Hubbry Logo
RicinusRicinusMain
Open search
Ricinus
Community hub
Ricinus
logo
8 pages, 0 posts
0 subscribers
Be the first to start a discussion here.
Be the first to start a discussion here.
Ricinus
Ricinus
Ricinus
View on Wikipedia
from Wikipedia

Ricinus
Leaves and inflorescence (male flowers below female flowers)
Scientific classification Edit this classification
Kingdom: Plantae
Clade: Tracheophytes
Clade: Angiosperms
Clade: Eudicots
Clade: Rosids
Order: Malpighiales
Family: Euphorbiaceae
Subfamily: Acalyphoideae
Tribe: Acalypheae
Subtribe: Ricininae
Genus: Ricinus
L.
Species:
R. communis
Binomial name
Ricinus communis
L.

Ricinus communis, the castor bean[1] or castor oil plant,[2] is a species of perennial flowering plant in the spurge family, Euphorbiaceae. It is the sole species in the monotypic genus, Ricinus, and subtribe, Ricininae.

Its seed is the castor bean, which despite the term is not a bean (as it is not the seed of a member of the family Fabaceae). Castor is indigenous to the southeastern Mediterranean Basin, East Africa, and India, but is widespread throughout tropical regions (and widely grown elsewhere as an ornamental plant).

Castor seed is the source of castor oil, which has a wide variety of uses. The seeds contain between 40% and 60% oil that is rich in triglycerides, mainly ricinolein. The seed also contains ricin, a highly potent water-soluble toxin.

Description

[edit]

Ricinus communis can vary greatly in its growth habit and appearance. The variability has been increased by breeders who have selected a range of cultivars for leaf and flower colours, and for oil production. It is a fast-growing, suckering shrub that can reach the size of a small tree, around 12 metres (39 feet), but it is not cold hardy.

The glossy leaves are 15–45 centimetres (6–18 inches) long, long-stalked, alternate and palmate with five to twelve deep lobes with coarsely toothed segments. In some varieties they start off dark reddish purple or bronze when young, gradually changing to a dark green, sometimes with a reddish tinge, as they mature. The leaves of some other varieties are green practically from the beginning, whereas in yet others a pigment masks the green color of all the chlorophyll-bearing parts, leaves, stems and young fruit, so that they remain a dramatic purple-to-reddish-brown throughout the life of the plant. Plants with the dark leaves can be found growing next to those with green leaves, so there is most likely only a single gene controlling the production of the pigment in some varieties.[3] The stems and the spherical, spiny seed capsules also vary in pigmentation. The fruit capsules of some varieties are more showy than the flowers.

The flowers lack petals and are unisexual (male and female) where both types are borne on the same plant (monoecious) in terminal panicle-like inflorescences of green or, in some varieties, shades of red. The male flowers are numerous, yellowish-green with prominent creamy stamens; the female flowers, borne at the tips of the spikes, lie within the immature spiny capsules, are relatively few in number and have prominent red stigmas.[4]

The fruit is a spiny, greenish (to reddish-purple) capsule containing large, oval, shiny, bean-like, highly poisonous seeds with variable brownish mottling. Castor seeds have a warty appendage called the caruncle, which is a type of elaiosome. The caruncle promotes the dispersal of the seed by ants (myrmecochory).

It reproduces with a mixed pollination system which favors selfing by geitonogamy but at the same time can be an out-crosser by anemophily (wind pollination) or entomophily (insect pollination).[5]

  • Young plant
    Young plant
  • Green variant after blooming, with developing seed capsules
    Green variant after blooming, with developing seed capsules
  • Leaf
    Leaf
  • Male flower
    Male flower
  • Pollen grains of Ricinus communis
    Pollen grains of Ricinus communis
  • Female flower
    Female flower
  • The green capsule dries and splits into three sections, forcibly ejecting seeds
    The green capsule dries and splits into three sections, forcibly ejecting seeds
  • Seeds
    Seeds
  • Cotyledons (round) and first true leaves (serrated) on a young plant (about four weeks old)
    Cotyledons (round) and first true leaves (serrated) on a young plant (about four weeks old)
  • Ricinus communis leaf
    Ricinus communis leaf

Chemistry

[edit]

Three terpenoids and a tocopherol-related compound have been found in the aerial parts of Ricinus. Compounds named (3E,7Z,11E)-19-hydroxycasba-3,7,11-trien-5-one, 6α-hydroxy-10β-methoxy-7α,8α-epoxy-5-oxocasbane-20,10-olide, 15α-hydroxylup-20(29)-en-3-one, and (2R,4aR,8aR)-3,4,4a,8a-tetrahydro-4a-hydroxy-2,6,7,8a-tetramethyl-2-(4,8, 12-trimethyltridecyl)-2H-chromene-5,8-dione were isolated from the methanol extracts of Ricinus communis by chromatographic methods.[6] Partitioned h-hexane fraction of Ricinus root methanol extract resulted in enrichment of two triterpenes: lupeol and urs-6-ene-3,16-dione (erandone). Crude methanolic extract, enriched n-hexane fraction and isolates at doses 100 mg/kg p.o. exhibited significant (P < 0.001) anti-inflammatory activity in carrageenan-induced hind paw oedema model.[7]

Taxonomy

[edit]

The evolution of castor and its relation to other species are currently being studied using modern genetic tools.[8]

The plant known as "false castor oil plant", Fatsia japonica, is not closely related.

Etymology

[edit]

Carl Linnaeus used the name Ricinus because it is a Latin word for tick; the seed is named so because of its bump at the tip as well as the markings borne that resemble certain ticks. The genus Ricinus[9] also exists in zoology, and designates insects (not ticks) which are parasites of birds; this is possible because the names of animals and plants are governed by different nomenclature codes.[10][11]

The common name "castor oil" probably comes from its use as a replacement for castoreum, a perfume base made from the dried perineal glands of the beaver (castor in Latin).[12] It has another common name, palm of Christ, or Palma Christi, that derives from castor oil's reputed ability to heal wounds and cure ailments.

Distribution and habitat

[edit]
Plant in disturbed area

Although R. communis is indigenous to the southeastern Mediterranean Basin, Eastern Africa, and India, today it is widespread throughout tropical regions.[13] In areas with a suitable climate, castor establishes itself easily where it can become an invasive plant and can often be found on wasteland.

Ecology

[edit]

Ricinus communis is the host plant of the common castor butterfly (Ariadne merione), the eri silkmoth (Samia cynthia ricini), and the castor semi-looper moth (Achaea janata). It is also used as a food plant by the larvae of some other species of Lepidoptera, including Hypercompe hambletoni and the nutmeg (Discestra trifolii). A jumping spider Evarcha culicivora has an association with R. communis. They consume the nectar for food and preferentially use these plants as a location for courtship.[14]

Each castor seed has a yellow nodule full of fats one end of the seed that are nutritious for young ants. After hauling their harvest into their nests and pulling off the delicious part, ants discard the rest of the seed into their trash pile, where the future plant starts to grow.[15]

Cultivation

[edit]
In Greece it is hardy enough to grow as a small tree. In northern countries it is grown instead as an annual.

It is also used extensively as a decorative plant in parks and other public areas, particularly as a "dot plant" in traditional bedding schemes. If sown early, under glass, and kept at a temperature of around 20 °C (68 °F) until planted out, the castor oil plant can reach a height of 2–3 metres (6.6–9.8 ft) in a year. In areas prone to frost it is usually shorter, and grown as if it were an annual.[13] However, it can grow well outdoors in cooler climates, at least in southern England, and the leaves do not appear to suffer frost damage in sheltered spots, where it remains evergreen.[16] It was used in Edwardian times in the parks of Toronto, Canada. Although not cultivated there, the plant grows wild in the US, notably Griffith Park in Los Angeles.[17]

Cultivars

[edit]

Cultivars have been developed by breeders for use as ornamental plants (heights refer to plants grown as annuals) and for commercial production of castor oil.[4]

Ornamental cultivars
  • 'Carmencita' has gained the Royal Horticultural Society's Award of Garden Merit[18][19]
  • 'Carmencita Bright Red' has red stems, dark purplish leaves and red seed pods;
  • 'Carmencita Pink' has green leaves and pink seed pods
  • 'Gibsonii' has red-tinged leaves with reddish veins and bright scarlet seed pods
  • 'New Zealand Purple' has plum colored leaves tinged with red, plum colored seed pods turn to red as they ripen
    (All the above grow to around 1.5 m (4.9 ft) tall as annuals.)[13]
  • 'Impala' is compact (only 1.2 m or 3.9 ft tall) with reddish foliage and stems, brightest on the young shoots
  • 'Red Spire' is tall (2–3 m or 6.6–9.8 ft) with red stems and bronze foliage
  • 'Zanzibarensis' is also tall (2–3 m or 6.6–9.8 ft), with large, mid-green leaves (50 centimetres or 20 inches long) that have white midribs[4]
Cultivars for oil production
  • 'Hale' was launched in the 1970s for the US state of Texas.[20] It is short (up to 1.2 m or 3 ft 11 in) and has several racemes
  • 'Brigham' is a variety with reduced ricin content adapted for Texas, US. It grows up to 1.8 m (5 ft 11 in) and has 10% of the ricin content of 'Hale'
  • 'BRS Nordestina' was developed by Brazil's Embrapa in 1990 for hand harvest and semi-arid environments
  • 'BRS Energia" was developed by Embrapa in 2004 for mechanised or hand harvest
  • 'GCH6' was developed by Sardarkrushinagar Dantiwada University, India, 2004: it is resistant to root rot and tolerant to fusarium wilt
  • 'GCH5' was developed by Sardarkrushinagar Dantiwada University, 1995. It is resistant to fusarium wilt
  • 'Abaro' was developed by the Ethiopian Institute of Agricultural Research's Essential Oils Research Center for hand harvest
  • 'Hiruy' was developed by the Ethiopian Institute of Agricultural Research's Melkassa and Wondo Genet Agricultural Research Centers for hand harvest during 2010/2011

Allergenicity and toxicity

[edit]

Ricinus is extremely allergenic, and has an OPALS allergy scale rating of 10 out of 10. The plant is also a very strong trigger for asthma, and allergies to Ricinus are commonplace and severe.[21]

The castor oil plant produces abundant amounts of very light pollen, which easily become airborne and can be inhaled into the lungs, triggering allergic reactions. The sap of the plant causes skin rashes. People who are allergic to the plant can also develop rashes from touching the leaves, flowers, or seeds. They can also have cross-allergic reactions to latex sap from the related Hevea brasiliensis plant.[21]

The toxicity of raw castor beans is due to the presence of ricin. Although the lethal dose in adults is considered to be four to eight seeds, reports of actual poisoning are relatively rare.[22] According to the Guinness World Records, this is the world's most poisonous common plant.[23] Ricin is also present in lower concentrations throughout the plant.[citation needed]

If ricin is ingested, symptoms commonly begin within two to four hours, but may be delayed by up to 36 hours. These include a burning sensation in mouth and throat, abdominal pain, purging and bloody diarrhea. Within several days there is severe dehydration, a drop in blood pressure and a decrease in urine. Unless treated, death can be expected to occur within 3–5 days; however, in most cases a full recovery can be made.[24][25]

Poisoning occurs when animals, including humans, ingest broken castor beans or break the seed by chewing: intact seeds may pass through the digestive tract without releasing the toxin.[24] The toxin provides the castor oil plant with some degree of natural protection from insect pests such as aphids. Ricin has been investigated for its potential use as an insecticide.[26]

Commercially available cold-pressed castor oil is not toxic to humans in normal doses, whether internal or external.[27]

Uses

[edit]
Main article: Castor oil

Global castor seed production is around two million tons per year. Leading producing areas are India (with over three-quarters of the global yield), China and Mozambique, and it is widely grown as a crop in Ethiopia. There are several active breeding programmes.

Top ten castor oil seed producers – 2019
Country Production (tonnes) Footnote
India 1,196,680
Mozambique 85,089 F
China 36,000 *
Brazil 16,349
Ethiopia 11,157 *
Vietnam 7,000 *
South Africa 6,721 F
Paraguay 6,000 *
Thailand 1,588 *
Pakistan 1,107 *
 World 1,407,588 A
No symbol = official figure, F = FAO estimate,
* = Unofficial/Semi-official/mirror data,
A = Aggregate (may include official, semi-official or estimates)

Other modern uses of natural, blended, or chemically altered castor products include:

  • As a non-freezing, antimicrobial, pressure-resistant lubricant for special purposes, either of latex or metals, or as a lubricating component of fuels.[28]
  • As sources of various chemical feedstocks.[29]
  • As a raw material for some varieties of biodiesel.
  • As attractively patterned, low-cost personal adornments, such as non-durable necklaces and bracelets. Holes must not be drilled in the beans to make beads. The outer shell protects the wearer from the poison. Wearing castor beans has been known to cause rashes, and worse.
  • As a component of many cosmetics.
  • As an anti-microbial. The high percentage of ricinoleic acid residues in castor oil and its derivatives, inhibits many microbes, whether viral, bacterial or fungal. They accordingly are useful components of many ointments and similar preparations.
  • As the major raw material (in oil form) for polyglycerol polyricinoleate, a modifier that improves the flow characteristics of cocoa butter in the manufacture of chocolate bars, and thereby reduces the costs.
  • As a repellent for moles and voles in lawns.

Historical uses

[edit]

Ancient uses

[edit]

Castor seeds have been found in Egyptian tombs dating back to 4000 BC; the slow-burning oil was mostly used to fuel lamps. Herodotus and other Greek travellers noted the use of castor seed oil for lighting, body ointments, and improving hair growth and texture. Cleopatra is reputed to have used it to brighten the whites of her eyes. The Ebers Papyrus is an ancient Egyptian medical treatise believed to date from 1552 BC. Translated in 1872, it describes castor oil as a laxative.[30]

The use of castor bean oil (eranda) in India has been documented since 2000 BC in lamps and in local medicine as a laxative, purgative, and cathartic in Unani, Ayurvedic, siddha and other ethnomedical systems. Traditional Ayurvedic and siddha medicine considers castor oil the king of medicinals for curing arthritic diseases. It is regularly given to children to treat infections with parasitic worms.[31]

The ancient Romans had a variety of medicinal/cosmetic uses for both the seeds and the leaves of Ricinus communis. The naturalist Pliny the Elder cited the poisonous qualities of the seeds, but mentioned that they could be used to form wicks for oil lamps (possibly if crushed together), and the oil for use as a laxative and lamp oil.[32] He also recommends the use of the leaves as follows:

The leaves are applied topically with vinegar for erysipelas, and fresh-gathered, they are used by themselves for diseases of the mamillæ [breasts] and de- fluxions; a decoction of them in wine, with polenta and saffron, is good for inflammations of various kinds. Boiled by themselves, and applied to the face for three successive days, they improve the complexion.[33]

In Haiti it is called maskreti,[34] where the plant is turned into a red oil that is then given to newborns as a purgative to cleanse the insides of their first stools.[35]

Castor seed and its oil have also been used in China for centuries, mainly prescribed in local medicine for internal use or use in dressings.[36]

Uses in torture

[edit]
Further information: Castor oil § Use in torture

Castor oil was used as an instrument of coercion by the paramilitary Blackshirts under the regime of Italian dictator Benito Mussolini and by the Spanish Civil Guard in Francoist Spain. Dissidents and regime opponents were forced to ingest the oil in large amounts, triggering severe diarrhea and dehydration, which could ultimately cause death. This punishment method was originally thought of by Gabriele D'Annunzio, the Italian poet and Fascist supporter, during the First World War.[37]

Other uses

[edit]

Extract of Ricinus communis exhibited acaricidal and insecticidal activities against the adult of Haemaphysalis bispinosa (Acarina: Ixodidae) and hematophagous fly Hippobosca maculata (Diptera: Hippoboscidae).[38]

Members of the Bodo tribe of Bodoland in Assam, India, use the leaves of the plant to feed the larvae of muga and endi silkworms.

Castor oil is an effective motor lubricant and has been used in internal combustion engines, including those of World War I airplanes, some racing cars and some model airplanes. It has historically been popular for lubricating two-stroke engines due to high resistance to heat compared to petroleum-based oils. It does not mix well with petroleum products, particularly at low temperatures, but mixes better with the methanol-based fuels used in glow model engines. In total-loss-lubrication applications, it tends to leave carbon deposits and varnish within the engine. It has been largely replaced by synthetic oils that are more stable and less toxic.

Jewellery can be made of castor beans, particularly necklaces and bracelets.[39] Holes must not be drilled into the castor beans as the shell protects the wearer from the ricin.[citation needed] Any chips in the shell can cause poisoning of the wearer.[citation needed] Pets who chew the jewellery can become ill.[39]

Ricinus communis leaves are used in botanical printing (also known as ecoprinting) in Asia. When bundled with cotton or silk fabric and steamed, the leaves can produce a green-colored imprint.[40][better source needed]

See also

[edit]

References

[edit]

Further reading

[edit]
[edit]
Revisions and contributorsEdit on WikipediaRead on Wikipedia

Ricinus

View on Grokipedia
from Grokipedia

Ricinus is a monotypic of flowering in the spurge family , consisting solely of the species Ricinus communis, a fast-growing or small that can reach heights of up to 12 meters in tropical climates. Native to tropical eastern , the has been widely cultivated and naturalized across tropical and subtropical regions for its seeds, which yield used in industrial lubricants, pharmaceuticals, and biofuels. The species features large, palmate leaves up to 1 meter across, monoecious flowers in terminal panicles, and spiny capsules that explosively dehisce to disperse mottled seeds resembling —hence the genus name derived from Latin for "." Despite its economic value, R. communis is infamous for containing , a highly toxic ribosome-inactivating protein concentrated in the seed coats, with an estimated lethal oral dose of around 1-20 milligrams per of body weight, causing severe gastrointestinal distress, organ failure, and death if untreated. The purified oil, however, is non-toxic as ricin is insoluble in it and removed during processing, enabling safe applications in as a and in . Cultivation occurs primarily in and , which together produce over 80% of global , though the plant's invasiveness in disturbed areas and potential for ricin extraction have raised concerns.

Taxonomy and Classification

Etymology

The genus name Ricinus originates from the Latin word ricinus, meaning "tick," a designation first formalized by Carl Linnaeus in his Species Plantarum (1753), where he described Ricinus communis. Linnaeus selected this name based on the seeds' physical resemblance to ticks, particularly the caruncle at the seed's base evoking an engorged tick's body and the mottled, spotted pattern mimicking tick markings. This etymological choice exemplifies Linnaean taxonomy's reliance on observable morphological traits for nomenclature, without recorded alternatives or disputes in contemporary botanical literature.

Species and Phylogeny

Ricinus is classified in the family , order , and subfamily Acalyphoideae, within the tribe Ricineae. This placement reflects the family's diverse tropical and subtropical angiosperms, encompassing approximately 6,300 across 300 . The genus is monotypic, containing only Ricinus communis L., despite exhibiting extensive morphological polymorphism that historically prompted proposals for varietal or subspecific divisions. Molecular cytogenetic studies, including analysis (2n = 20) and genomic organization assessments, confirm its status as a single , with intraspecific genetic variation attributable to high polymorphism rather than distinct taxa. Genome-wide analyses of wild and cultivated accessions further support this, revealing continuous genetic gradients without discrete boundaries. Phylogenetic reconstructions using multi-locus DNA sequences position Ricinus within the core of , diverging early from relatives in tribe Ricineae and adjacent groups. Comparative genomics with congeners like and —both featuring and toxic compounds—demonstrate lineage-specific expansions in genes linked to production and oil biosynthesis, underscoring Ricinus' evolutionary isolation amid shared toxic adaptations in the family. These DNA-based insights, from and nuclear markers, resolve prior taxonomic ambiguities in , affirming Ricinus' basal divergence from crotonoid lineages.

Botanical Description

Morphology


Ricinus communis displays a robust growth habit as a fast-growing, tender perennial or small , capable of reaching heights of 10-12 meters in tropical climates, with semi-woody stems that develop branching from the base. In temperate regions or under cultivation, it typically grows as an annual to 2-3 meters tall, exhibiting phenotypic variation including dwarf forms under 1 meter and larger varieties exceeding 3 meters in stem length based on field measurements of specific cultivars. The stems are erect, hollow, and often reddish or purplish, supporting a dense, multi-stemmed structure. Leaves are alternate, simple yet palmately lobed with 5-11 deeply incised, serrated segments radiating from a central point, forming star-shaped blades up to 30-60 cm in diameter; they are glossy, peltate or nearly so at the base, and vary in color from to or deep purple across varieties. and thickness differ among types, with dwarf varieties showing denser foliage relative to height. The plant is monoecious, bearing flowers in terminal racemose panicles up to 45 cm long, where staminate () flowers occupy the upper portions and pistillate () the lower; individual flowers are apetalous and sepalless, with males featuring numerous fused stamens forming a central column and females displaying a three-lobed topped by recurved styles. Fruits develop as spherical, three-sectioned capsules covered in soft spines, measuring 1-2 cm in diameter and colored green, red, or purple; upon maturation, the capsules dehisce explosively along suture lines, propelling . are viable, endosperm-rich, and ovoid to compressed, 8-15 mm long, with a smooth, mottled gray-brown testa marked by a prominent white caruncle at the micropylar end, resembling engorged ticks in appearance. Branching patterns influence seed production, with higher-stalk varieties producing more total branches (averaging 6) than dwarfs (around 3).

Chemical Composition

The seeds of Ricinus communis contain 30–50% oil by mass, consisting primarily of triglycerides of , a hydroxylated unsaturated that accounts for 85–95% of the total content in the extracted oil. Minor include (2–6%), (1–5%), and saturated components such as palmitic and stearic acids. This varies modestly across genotypes, with oil yields reported from 43% to over 69% in select cultivars under optimized conditions. In addition to lipids, seeds accumulate ricin, a heterodimeric classified as a type II ribosome-inactivating protein (RIP), at concentrations ranging from 1.6 mg to 32 mg per gram of mature tissue. content exhibits significant , with cultivars differing by up to tenfold (e.g., 3.53 ng/µg to 32.18 ng/µg in seed meal), influenced by factors such as timing and development. Complementary proteins include Ricinus communis agglutinin (RCA), a comprising about 5% of total protein relative to . The plant also produces alkaloids such as ricinine, a 4-methoxy-1-methyl-2-oxo-1,2-dihydropyridine-3-carbonitrile found in seeds, leaves, and pericarp, serving potential roles in through neuropharmacological effects observed in bioassays. Chromatographic analyses reveal additional constituents including , terpenoids, and across tissues, with quantitative variations attributable to environmental stressors and genetic background. These secondary metabolites, particularly , likely confer selective advantages by deterring herbivory and microbial attack via disruption of protein synthesis in eukaryotes, aligning with causal mechanisms for in seed protection.

Distribution and Habitat

Native and Introduced Ranges

Ricinus communis is indigenous to northeastern tropical , with its wild progenitor originating in the region spanning modern-day , , and surrounding areas of . Archaeological evidence from ancient Egyptian sites documents its cultivation for oil extraction as early as 6000 years ago, indicating early human-mediated spread within but affirming the continental native range. Genomic analyses of diverse accessions confirm an African center of origin, with genetic diversity highest in East African populations, supporting domestication from local wild types rather than multiple independent origins. Human activities, including ancient trade along Mediterranean routes, facilitated its introduction to approximately 2500 years before present, where it became established in temperate zones through cultivation. Subsequent dispersal via colonial networks spread it to around 2000 years before present in regions like , and later to . In the , introduction occurred primarily through European explorers and settlers in the , with Portuguese and Spanish voyages enabling establishment in tropical ; by the 19th century, it had escaped cultivation and naturalized across subtropical , including and . Today, R. communis exhibits a pantropical distribution, naturalized in subtropical and temperate areas worldwide due to ornamental planting, oil production, and inadvertent seed dispersal. In Australia, it was introduced in the 19th century and has become invasive in riparian zones and disturbed habitats across states like Queensland and the Northern Territory, forming dense stands that outcompete natives. Pacific islands, including Hawaii and Fiji, report its presence from 19th-century introductions, with high invasion risk in wetland and coastal ecosystems per regional assessments. In the United States, it invades southern states' waterways and rangelands, while southern African regions note similar escapes from cultivation. Databases such as CABI and GBIF map over 100,000 occurrence records globally, predominantly introduced beyond Africa.

Environmental Adaptations

Ricinus communis exhibits notable once established, primarily due to its extensive system that can penetrate up to 5 meters into the , facilitating access to deeper reserves in arid environments. This adaptation supports survival in tropical and subtropical regions with irregular rainfall, where the plant maintains viability through osmotic adjustment mechanisms that enhance cellular retention under stress. Empirical studies confirm that genotypes with higher osmotic adjustment capacity sustain seed yields under deficits, with relative yields dropping less than 20% in conditions compared to non-adjusting varieties. The species prefers well-drained, sandy soils but demonstrates adaptability to marginal lands, including those with low fertility or compacted textures, owing to its robust root architecture and functional traits like efficient uptake. tolerance is evident in its native tropical origins, where it thrives in temperatures exceeding 30°C, with physiological responses such as modulated content and activity mitigating during early growth stages. Regarding salinity, R. communis displays moderate tolerance, linked to thicker development and improved potassium-to-sodium partitioning in tissues, which limits ionic toxicity under saline conditions up to 100 mM NaCl. Recent investigations into heavy metal stress reveal potential; for instance, exposure to (Cd) at concentrations of 300–1000 mg/L induces tolerance via upregulated stress-responsive genes and metabolic shifts in pathways like phenylpropanoid . Similarly, combined Pb and Cd remediation studies using chelators like EDTA enhance metal accumulation in shoots without severely impairing growth, highlighting adaptive strategies. Aluminum (Al) and lead (Pb) stresses activate tricarboxylic acid cycle modifications, bolstering energy allocation for detoxification, as observed in NMR-based analyses. These responses underscore the plant's capacity for survival on contaminated sites, though long-term field viability depends on metal and .

Ecology

Interactions with Pollinators and Fauna

Ricinus communis exhibits primarily anemophily, with wind serving as the main pollination vector due to the plant's monoecious inflorescences producing lightweight grains measuring 20-22 μm in length. Although capable of under isolation, the species attracts insect visitors such as Apis mellifera, which can enhance seed set and agronomic yields by up to 46% through cross- in open conditions. However, empirical studies demonstrate that R. communis is acutely toxic to honeybees, causing significant reductions in survival rates (P < 0.0001) upon ingestion, thereby posing risks to pollinator colonies in areas of expanded cultivation. The ricin toxin and other lectins in R. communis foliage and seeds deter herbivory across most fauna, resulting in low rates of consumption by mammals and insects as a primary defense mechanism. Seed dispersal persists despite this toxicity via myrmecochory, where ants remove the lipid-rich elaiosome (caruncle) from seeds, transporting them to nests for nutrient extraction while discarding the intact, toxic kernel, which facilitates germination without full ingestion. Occasional endozoochory by birds or rodents occurs, but ricin imposes species-specific lethality thresholds, such as death in rabbits from four seeds, sheep from five, and variable resistance in birds like ducks, which nonetheless experience hemorrhagic enteritis and mortality from higher doses.

Invasiveness and Ecological Impact

exhibits invasive behavior in non-native regions, particularly in wet tropical and subtropical environments where it forms dense thickets that outcompete native vegetation through rapid growth and shading. In Australia, it ranks among the 20 most invasive plants, proliferating in disturbed areas such as roadsides, riverbanks, and neglected pastures. In the United States, including Florida and southern California coastal habitats, it invades riparian zones and waste areas, displacing indigenous flora via superior resource acquisition and prolific seed production exceeding 1 million seeds per hectare annually in favorable conditions. Ecological impacts include biodiversity reduction through competitive exclusion and potential allelopathic inhibition of neighboring plant germination and growth. Studies demonstrate that aqueous extracts from R. communis leaves and seeds suppress seedling emergence in crops and weeds, suggesting chemical interference that favors its dominance in invaded ecosystems. Dense stands alter soil nutrient dynamics by enhancing root investment for deeper uptake, potentially depleting available resources for shallower-rooted natives, while thickets reduce light penetration and increase fire fuel loads in dry seasons. Documented cases in southern Africa and Pacific islands report local native species displacement, with biodiversity metrics declining by up to 50% in heavily infested plots. Effective management relies on integrated mechanical and chemical controls, as standalone cultivation or mowing often fails against resprouting from deep roots. In California, combining slashing with follow-up herbicide applications (e.g., glyphosate or ) reduced population densities by 70-90% over two years in monitored sites, outperforming manual pulling alone for larger infestations. Policies permitting widespread cultivation for , despite high Weed Risk Assessment scores, have exacerbated spread in , underscoring the need for stricter quarantine and early detection protocols grounded in empirical invasion models rather than economic incentives.

Cultivation

Agronomic Practices

Ricinus communis thrives in tropical and subtropical climates with average daily temperatures of 20-26°C, tolerating minima of 15°C and maxima up to 38°C, though temperatures exceeding 30°C can reduce female flower proportion and seed set. The crop requires annual rainfall of 500-1500 mm for optimal growth, demonstrating drought tolerance down to 600-750 mm while performing adequately in heavier precipitation if drainage is ensured to prevent waterlogging. Well-drained, fertile loamy soils with pH 6-7.5 support highest productivity, as the plant's deep taproot facilitates access to subsoil moisture during dry periods. Planting occurs in warm seasons after soil temperatures reach 15-20°C, with seeds sown directly at densities of 40,000-55,000 plants per hectare for oilseed production, achieved via row spacings of 0.45-1 m and in-row distances of 0.3-0.5 m to balance competition and yield components like raceme number and seed weight. Pre-sowing seed soaking in water at 20-26°C for several hours enhances germination rates of 80-90%, and initial fertilization with minimal NPK applications (e.g., primary nutrients at low rates such as 40-60 kg N/ha for rainfed conditions) promotes vegetative growth and raceme development. The crop relies primarily on rainfed conditions with 1-2 supplemental irrigations if needed during critical growth stages, increasing seed yields from rainfed baselines of 200-1000 kg/ha to over 2500 kg/ha under managed water application in semi-arid areas. Pest management emphasizes integrated approaches, including crop rotation, intercropping to disrupt pest cycles, monitoring for pests like semiloopers, and low-cost spraying with biopesticides such as neem extracts if infestations occur, for control of lepidopteran pests such as semiloopers and capsule borers, minimizing reliance on synthetic chemicals to preserve beneficial insects and soil health. Cultural practices like performing two weedings and mulching further reduce pest pressure and conserve moisture without excessive inputs. Harvesting targets mature capsules post-dehiscence, typically 140-180 days after planting, with manual collection of ejected seeds from multiple racemes on indeterminate plants to capture 1-3 tons of seeds per hectare under favorable conditions, yielding approximately 0.5-1.5 tons of oil given 45-50% extraction rates from verified trials. Seeds are dried to 6-8% moisture before processing to prevent mold and ensure quality.

Cultivars and Breeding

Numerous ornamental cultivars of Ricinus communis have been developed for garden use, featuring dwarf habits and attractive foliage colors such as reddish, bronze, or purple leaves to enhance visual appeal without excessive height. For instance, the cultivar 'Dwarf Purple' grows 2 to 4 feet tall, making it suitable for smaller landscapes and containers. Dwarf hybrids generally exhibit earlier flowering, reduced seed dehiscence, and higher harvest indices compared to taller types, facilitating easier management in ornamental settings. In industrial breeding programs, hybrid varieties prioritize elevated seed yields and oil content, typically ranging from 48% to 60% in seeds, to support castor oil production for lubricants and biofuels. Notable high-yielding hybrids released in India include GCH-8, GCH-9, GNCH-1, YRCH-2, and ICH-66, which outperform traditional varieties through heterosis effects, with early hybrids like GCH-3 demonstrating up to 88% higher seed yields. Ongoing selection emphasizes conventional pedigree methods and hybrid development to boost productivity while shortening crop cycles. Efforts to mitigate ricin toxicity persist as a breeding priority to expand safe utilization of seeds and byproducts, with conventional hybridization yielding F6 lines exhibiting 70-75% reductions in ricin and related cytotoxin (RCA) levels as of 2025. RNAi-mediated silencing of ricin genes has also proven effective in generating detoxified genotypes by targeting endosperm expression, though field-scale adoption remains limited. Varieties like 'Brigham' have been screened for inherently low ricin per seed via partial analysis techniques. Genetic improvement for disease resistance, particularly against Fusarium wilt, involves germplasm screening and identification of resistance-associated genomic regions, enabling marker-assisted selection in breeding pipelines since 2020. These advancements, combined with distant hybridization to broaden genetic diversity, aim to enhance overall agronomic stability without relying on transgenic approaches.

Recent Advances in Stress Tolerance

In 2024, evaluations of Ricinus communis cultivars under salinity stress revealed varying tolerance levels, with stress susceptibility index (SSI) and stress tolerance index (STI) metrics indicating that lower SSI values in select genotypes correlate with reduced growth inhibition and maintained biomass under saline irrigation, though ion toxicity and nutrient imbalances persist as limiting factors. These findings underscore cultivar-specific responses without broad genotypic superiority, informing targeted selection for marginal saline soils rather than universal resilience claims. Heavy metal exposure studies from 2025 showed that cadmium (Cd) and lead (Pb) at environmentally relevant concentrations severely impair R. communis seedling physiology, including reduced chlorophyll content, elevated oxidative damage markers like malondialdehyde (MDA), and proline accumulation as an osmoprotectant, leading to arrested root and shoot growth. Despite this growth suppression, the plant's capacity to accumulate Cd and Pb in tissues—up to twice baseline levels in polluted conditions—positions it for phytoextraction in bioremediation, provided harvest cycles mitigate toxicity risks without yield recovery post-exposure. Aluminum (Al) stress research in 2024 highlighted root-level adaptations in R. communis, with elevated CO2 exacerbating Al-induced shifts in exudate composition, including increased organic acids for chelation, alongside heightened MDA levels signaling lipid peroxidation and proline upregulation for cellular protection. These responses suggest limited inherent tolerance, enabling short-term survival on acidic marginal lands but constraining long-term productivity without amendments, with implications for biofuel cultivation on Al-contaminated sites where verified seed yields remain below optimal non-stressed benchmarks. Overexpression of R. communis FeSOD8 in Arabidopsis, reported in 2025, conferred enhanced tolerance to multiple abiotic stresses via superoxide dismutase activity, reducing reactive oxygen species and preserving photosynthetic efficiency, offering a genetic engineering avenue for R. communis variants aimed at stressed environments though untested in native contexts. Concurrent genomic analyses identified RcMYB transcription factors as regulators of height and stress adaptation, with differential expression under alkali and salt conditions modulating oxidative pathways for potential breeding targets.

Toxicity

Ricin Toxin Properties and Mechanisms

Ricin is a heterodimeric glycoprotein toxin consisting of two polypeptide chains, the enzymatically active A chain (RTA, approximately 32 kDa) and the lectin B chain (RTB, approximately 34 kDa), linked by an interchain disulfide bond. As a type II ribosome-inactivating protein (RIP), ricin enters cells via receptor-mediated endocytosis after RTB binds to terminal galactose residues on cell surface glycoproteins and glycolipids. Following retrograde transport to the endoplasmic reticulum, RTA is translocated to the cytosol, where it acts as an N-glycosidase, catalyzing the depurination of a single adenine residue (A4324 in rat 28S rRNA) in the sarcin-ricin loop (SRL) of the 60S ribosomal subunit. This modification prevents the binding of elongation factors EF-1 and EF-2, irreversibly halting peptide chain elongation and inhibiting protein synthesis, which triggers apoptosis and organ failure. The toxin's lethality varies by exposure route, with median lethal dose (LD50) values in ranging from 1–20 µg/kg for parenteral or inhalational administration, reflecting efficient cellular uptake and minimal degradation in these pathways. Oral LD50 is substantially higher, often exceeding 20 mg/kg in models, due to partial denaturation by and proteases, though intact retains activity if protected during transit. Empirical dose-response studies in mice and rats demonstrate a steep curve, with as little as one RTA molecule per cell sufficient to inactivate ribosomes and induce , underscoring 's catalytic efficiency rather than stoichiometric poisoning. These findings from controlled exposures refute underestimations of , as even sublethal doses cause prolonged protein synthesis arrest measurable via radiolabeled incorporation assays. Ricin exhibits notable physicochemical stability, remaining active in aqueous solutions at neutral pH and ambient temperatures for extended periods, which facilitates environmental persistence. It withstands lyophilization and mild detergents but is inactivated by heating to 80°C for 10 minutes or exposure to strong oxidants, disrupting its bond or tertiary . Extraction from Ricinus communis seeds is straightforward, yielding from the protein-rich mash leftover after oil processing via or on galactose-sepharose, with castor beans containing 1–5% by weight. This ease of isolation, combined with ricin's resistance to in crude preparations, amplifies its biochemical hazard potential as validated by forensic and purification yield studies.

Effects on Humans and Animals

, derived from the seeds of Ricinus communis, inhibits protein synthesis by depurinating , leading to and systemic toxicity primarily via or , with negligible dermal absorption through intact . in humans produces initial gastrointestinal symptoms within 4-6 hours, including , profuse , watery or diarrhea, and severe , progressing to , , seizures, hepatic and renal failure, and death from multi-organ dysfunction within 36-72 hours at lethal doses. triggers respiratory distress onset in 4-8 hours, manifesting as , fever, chest tightness, dyspnea, , and , often resulting in alongside systemic effects like arthralgias and . Lethality thresholds depend on route and purification; parenteral doses of 5-10 micrograms per body weight prove fatal in humans, while oral exposure requires milligrams due to partial inactivation in the gut, though purified lowers this barrier. No exists for intoxication; management relies on supportive care such as intravenous fluids for and , activated charcoal for recent , for respiratory compromise, and vasopressors like as needed, with survival rates approaching 98% for cases receiving prompt intervention but far lower for or high-dose exposures. In animals, ricin toxicity mirrors human patterns but with heightened sensitivity in livestock; ingestion of contaminated fodder or seeds causes vomiting (reported in 80% of canine cases), diarrhea (37%, often bloody in 24%), abdominal pain, salivation, weakness, dehydration, mydriasis, and rapid progression to shock and death, as livestock exhibit low tolerance thresholds before clinical signs emerge. Sheep flocks exposed to castor material display profuse watery diarrhea and high mortality, while dogs and other pets require similar supportive veterinary interventions including antiemetics, fluids, and monitoring for organ failure, absent any specific reversal agent. Dermal contact with induces irritant or rashes, while to or other proteins can provoke severe allergic responses including anaphylactic shock upon re-exposure. from R. communis acts as an inhalant , eliciting skin test positivity, IgE-mediated , and respiratory symptoms such as allergic in susceptible individuals, with multiple antigens contributing to in atopics.

Historical and Modern Incidents

In the late 19th and early 20th centuries, numerous cases of ricin poisoning from castor bean were documented, primarily involving accidental consumption by children or intentional attempts by adults, with over 1,000 such incidents reported in by the mid-20th century. These cases typically presented as acute , with symptoms including severe vomiting, , and ; lethality was variable, often depending on whether beans were chewed to release , but survival was possible with prompt supportive care such as and gastrointestinal . For instance, in a 2011 case, a who ingested multiple beans experienced intense and bloody but recovered after hospitalization. One of the most prominent intentional poisonings occurred on September 7, 1978, when Bulgarian dissident was assassinated in via a ricin-laced pellet fired from a modified into his , likely by agents of the Bulgarian secret service in collaboration with the Soviet . developed fever, chills, and organ failure, succumbing four days later on September 11 despite medical intervention; confirmed as the cause, highlighting the toxin's rapid systemic lethality via injection. In the 21st century, several attempted ricin poisonings via mailed letters targeted U.S. officials but were intercepted before exposure. On October 15, 2003, ricin powder was discovered in envelopes sent to the White House and a Senate office, accompanied by threatening notes from an anonymous sender identifying as "Fallen Angel"; no injuries occurred, but the incident prompted heightened bioterrorism alerts. Similarly, in April 2013, letters containing ricin were mailed to President Obama and other figures, leading to the conviction of James Everett Dutschke, who pleaded guilty to charges including attempted assassination; again, interceptions prevented harm. Suicide attempts persisted, such as a 2012 case where a man ingested castor beans and survived non-lethally after emergency treatment, underscoring that while ricin exposure carries high mortality risk without intervention—estimated at near 100% for untreated injection or high-dose ingestion—outcomes improve with rapid medical response in oral cases.

Potential as a Biothreat

Assassination and Weaponization Cases

The of Bulgarian dissident on September 7, 1978, in represents the only confirmed successful use of in a . Markov was jabbed in the thigh with a modified umbrella that fired a 1.7-millimeter platinum-iridium pellet containing approximately 0.2 milligrams of while waiting at a on . He developed fever and lymph node swelling within hours, followed by organ failure, dying four days later on from ricin-induced toxemia. revealed the pellet, engineered with a melting wax seal to release the internally, attributed to Bulgarian (DS) operatives, likely with KGB assistance, though no convictions followed due to lack of direct evidence. Subsequent ricin assassination attempts have overwhelmingly failed or been intercepted, underscoring empirical limitations in applications. In August 1981, an attempt on U.S. defector Boris Korczak using -laced food in produced no symptoms, as the toxin degraded or was insufficiently dosed. Letters containing crude extracts mailed to U.S. officials, such as those targeting President and Senator in 2013, were detected via mail screening filters before delivery, yielding no victims despite sender convictions. These cases highlight ricin's instability outside precise, lab-grade delivery systems, with or ingestible forms prone to denaturation and low lethality yields in amateur extractions. Lone actors exploit 's accessibility—castor beans are commercially available and basic extraction involves grinding and solvent separation—but purification to weaponizable purity remains technically demanding, contributing to high failure rates. The June 2018 arrest in , , of Tunisian national Sief Allah H. exemplifies this: he produced about 84 milligrams of impure from castor beans purchased online, intending to coat shrapnel in an , but lacked the expertise for effective dispersion, leading to early detection via suspicious purchases and residue traces. Convicted in 2020, he received a 10-year sentence, with authorities noting the plot's amateurish yield insufficient for mass harm but viable for small-scale targeting. Similar intercepted efforts, including ricin mailings by individuals like in 2013, demonstrate how post-2001 heightened scrutiny—prompted by attacks—exposes such plots via precursor monitoring, rendering ricin more a symbolic than practical tool for isolated operators. Media portrayals often amplify ricin's threat beyond , sensationalizing it as a "poor man's atomic " despite its track record confined to one state-orchestrated success and routine thwarting in uncontrolled settings. Analyses indicate ricin's delivery challenges—requiring microgram doses via injection or for , with oral routes needing milligrams and yielding variable absorption—limit it to assassinations rather than broader weaponization, a distinction obscured by alarmist coverage that ignores production inefficiencies and forensic detectability.

Bioweapon Development and Limitations

Ricin toxin has historical precedents in biowarfare, with references in the ancient Indian text by Kautilya (circa 4th century BCE), which describes poisoning arrows and water sources using plant toxins, potentially including extracts for their lethal properties. During , the U.S. Chemical Warfare Service investigated for potential weaponization, followed by British efforts in to develop ricin-impregnated bombs and aerosols, though these were limited by technical challenges in stabilization and dispersal. Post-, U.S. programs briefly explored ricin but abandoned it in favor of chemical agents like due to persistent delivery inefficiencies, including difficulties in producing stable, respirable particles without aggregation or degradation. The U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) classifies as a Category B agent, indicating moderate ease of dissemination and requiring specific laboratory enhancements for detection, but with lower potential for mass casualties compared to Category A agents like due to its non-replicating nature and environmental instability. Declassified assessments highlight ricin's impracticality for large-scale deployment: aerosolized forms are unstable, prone to clumping and losing potency in air or upon contact with moisture, necessitating advanced milling to achieve 1-5 micron particles for deep penetration, a process prone to failure without specialized equipment. Strategic analyses underscore ricin's low yield for area-denial effects; estimates suggest 8 tons aerosolized over 100 km² would yield only about 50% under ideal conditions, far exceeding quantities feasible for non-state actors and dwarfed by the efficiency of replicating pathogens that amplify impact post-release. Unlike contagious agents, ricin's causal limitations—finite dose without secondary spread—confine it to targeted, small-scale applications by non-state groups, where production from common castor beans is straightforward but scaling for mass effects remains hindered by dispersion physics and rapid inactivation in non-controlled environments. This contrasts with theoretical alarmism, as empirical tests reveal poor persistence and outdoors, rendering state-level bioweapon programs historically unviable beyond assassinations.

Uses and Applications

Industrial and Biofuel Production

Castor oil, extracted from Ricinus communis seeds, is widely utilized in industrial lubricants due to its exceptional lubricity, viscosity stability across temperature ranges, and resistance to oxidation, making it ideal for high-performance applications in machinery, engines, and hydraulic systems. Derivatives such as sebacic acid and undecylenic acid from castor oil serve as precursors for polyamide 11 (Nylon 11), an engineering plastic valued for its toughness, flexibility, and use in automotive parts, electrical components, and textiles. The global castor oil market, reflecting sustained industrial demand, is projected to reach USD 1.36 billion in 2025, with a compound annual growth rate of 3.2% through 2035, driven primarily by applications in chemicals and polymers rather than biofuels. For biofuel applications, 's high content (up to 90%) enables with superior cold-flow properties and oxidative stability compared to conventional feedstocks like or , though commercial scalability remains limited by processing costs and toxin concerns. yields of from castor oil typically exceed 90% under optimized conditions, but field trials in Mediterranean climates report seed yields of 1.8–4.75 tons per , translating to oil outputs of 0.6–3.1 tons per hectare depending on and management. These yields position castor as a marginal but viable non-edible oil crop for in semi-arid regions, with estimates ranging from 2.5:1 to 4:1 based on lifecycle analyses. India dominates global castor seed production, harvesting 1.9 million metric tons in 2024 (over 88% of worldwide output), primarily from and , with exports supporting industrial demand in and . African nations like (93,670 tons) and contribute smaller shares, often under rain-fed systems yielding 0.25–2 tons per . Production for 2024–25 in is forecast to decline 12% to 8.67 hectares due to erratic monsoons, potentially tightening supply for industrial derivatives.

Medicinal and Pharmacological Applications

Castor oil, derived from the seeds of Ricinus communis, is approved by the United States Food and Drug Administration (FDA) solely for use as a to treat occasional , acting via to stimulate intestinal contractions and promote bowel movements. Its efficacy in this role stems from the of triglycerides in the , leading to prostaglandin-mediated stimulation, though prolonged use risks and dependency. Beyond this verified application, raw or minimally processed plant parts pose significant toxicity risks due to , a potent ribosome-inactivating protein, which can cause severe gastrointestinal distress, organ failure, or death even in small quantities, underscoring the need for in any therapeutic extraction. Pharmacological investigations into R. communis extracts reveal preliminary evidence for antidiabetic effects, primarily from root and leaf preparations in animal models, where 50% ethanolic extracts reduced blood glucose levels in streptozotocin-induced diabetic rats by mechanisms potentially involving antioxidant modulation and insulin sensitization, though human trials remain absent and efficacy unproven. Similarly, seed oil demonstrates anthelmintic activity against nematodes like Caenorhabditis elegans, attributed to ricinoleic acid disrupting parasite motility and metabolism, as shown in 2025 in vitro and in silico studies, but clinical translation is limited by toxicity concerns and lack of broad-spectrum validation. Leaf extracts exhibit wound-healing potential in preclinical assays, accelerating epithelial migration and reducing inflammation via antimicrobial flavonoids and phenolics, with a 2024 review highlighting animal models of skin lesions where topical application shortened healing time compared to controls. Ricin-derived immunotoxins, engineered by conjugating deglycosylated ricin A-chain to monoclonal antibodies targeting cancer cell-surface antigens (e.g., , , CD25), have been explored for and therapy, inhibiting protein synthesis selectively in malignant cells during phase I/II trials from the to early , yet outcomes showed modest response rates (e.g., partial remissions in <20% of relapsed non-Hodgkin's lymphoma cases) hampered by vascular leak , immunogenicity, and off-target , with no approvals and stalled advancement due to superior alternatives like antibody-drug conjugates. Overall, while R. communis components offer mechanistic promise in controlled extracts, empirical data emphasize narrow, regulated applications over unrefined uses, where toxicity often exceeds benefits absent rigorous purification.

Traditional and Ornamental Uses

In ancient Egypt, Ricinus communis was employed in traditional remedies for skin conditions and as a moisturizer, with historical records indicating its use by Cleopatra to brighten the eyes. The plant's oil served as a laxative and lubricant for joint-related ailments in folklore practices dating back over 4,000 years. In traditional Indian medicine, particularly Ayurveda, leaves and oil from R. communis were applied topically for arthritis, joint pains, and skin disorders, though empirical validation of these uses remains limited beyond anecdotal reports. Ornamentally, R. communis is cultivated for its large, palmate leaves that provide a bold, tropical aesthetic in gardens, often paired with plants like cannas and elephant ears to enhance summer displays. Varieties with colored foliage, such as red or bronze hues, add visual interest as annuals in temperate zones or perennials in frost-free regions. Historically, derived from the seeds contributed to paints and dyes, supporting ornamental and artisanal applications. Despite its aesthetic appeal in tropical and subtropical landscapes, R. communis poses risks of invasiveness, self-seeding aggressively in warm climates like and , where it can escape cultivation and form dense stands. Gardeners are advised to flowers to prevent and restrict planting near natural areas to mitigate ecological disruption.

References

  1. https://www.invasive.org/browse/subinfo.cfm?sub=6320
  2. https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/pharmacology-toxicology-and-pharmaceutical-science/ricinus
  3. https://plants.ces.ncsu.edu/plants/ricinus-communis/
  4. https://hort.extension.wisc.edu/articles/castor-bean-ricinus-communis/
  5. https://www.inaturalist.org/taxa/56739-Ricinus-communis
  6. https://www.cdc.gov/chemical-emergencies/chemical-fact-sheets/ricin.html
  7. https://jamanetwork.com/journals/jama/fullarticle/201818
  8. https://www.poison.org/articles/what-happens-if-i-eat-castor-beans-222
  9. https://www.cabidigitallibrary.org/doi/full/10.1079/cabicompendium.47618
  10. https://www.missouribotanicalgarden.org/PlantFinder/PlantFinderDetails.aspx?taxonid=280095
  11. https://www.nparks.gov.sg/florafaunaweb/flora/2/3/2389
  12. https://www.mnhn.fr/en/castor-bean
  13. https://biodiversity.org.au/nsl/services/apni-format/display/113692
  14. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC12078312/
  15. https://www.nature.com/articles/nbt.1674
  16. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/26589420/
  17. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC6802463/
  18. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8963715/
  19. https://genomebiology.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s13059-021-02333-y
  20. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC5040714/
  21. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC5015816/
  22. https://pubchem.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/compound/Ricinoleic-Acid
  23. https://www.sciencepublishinggroup.com/article/10.11648/j.ejb.20241201.13
  24. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC5684206/
  25. https://www.scielo.br/j/pab/a/jqKRCJvLfNZs5ynQGLJzpqg/?lang=en
  26. https://www.mdpi.com/2072-6651/7/12/4856
  27. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S003194220088440X
  28. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/10418776/
  29. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0926669016304447
  30. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC6628454/
  31. https://www.cabi.org/isc/datasheet/47618
  32. https://beeculture.com/the-useful-and-versatile-castor-bean-plant/
  33. https://www.business.qld.gov.au/industries/farms-fishing-forestry/agriculture/biosecurity/plants/invasive/other/castor-oil-bush
  34. https://www.iucngisd.org/gisd/species.php?sc=1000
  35. http://www.hear.org/pier/species/ricinus_communis.htm
  36. https://www.gbif.org/species/195728136
  37. https://www.mdpi.com/2073-4395/15/6/1402
  38. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0098847210001176
  39. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/292716749_Castor_oil_plant_Ricinus_communis_L_Botany_ecology_and_uses
  40. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC4236761/
  41. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/354208502_Salt-Tolerance_in_Castor_Bean_Ricinus_communis_L_Is_Associated_with_Thicker_Roots_and_Better_Tissue_KNa_Distribution
  42. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC9980742/
  43. https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10725-024-01270-7
  44. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0981942825009192
  45. http://eagri.org/eagri50/GPBR112/lec16.html
  46. https://prota.prota4u.org/protav8.asp?g=pe&p=Ricinus%2Bcommunis
  47. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/22990600/
  48. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/359959905_Review_on_Reproductive_Biology_of_Caster_bean_Ricinus_communis_L
  49. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S016788091100048X
  50. https://poisonousplants.ansci.cornell.edu/toxicagents/ricin.html
  51. https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/ecology-and-evolution/articles/10.3389/fevo.2019.00246/full
  52. https://www.kew.org/read-and-watch/ants-constipation-murder-and-seeds-ricinus-communis
  53. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC3210461/
  54. https://www.jstor.org/stable/1589840
  55. https://ir.xtbg.ac.cn/bitstream/353005/7527/2/Assessing%2520the%2520invasive%2520potential%2520of%2520biofuel%2520species%2520proposed%2520for%2520Florida%2520and%2520the%2520United%2520States%2520using%2520the%2520Australian%2520Weed%2520Risk%2520Assessment.pdf
  56. https://www.cal-ipc.org/plants/profile/ricinus-communis-profile/
  57. https://scialert.net/fulltext/?doi=rjmp.2020.79.87
  58. https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/pdf/10.1080/0028825X.2010.548069
  59. https://galvbayinvasives.org/invasive/P-027
  60. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0961953410002862
  61. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0926669012001379
  62. https://www.feedipedia.org/node/103
  63. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0926669011003025
  64. https://m.andrafarm.com/_andra.php?_i=0-tanaman-kelompok&_en=ENGLISH&topik=merendam&kelompok=Jarak
  65. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0926669013001726
  66. https://agriculture.institute/agriculture-fundamentals/castor-crop-cultivation-techniques-varieties/
  67. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC3467089/
  68. https://www.intechopen.com/chapters/72423
  69. https://www.badikheti.com/resources/castor-seeds-harvesting-processing/?srsltid=AfmBOopbKonCT93WoZBbut4ofQHDMxxwXKVgOZYXQeX1osGMFuzBGTpR
  70. https://www.patriotledger.com/story/lifestyle/home-garden/2011/08/28/in-garden-tall-order-castor/37941046007/
  71. https://www.mdpi.com/2073-4395/13/8/2076
  72. https://www.intechopen.com/chapters/44016
  73. https://agriculture.vikaspedia.in/viewcontent/agriculture/crop-production/package-of-practices/oilseeds/high-yielding-hybrids-and-varieties-of-castor-ricinus-communis-l?lgn=en
  74. https://acsess.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.2134/agronj2011.0210
  75. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10920369/
  76. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/233443256_Development_of_Castor_with_Reduced_Toxicity
  77. https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-017-15636-7
  78. https://ttu-ir.tdl.org/items/09b97606-35c5-4c1f-842a-ddc6b8db33db
  79. https://cdnsciencepub.com/doi/10.1139/gen-2020-0048
  80. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2405844023018054
  81. https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s42729-024-02040-0
  82. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/39571237/
  83. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0981942825008988
  84. https://www.mdpi.com/1422-0067/26/21/10318
  85. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK441948/
  86. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC4986263/
  87. https://www.mdpi.com/2072-6651/11/6/350
  88. https://www.mdpi.com/2072-6651/11/5/241
  89. https://academic.oup.com/nar/article/26/18/4306/2902344
  90. https://www.cdc.gov/niosh/ershdb/emergencyresponsecard_29750002.html
  91. https://response.epa.gov/site/download.ashx?counter=186665
  92. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC6520692/
  93. https://www.visualdx.com/visualdx/diagnosis/ricin%2Bpoisoning%2Binhaled?diagnosisId=53314&moduleId=25
  94. https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/diseases/ricin-poisoning
  95. https://efsa.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/pdf/10.2903/j.efsa.2008.726
  96. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S004101010600403X
  97. https://www.webmd.com/pets/what-to-know-castor-bean-poisoning-in-animals
  98. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC5701385/
  99. https://www.texasinvasives.org/plant_database/detail.php?symbol=RICO3
  100. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/0021870762900898
  101. https://www.thermofisher.com/phadia/us/en/resources/allergen-encyclopedia/k71.html
  102. https://www.jacionline.org/article/0091-6749%2888%2990052-8/pdf
  103. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0736467917307291
  104. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC3087745/
  105. https://www.theguardian.com/world/from-the-archive-blog/2020/sep/09/georgi-markov-killed-poisoned-umbrella-london-1978
  106. https://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/preview/mmwrhtml/mm5246a5.htm
  107. https://abcnews.go.com/Health/ricin-letters-president-senator-intended-scare-kill/story?id=18980563
  108. https://academic.oup.com/jat/article/36/9/660/784951
  109. https://www.dw.com/en/who-was-the-cold-war-umbrella-assassin/a-65046085
  110. https://nonproliferation.org/the-threat-and-control-of-ricin-as-a-weapon/
  111. https://ctc.westpoint.edu/june-2018-cologne-ricin-plot-new-threshold-jihadi-bio-terror/
  112. https://www.france24.com/en/20200326-tunisian-handed-ten-years-for-ricin-bomb-plot-in-germany
  113. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/19767104/
  114. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/26824567_Ricin_as_a_weapon_of_mass_terror_-_Separating_fact_from_fiction
  115. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/40252722/
  116. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0041010104001898
  117. https://www.cnn.com/2003/WORLD/europe/01/07/terror.poison.extremists/index.html
  118. https://www.opcw.org/sites/default/files/documents/SAB/en/sab-21-wp05_e_.pdf
  119. https://www.environics.fi/blog/ricin-toxin-ricinus-communis/
  120. https://alliancechemical.com/blogs/articles/the-chemistry-of-castor-oil-why-it-s-a-key-ingredient-in-industrial-applications
  121. https://products.whc-oils.com/item/industrial-and-pale-pressed-castor-oils/industrial-castor-oils/industrial-castor-oils
  122. https://www.futuremarketinsights.com/reports/castor-oil-market
  123. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0196890425001451
  124. https://www.ijraset.com/best-journal/biodiesel-production-from-castor-oil-a-sustainable-alternative-to-conventional-diesel-fuel
  125. https://www.statista.com/statistics/769695/india-castor-seeds-production-volume/
  126. https://www.reportlinker.com/dataset/35e137ca186377df08ea93338ea4479b5b5deee9
  127. https://www.reportlinker.com/dataset/e2bb03e1de36288a0a6aa1d19845737050dff83c
  128. https://m.economictimes.com/news/economy/agriculture/decline-in-castor-seed-production-in-india-2024-25-survey-insights/articleshow/118324446.cms
  129. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK551626/
  130. https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s42452-024-05964-5
  131. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/40004099/
  132. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC5344252/
  133. https://www.webmd.com/diet/castor-oil-health-benefits
  134. https://alwaysayurveda.com/ricinus-communis/
  135. https://blogs.ifas.ufl.edu/charlotteco/2020/07/15/best-to-stay-away-from-the-castor-bean/
Add your contribution
Related Hubs
User Avatar
No comments yet.