocarp providing rigidity. The shell accounts for approximately 70% of the total nut weight, making it a significant portion of the non-edible components. The , or testa, is a thin, reddish-brown directly enclosing the kernel within the shell, comprising about 1-2% of the nut's and serving as an additional protective barrier. It is tightly fitted and partitions the kernel into two cotyledons, facilitating structural integrity during development. The shell's mesocarp contains 15-30% CNSL by weight, a primarily composed of ( derivatives with a 15-carbon ), along with cardol and cardanol. These impart caustic properties to the shell, necessitating careful handling. CNSL extraction from the shell can be achieved through steam treatment or solvent methods, with yields varying by method, typically recovering 15-30% of the shell's weight for the CNSL content using efficient techniques.

Processing Methods

Nut Processing Techniques

The processing of cashew nuts begins with the raw nuts to reduce their content to approximately 7-9%, which is essential for storage stability and prevents mold growth during subsequent steps. This is typically achieved through sun on floors or mats for 2-3 days, with periodic raking to ensure even exposure, or mechanically at temperatures around 55-70°C for several hours in larger operations. The raw cashew nut consists of a hard outer shell containing , an inner shell, and the edible kernel wrapped in a thin testa, requiring careful handling to avoid damage. Shelling follows, where the nuts are conditioned to soften the shell and neutralize the . Common methods include steam cooking at 100-120°C under 7-8.5 kg/cm² for 10-20 minutes, which penetrates the shell without scorching the kernel, or vacuum systems that use controlled to minimize breakage and leakage. After , the nuts cool for 24 hours before cutting, often manually with foot-operated levers and blades in small-scale setups or automated cutters in industrial plants, yielding about 75-90% whole kernels depending on the method. Alternative preconditioning involves dry roasting in drums at 180-200°C for 1.5-3 minutes or immersion in hot cashew nut shell liquid, though is preferred for higher kernel integrity. Recent advances as of 2025 include automation in , such as robotic shelling and AI-based grading, enhancing efficiency. Extracted kernels are then dried to 3-5% moisture at 65-80°C for 6-8 hours to facilitate peeling and enhance shelf life. Peeling removes the testa manually or with pneumatic devices, followed by optional roasting of kernels at 130-150°C to develop flavor and achieve a light golden color without over-browning. Overall kernel yield from raw nuts is 22-24% by weight, with manual processes in small operations producing up to 85% whole kernels. Quality control emphasizes grading based on color (whiteness or scorched levels), breakage (whole vs. splits), and size, with premium grades like W180-W240 indicating 180-240 kernels per pound and minimal defects such as discoloration or insect damage. Kernels are inspected visually and tested for moisture and foreign matter before vacuum packing. As of 2024, India and Vietnam handle over 85% of global cashew processing, with India employing more than 500,000 workers—mostly women—in processing units, while Vietnam focuses on mechanized operations with a capacity of nearly 1.8 million tons and India's around 1.5-2 million tons of raw nuts annually.

Apple and Husk Processing

The cashew apple, the swollen peduncle of the cashew tree rich in sugars (up to 25% by weight) and , undergoes rapid post-harvest deterioration due to its high content (around 80-85%), limiting its utilization without prompt processing. Primary methods for apple processing include to produce using mechanical pressing or screw extractors, followed by clarification and to reduce astringency from . Alternatively, apples can be sliced and dried into chips or jelly products via osmotic and drying at 60-70°C, achieving levels below 20% to extend up to six months under proper packaging. For applications, unprocessed or juiced apples are ensiled anaerobically with additives like , preserving nutritional value (high in carbohydrates and ) for up to several months while mitigating spoilage; this method converts waste into suitable for ruminants. Cashew apple pulp can be into or other products through alcoholic and acetic . Solar techniques using hybrid dryers further enhance by reducing time compared to open sun , minimizing loss in tropical climates. The cashew , the outer layer of the nut shell, is processed primarily through grinding into or pellets for non-food uses such as animal litter or bedding due to its absorbent properties. For composting, is mixed with other organic wastes and decomposed aerobically to yield a nutrient-rich that improves . Extraction of bioactive compounds from involves solvent-based methods, such as or soaking, to isolate and polyphenols used in tanning and as antioxidants. Cashew wastes, including apple and , have potential for to produce for rural energy, though yields vary with optimization. Globally, only about 10% of cashew apples are processed due to perishability and limitations, resulting in significant that underscores the need for scalable techniques.

Uses and Products

Culinary and Nutritional Uses

Cashew nuts are widely used in culinary applications, often enjoyed raw or roasted as a versatile snack that provides a creamy texture and mild, buttery flavor. In savory dishes, they are ground into pastes or creams to thicken gravies and sauces, such as in Indian korma curries where soaked cashews create a rich, nutty base, or in Thai curries for added creaminess without dairy. Cashew butters serve as spreads for toast or ingredients in smoothies, while blended cashews form the foundation for vegan cheeses and dairy-free alternatives, appealing to plant-based diets. The cashew apple, the swollen fruit stem attached to the nut, finds limited but notable uses in tropical cuisines, primarily in fresh juices for its sweet-tart taste or as a base for fermented beverages. In Brazil, the cashew apple is processed into cajuína, a traditional non-alcoholic beverage popular in the Northeast region, highlighting its cultural significance alongside other uses like juices and sweets. In , , the juice is distilled into feni, a traditional , with the initial extraction used for this spirit and residual liquid sometimes consumed as a refreshing drink called niro. Globally, cashews feature in diverse recipes, including Chinese-American , a stir-fry of diced and nuts in a savory sauce, popularized in the mid-20th century in . Desserts like cashew brittle highlight their crunch, made by caramelizing sugar with roasted cashews for a sweet, snappy treat. Cashews also produce plant-based by blending soaked nuts with water, strained for a creamy, nutty beverage used in coffees or cereals. Preparation methods enhance cashew usability; soaking nuts overnight in water reduces , an that can hinder mineral absorption, resulting in a softer texture ideal for blending. This practice, rooted in traditional processing to remove shell toxins, supports their integration into modern recipes. Amid rising plant-based trends, cashew products like milks and cheeses have seen market growth, with the global cashew milk sector expanding from USD 100.33 million in 2024 at a projected CAGR of over 5% through 2033. Nutritionally, cashews offer a high-energy option, delivering about 163 calories per ounce from healthy fats and protein, making them a satisfying, portable choice.

Industrial Applications

Cashew nut shell liquid (CNSL), a phenolic compound extracted from the cashew nut shell via or methods, is a key industrial raw material valued for its versatility in polymer-based applications. It is primarily used to produce resins for paints, varnishes, and protective coatings, where its natural antioxidants and properties enhance durability and weather resistance. Additionally, CNSL serves as a binder in materials, including linings and plates, due to its high stability and low characteristics, making it suitable for automotive and industrial machinery components. Global production of CNSL reaches approximately 1.06 million tonnes as of 2025, underscoring its role as a renewable alternative to petroleum-derived . Cold-pressed oil derived from cashew nuts finds applications in and , acting as an emollient to dry or acne-prone while minimizing comedogenicity. Its fatty acid composition also enables use as a bio-based in operations, providing effective reduction in and comparable to synthetic oils. The cashew apple yields from its , particularly low methoxy variants that form firm gels with calcium ions, serving as gelling agents in industrial formulations for pharmaceuticals and low-calorie products. Furthermore, cashew apple juice is fermented to produce bioethanol, achieving yields of 8–10% under optimized conditions, positioning it as a viable feedstock in tropical regions. Beyond extracts, cashew timber is employed in furniture and construction for its workable grain and moderate durability, while bark provides natural dyes for eco-safe coloring, yielding mordant-compatible hues with benefits. In 2025 advancements, CNSL has been integrated into green composites for automotive brake pads, reinforcing natural fibers to improve and performance without compromising mechanical strength.

Other Byproducts

Cashew production generates substantial byproducts, with approximately 80-90% of the total comprising underutilized portions such as apples (which are but often discarded), shells, and husks, primarily due to the disproportionate yield of cashew apples relative to nuts. For every ton of cashew nuts produced, approximately 7 to 12 tons of apples are typically discarded or underutilized, alongside shells that constitute about 70% of the nut's mass after kernel extraction. Detoxified cashew nut shell meal, obtained after extracting cashew nut shell liquid (CNSL) to remove toxic phenolics, serves as a protein-rich feed for , incorporated at levels of 10-15% in diets to improve growth performance without adverse effects. Similarly, cashew apple —the fibrous residue from juice extraction—provides a - and C-enriched supplement for ruminants, enhancing and supporting sustainable in regions like where it constitutes a low-cost alternative to conventional forages. Cashew shells are valorized as fuel in pellet form, offering a source with a calorific value of around 4,500 kcal/kg, which exceeds that of many agricultural residues and supports efficient in industrial boilers. Additionally, of shells yields , a carbon-rich used for soil amendment to improve and sequester carbon, with production processes optimized at temperatures of 300-400°C to maximize yield and stability. In minor applications, cashew nut shells, when chemically modified such as with , act as effective biosorbents for like , , and in wastewater, achieving removal efficiencies up to 99% under neutral conditions due to their high surface area and functional groups. Cashew leaves are traditionally brewed into teas in regions like and for their properties, serving as a folk remedy to support digestion and immune function, though scientific validation remains limited to preliminary analyses. Recent initiatives in , particularly in Côte d'Ivoire and , have focused on integrating cashew byproducts into value chains, such as converting apples into plant-based proteins and shells into biofuels, thereby reducing waste discard by up to 50% and enhancing local economic resilience as of 2024.

Health and Safety

Nutritional Benefits

Cashew nuts are nutrient-dense, providing approximately 553 kcal per 100 grams of raw kernels, with a macronutrient profile consisting of 44 grams of fat (predominantly monounsaturated at about 60%, including ), 18 grams of protein, and 30 grams of carbohydrates. They are particularly rich in essential minerals, such as 2.2 mg of (244% of the Daily Value, or DV) and 292 mg of magnesium (73% DV), which support enzymatic functions and metabolic processes. Additionally, cashews contain 1.66 mg of per 100 grams (about 72% DV for men), contributing to defenses and metabolic health. The cashew apple, the swollen stem or peduncle attached to the nut, offers a contrasting profile with lower caloric density at around 83 kcal per 100 grams, primarily from carbohydrates and . It is a notable source of , providing up to 200-300 mg per 100 grams (222-333% DV), along with antioxidants such as beta-carotene and other that combat . These nutrients in both the nut and apple enhance their roles in a balanced diet, though the apple's high perishability limits its common consumption compared to the processed nut. Incorporating cashews into the diet supports cardiovascular health, as evidenced by clinical trials showing that daily consumption reduces total and (LDL) cholesterol levels by 3-5% when replacing typical snacks. A 2020 meta-analysis of prospective studies further indicated that higher nut intake, including cashews, is associated with a 19% lower risk of (CVD) events compared to low intake, attributed to their unsaturated fats and content. For bone health, the manganese and magnesium in cashews aid in bone formation and density maintenance, with magnesium helping to regulate calcium absorption and levels. Weight management benefits arise from cashews' high satiety potential; their combination of protein, , and healthy fats promotes fullness, leading to reduced overall intake in controlled feeding studies. Recent highlights cashews' role in gut health through prebiotic fibers and polyphenols, which modulate the . A 2024 found that daily cashew consumption in women on an energy-restricted diet increased beneficial short-chain production and altered composition, enhancing intestinal and reducing markers.72811-3/fulltext) Dietary guidelines recommend about 1 (28 grams, or roughly 18 medium cashews) of nuts daily as part of a heart-healthy eating pattern, providing key nutrients without excess calories.

Toxicity and Allergens

Cashew nuts contain several allergenic proteins, primarily Ana o 1 (a vicilin-like protein), Ana o 2 (a legumin-like protein), and Ana o 3 (a ), which are responsible for IgE-mediated allergic reactions ranging from mild symptoms to severe . These allergens are heat-stable, particularly Ana o 1, allowing reactions to occur even after or processing. The prevalence of cashew nut is estimated at about 2% among children in some populations, with lower rates in adults around 1%, often persisting from childhood. Extensive exists with nuts due to shared homologous proteins, affecting up to 80% of cashew-allergic individuals. During pregnancy, cashews should be avoided by individuals with nut allergies due to the risk of allergic reactions. Their high caloric density may contribute to excessive maternal weight gain if consumed in large quantities. Although older studies suggested potential increased risk of nut allergy in offspring from maternal consumption, recent research indicates that nut intake during pregnancy may reduce the child's risk of developing nut allergies if the mother is not allergic. Selecting fresh, high-quality cashews without mold is recommended to minimize risks. The shells of raw cashew nuts contain toxic resins, including and cardol, which are chemically similar to found in , capable of causing severe irritant and upon skin exposure. These substances can lead to blistering, , and systemic reactions if ingested in contaminated nuts, as documented in outbreaks where improperly processed cashews affected dozens of consumers. Commercial processing methods, such as steam-cooking or solvent extraction, effectively remove over 99% of these resins from the edible kernel, rendering properly processed cashews safe for consumption. The cashew apple exhibits mild astringency primarily due to high levels of hydrolysable , which bind salivary proteins and create a puckering sensation in the mouth, but it poses no significant and is for moderate consumption after processing to reduce content. In the United States, the (FDA) classifies cashews as a major tree nut under the Food Labeling and Act, requiring clear declaration on food labels to alert those at risk. Handling raw cashew husks or shells necessitates (PPE), including gloves and long-sleeved clothing, to prevent dermal exposure to caustic liquids. from cashew ingestion is a leading cause of tree nut-related severe reactions, accounting for 18-40% of food-induced cases in some registries, particularly among children where it now surpasses other nuts in prevalence. Recent research, including 2023 studies on molecular breeding, explores cashew varieties by targeting to reduce proteins like Ana o 3, though such cultivars remain in early development.

Economic and Environmental Aspects

Economic Importance

The global cashew market was valued at USD 7.78 billion in and is projected to reach USD 11.67 billion by 2033, growing at a (CAGR) of 4.6%, driven by increasing demand for nuts as healthy snacks and ingredients in food products. This industry supports the livelihoods of millions of people worldwide, with the vast majority being smallholder farmers who cultivate cashews on small plots of land, often as a of income in rural areas. In , cashews serve as a key , accounting for over 50% of global raw cashew nut production and exports, particularly from West African countries where it bolsters rural economies through seasonal harvesting and . Women play a prominent in the , especially in processing activities such as shelling and grading, which constitute labor-intensive tasks that provide supplementary income for many households in regions like and . Along the , raw cashew nuts typically sell for $1–2 per kilogram, while processed kernels fetch $5–8 per kilogram, reflecting the added value from labor-intensive shelling and quality control. certifications offer premiums of 10–20% on top of market prices, incentivizing sustainable practices and improving returns for certified smallholders. Cashew production contributes significantly to poverty alleviation, particularly in major producers like and . In , it has increased household incomes for over 78% of smallholder farmers through expanded cultivation and . In , the sector drives rural by employing hundreds of thousands in farming and processing, transforming it into a vital , though recent U.S. tariffs of 20% on Vietnamese cashew imports imposed in 2025 have disrupted trade patterns. revenues further highlight its impact, as seen in , where cashew shipments generated USD 1.3 billion in 2023, supporting national trade balances and local development initiatives; production is projected to reach 1.5 million tons in 2025.

Sustainability and Challenges

Cashew production faces significant environmental challenges, primarily driven by expanding cultivation in tropical regions. In major producing countries like Côte d'Ivoire, cashew expansion has contributed to substantial , with analysis revealing a 25% loss of primary forest in areas like Béré between 2019 and 2023, and a 76% decline in forest cover near Comoé National Park from 2002 to 2014. This land conversion reduces and threatens , such as the , while practices exacerbate soil degradation and ecosystem vulnerability. In , compounds these issues, with erratic rainfall, prolonged droughts, and rising temperatures causing a 20% drop in yields in 2022, alongside increased use of agrochemicals that further harm local ecosystems. Water usage represents another concern, though cashew trees primarily rely on rainfall rather than , resulting in a moderate compared to more intensive nut crops like almonds. However, in water-stressed regions of and , the cumulative demand from large-scale plantations can contribute to local scarcity and blue water stress. Additionally, the global supply chain amplifies the through long-distance transport, though the trees' potential offers some offset. Social and labor challenges are equally pressing, particularly in processing, where workers—often women—are exposed to the toxic sap urushiol without adequate protective gear, leading to severe skin burns and health risks. Child labor and low wages persist in parts of the supply chain in Vietnam, India, and West Africa. Smallholder farmers, who dominate production with over 500,000 households in Côte d'Ivoire, face market volatility—such as the 2023 price crash that left stocks unsold—and reduced food crop cultivation, heightening food insecurity risks. These interconnected challenges underscore the need for improved transparency and fair trade practices to enhance sustainability.

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