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Color mixing
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There are three types of color mixing models, depending on the relative brightness of the resultant mixture: additive, subtractive, and average.[1] In these models, mixing black and white will yield white, black and gray, respectively. Physical mixing processes, e.g. mixing light beams or oil paints, will follow one or a hybrid of these 3 models.[1] Each mixing model is associated with several color models, depending on the approximate primary colors used. The most common color models are optimized to human trichromatic color vision, therefore comprising three primary colors.[1]: 4.2 

Mixing models

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Additive model

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Main article: Additive color
A simulated example of additive color mixing in the RGB model. The primaries red, green, and blue combine pairwise to produce the additive secondaries cyan, magenta, and yellow. Combining all three primaries (center) produces white.

Additive mixing combines two or more colors into a mixture with brightness equal to the sum of the components' brightnesses.[1]: 4.4  An ideal physical model to demonstrate the additive model comprises two superimposed colored lights aimed at the observer. The additive model is usually demonstrated by reflecting two beams of colored light off a white, matte surface (e.g. projectors) or by analyzing the sub-pixels of a color display, both of which follow the additive model closely.

The most common additive color model is the RGB color model, which uses three primary colors: red, green, and blue. This model is the basis of most color displays. Some modern displays are multi-primary color displays, which have 4-6 primaries (RGB, plus cyan, yellow and/or magenta) in order to increase the size of the color gamut. For all additive color models, the absence of all primaries results in black. For practical additive color models, an equal superposition of all primaries results in neutral (gray or white). In the RGB model, an equal mixture of red and green is yellow, an equal mixture of green and blue is cyan and an equal mixture of blue and red is magenta.[1]: 4.2  Yellow, cyan and magenta are the secondary colors of the RGB model.

Subtractive model

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Main article: Subtractive color
A simulated example of (idealized) subtractive color mixing in the CMY model. The primaries cyan, magenta and yellow combine pairwise to produce subtractive secondaries red, green, and blue. Combining all three primaries (center) absorbs all light and produces black. In practical CMY color models, the center is usually dark gray and a separate black pigment is required to produce black (CMYK model).

Subtractive mixing combines two or more colors into a mixture with brightness lower than either of the two components' brightnesses. An ideal physical model to demonstrate the subtractive model comprises a white light transmitting through two colored filters, each of which subtract a portion of the white light, transmitting a light of the combined color.[1]: 5.2  However, the subtractive model is usually demonstrated with dyes or pigments, such as paint or ink, which often do not closely follow the subtractive model, instead requiring a more complex model such as Kubelka–Munk theory. How well they follow the model depends mostly on the opacity of the pigment or dye.[1]: 6.1 

The most common subtractive color models are the CMYK color model, CMY color model and RYB color model.[1]: 6.2  The CMYK model used in color printing uses cyan, magenta, yellow, and black primaries. For all subtractive color models, the absence of all color primaries results in white. For ideal subtractive color models, an equal superposition of all primaries results in a neutral (dark gray or black). The CMYK model adds a black primary to improve the darkness of blacks, where the CMY model can only mix to dark gray or only achieves black inefficiently, i.e. by using lots of the primary pigments. In the CMY model, an equal mixture of cyan and magenta is blue, an equal mixture of magenta and yellow is red and an equal mixture of yellow and cyan is green. These mixtures are the secondary colors of the CMY model, which are the same as the primaries of the additive RGB model and vice versa.

Average model

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Average mixing (sometimes additive-average) combines two colors into a mixture with brightness equal to the average of the two components' brightnesses.[1]: 4.4  This model is often demonstrated with a Newton disc, where a wheel comprising several color wedges along the circumference is rotated at high speed, such that the human eye cannot temporally differentiate the colors, and they combine to a color with the average brightness (weighted to the angle each color takes up). Another physical model mimics pointillism or halftone printing, where the spatial acuity of the human eye is not sufficient to spatially differentiate the colors, and they combine to a mixture with the average brightness.[1]: 4.4  There are no common color models that explicitly use the average model, though many additive or subtractive models can be described in part by the average model.

Pigment mixing

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In the practical mixing of pigments, the subtractive model is usually not closely followed. How the pigment mixing behaves depends strongly on the opacity of the pigments.[1]: 6.1  Ideally, transparent pigments transmit and absorb light, but do not reflect or scatter it and mix according to the subtractive model. Ideally, opaque pigments reflect or absorb light, but do not transmit it and mix according to the average model. Most real paints reflect, transmit and scatter light, so mix according to a hybrid between the subtractive and average models.[1]: 6.1  Paint color mixer is also affected by the media used as wetting, deagglomeration, and dispersing agents for the pigments. These agents all have their own transparency/opacity and color properties and can also alter the transparency and color of pigments.[citation needed]

Red and yellow paints being mixed on a palette

For example, mixing red and yellow can result in a shade of orange, generally with a lower chroma or reduced saturation than at least one of the component colors. In some combinations, a mix of blue and yellow paint produces green. This occurs when there is sufficient transparency in the pigments, allowing light to penetrate into the mixed paint, where the two colors together absorb light except wavelengths in the green range. Alternately, if the pigments are highly opaque, a combination of blue and yellow paint appears more grayish. In this case, pigment particles simply reflect whatever light hits the outer paint surface, where both blue and yellow light gets reflected and averaged together.

Halftone printing uses non-opaque inks, such that the light transmits once through the ink, reflects off the white substrate (e.g. paper) and transmits a second time through the ink. Increasing the ink printed on the page decreases the brightness of light, and halftone printing follows the subtractive model well.

See also

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References

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Revisions and contributorsEdit on WikipediaRead on Wikipedia

Color mixing

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from Grokipedia
Color mixing is the process of combining colors to create new hues, primarily through two fundamental principles: additive color mixing, which involves blending light sources, and subtractive color mixing, which involves overlapping pigments or dyes that absorb light. Additive mixing starts from darkness and builds toward brighter tones, using , , and (RGB) as primary colors, where equal combination of all three produces white light; this model underpins digital displays like computer monitors and televisions. In contrast, subtractive mixing begins with white light or paper and subtracts wavelengths through absorption, employing cyan, magenta, and yellow (CMY) as primaries—often with black (K) added as CMYK for efficiency—resulting in darker tones when fully combined, and is essential for , , and . These principles stem from the trichromatic nature of human , as described by the standard, which quantifies color perception using tristimulus values derived from experimental data on spectral sensitivities. The distinction between additive and subtractive systems arises from their interaction with : additive processes add wavelengths to stimulate cells in the eye more intensely, while subtractive processes filter out specific wavelengths, reflecting only the . For instance, mixing and additively yields , whereas combining and pigments subtractively produces . Grassmann's laws of mixture, established in the , ensure that color addition is linear and commutative, forming the basis for modern and enabling the reproduction of millions of colors in RGB systems through varying intensities. In practical applications, converting between RGB and CMYK is crucial for media transitions, such as preparing digital designs for print, to account for the models' differing color gamuts and behaviors.

Basic Concepts

Definition and Principles

Color mixing is the process by which two or more colors are combined to produce a new color, fundamentally rooted in the physics of wavelengths and the perceptual mechanisms of vision. This combination occurs either through the superposition of sources or the interaction of pigments that selectively absorb or reflect wavelengths, resulting in a perceived hue distinct from the originals. Human color perception relies on the trichromatic theory, which posits that the eye's contains three types of photoreceptors sensitive to short (), medium (), and long (red) wavelengths of , enabling the to interpret a wide of colors from their relative stimulations. These cones, first theorized by Thomas Young in 1802 and elaborated by in the , form the basis for distinguishing colors beyond mere detection. A core principle of color mixing is that it can modify the perceived hue (the dominant wavelength), saturation (the purity or intensity relative to gray), or brightness (the overall lightness) by adding or subtracting specific light components. In additive mixing, for instance, the total perceived intensity of light at a given wavelength is the sum of the intensities from each source, expressed conceptually as Itotal=I1+I2+…I_{\text{total}} = I_1 + I_2 + \dots, where InI_n represents the intensity contribution from each color component—though subtractive processes follow a different absorptive logic. This foundational understanding traces back to Isaac Newton's 1666 experiments, where he dispersed white light through a prism to reveal its spectral composition, laying the groundwork for modern concepts of color synthesis.

Primary and Secondary Colors

Primary colors in color mixing are the fundamental hues that cannot be created by combining other colors and serve as the basis for generating a wide range of hues through mixing. In systems, such as those involving light, the primaries are , , and (RGB), which align with the peak sensitivities of the three types of cells in the human as outlined in the trichromatic theory of color vision. In subtractive color systems, such as those used with pigments or inks, the primaries are , magenta, and yellow (CMY), which function by selectively absorbing portions of the light spectrum to produce the desired color. These sets of primaries enable the approximation of most visible colors, though their selection is optimized for specific applications like displays or . Secondary colors result from the combination of two primary colors in equal proportions, forming intermediate hues that expand the color palette. In additive mixing, and combine to , and yield , and and create . In subtractive mixing, and mix to form , and , and and generate . These secondary colors—, , and in additive systems, and , , and in subtractive systems—represent the direct outcomes of pairwise primary mixtures and are essential for achieving balanced color reproduction. The provides a visual representation of primary and relationships, arranging hues in a circular diagram to demonstrate how colors relate through mixing and opposition. Primaries are positioned at even intervals, with secondaries located between them to illustrate the results of mixing adjacent primaries; for example, in a traditional RYB (--blue) wheel used in , orange appears between and . , which are opposites on the wheel (such as and ), enhance contrast when paired and neutralize to gray when mixed equally. This arrangement, originally conceptualized by , aids in understanding harmonic color schemes and predictable mixing outcomes across various models. While primary colors form the building blocks of color mixing, their selection is not universal and depends on the medium or theoretical framework; for instance, traditional artists' pigments often use , , and as primaries to approximate a broad spectrum with oil or watercolor. A key limitation is that no single set of primaries can reproduce all perceivable colors perfectly, as the —the range of colors achievable—forms a bounded region in , such as a in the CIE diagram, excluding hues outside the vertices defined by the primaries. This restriction arises from the spectral properties of the primaries and the human visual system's capabilities, necessitating alternative sets or expansions like adding (K) in for deeper tones.

Additive Mixing

Light-Based Mechanisms

Additive color mixing refers to the process where multiple beams of colored light overlap in space, resulting in the superposition of their electromagnetic waves across the . This superposition increases the total intensity at various wavelengths, which in turn stimulates the three types of cells in the human retina—short-wavelength-sensitive (S-cones, peaking around 440 nm), medium-wavelength-sensitive (M-cones, peaking around 545 nm), and long-wavelength-sensitive (L-cones, peaking around 565 nm)—in proportions that determine the perceived color. The mechanism is grounded in the trichromatic theory of color vision, originally proposed by Thomas Young and later refined by , which posits that all color perceptions arise from the relative activation of these three cone types based on the incident light's spectral composition. A fundamental outcome of additive mixing is that equal intensities of the primary colors—, , and —produce , as their combined stimulation balances the to mimic visible , while the absence of any results in , with no stimulation occurring. This aligns with the physics of as in the 380–780 nm visible range, where mixing does not alter wavelengths but adds their intensities, following the principle of linear superposition for incoherent sources. In quantitative terms, the resultant in a standardized is obtained through vector addition of the individual color components. In the CIE 1931 XYZ color space, which models human color vision through tristimulus values derived from experimental color-matching functions, the additive mixing of lights is represented mathematically as the vector sum of their tristimulus vectors: C=[R](/page/Red)+[G](/page/Green)+[B](/page/Blue)\mathbf{C} = [\mathbf{R}](/page/Red) + [\mathbf{G}](/page/Green) + [\mathbf{B}](/page/Blue) Here, C\mathbf{C} is the resultant tristimulus vector (X,Y,Z)(X, Y, Z), and R\mathbf{R}, G\mathbf{G}, B\mathbf{B} are the vectors for the , , and components, respectively, scaled by their intensities; this linearity holds because tristimulus values are integrals of the light's weighted by the CIE color-matching functions xˉ(λ)\bar{x}(\lambda), yˉ(λ)\bar{y}(\lambda), and zˉ(λ)\bar{z}(\lambda). A practical illustration of these light-based mechanisms is the use of colored spotlights in theater productions, where overlapping , , and beams on a surface create a wide array of hues through additive mixing, demonstrating how the eye integrates the combined spectral input, though may deviate from strict linearity at very high intensities due to factors like retinal and saturation limits.

RGB Color Space Applications

The serves as the foundational standard for representation in digital displays, where each is composed of , , and subpixels capable of independently varying in intensity from 0 to 255, enabling the reproduction of approximately 16.7 million distinct colors through 8-bit depth per channel. This structure originated in the with the development of color cathode-ray tube (CRT) televisions, which utilized phosphors tuned to emit , , and blue light in response to beams, establishing the primaries based on early NTSC broadcast standards for compatible color reproduction. In modern implementations, RGB principles have transitioned to (LED) technologies, where RGB LED clusters form the basis of backlighting and direct-emission displays in televisions and monitors, offering improved efficiency and longevity over CRTs. Key applications of the RGB color space span computer monitors, televisions, and , where it facilitates consistent color rendering across devices by additively mixing light from the three primaries. In monitors and TVs, RGB subpixels illuminate to create images, with the variant—proposed by and in 1996 and standardized by the (IEC) as IEC 61966-2-1 in 1999—adopted as the default for web content to ensure uniformity in online visuals and . For , RGB underpins image capture and processing in cameras, where sensors convert light into RGB values for , though remains the prevalent output for web and standard prints due to its broad compatibility. The RGB color gamut, particularly , encompasses roughly 35% of the visible color spectrum as defined by the CIE 1931 standard, providing adequate coverage for everyday but falling short in saturated regions such as vivid greens and . This limitation manifests in challenges reproducing deep cyan hues, where RGB primaries cannot achieve the same purity as broader gamuts like Adobe RGB, often resulting in desaturated approximations on screens. To represent colors mathematically, values are typically normalized from the 0-255 range to a [0,1] floating-point space via the equation: Normalized color=(r255,g255,b255)\text{Normalized color} = \left( \frac{r}{255}, \frac{g}{255}, \frac{b}{255} \right) where rr, gg, and bb are the respective red, green, and blue channel intensities; this normalized form supports further transformations, such as to the CIE XYZ tristimulus space for device-independent colorimetry.

Subtractive Mixing

Pigment and Ink Interactions

In subtractive color mixing, and operate by selectively absorbing specific wavelengths of while reflecting or transmitting others, resulting in the of color through the unabsorbed portions. When encounters a , certain wavelengths are absorbed and converted to , while the complementary wavelengths are reflected back to the viewer. Mixing multiple compounds this absorption, as each additional layer or particle subtracts more wavelengths from the incident , progressively desaturating the result and tending toward or a neutral dark tone as fewer wavelengths remain unabsorbed. This process contrasts with additive mixing in , where combining wavelengths increases toward . A key interaction occurs when complementary pigments are combined, where each absorbs the wavelengths predominantly reflected by the other, leading to a neutralization of color. For instance, mixing and pigments—complementary in the traditional RYB model—results in a muddy or gray because the absorbs and the absorbs , leaving minimal vibrant reflection and emphasizing shared absorptions in the blue-violet range. Similarly, applying blue dye to an orange base in fabric or hair dyeing typically results in a dull brown or gray; with deep blue, it can turn muddy blackish or brown, illustrating the neutralization and desaturation from complementary interactions. This desaturation is particularly evident in artistic applications, where unintended complementary overlaps can produce undesired "" tones, requiring artists to carefully select non-complementary pairs for clean secondary colors like orange from and . The optical behavior of pigments in layers follows the Beer-Lambert law, which quantifies how light intensity diminishes through absorbing media due to both absorption and . This law describes the of transmitted as it passes through suspensions or coatings, essential for understanding color depth in paints and inks. The transmitted intensity II is given by I=I0e−αdI = I_0 e^{-\alpha d} where I0I_0 is the initial intensity, α\alpha is the absorption coefficient (dependent on concentration and ), and dd is the path length or layer thickness. In layers, higher α\alpha values for specific wavelengths enhance subtraction, while —more pronounced in opaque formulations—further diffuses , altering perceived hue. Pigments are classified as opaque or transparent based on their light interaction: opaque pigments, such as titanium white or , scatter and absorb light strongly within the layer, preventing transmission and providing high coverage that hides underlying surfaces. Transparent pigments, like ultramarine blue or phthalocyanine green, allow more light to pass through with minimal , enabling glazing techniques where colors build cumulatively without fully obscuring the substrate. This distinction affects mixing outcomes; opaque layers dominate absorption immediately, while transparent ones permit subtle interactions over multiple applications. Historical evidence of subtractive mixing dates to cave paintings approximately 36,000 to 30,000 years ago, where early humans ground natural s like (iron oxides for reds and yellows) and (for blacks) into binders such as or water, applying them in layers to create varied tones on rock surfaces. Sites like in demonstrate this through red outlines and shaded animal figures, indicating deliberate subtraction of light via density to achieve depth and form, marking one of the earliest documented uses of interactions for visual expression.

CMYK Color Space Applications

The , also known as the four-color process, utilizes , , , and (K) inks to reproduce a wide range of colors in subtractive mixing for printed media. This system emerged in the early , with the Eagle Printing Company introducing the four-color wet process inks in 1906, enabling efficient of color images through overlapping ink layers. ink was specifically added to the cyan-magenta- (CMY) base to achieve deeper tones and sharper details, as combining only CMY often results in a muddy rather than true , while also providing economic benefits by reducing overall ink usage and improving print quality in high-volume runs. In practical applications, CMYK is the standard for offset printing, where separate plates for each ink color transfer images onto paper via rollers, and for inkjet printing, where microscopic droplets of ink are precisely deposited to form images. To simulate continuous tones in these processes, halftone screening breaks images into patterns of dots varying in size and density; the human eye blends these overlapping cyan, magenta, yellow, and black dots from a distance, creating the illusion of smooth gradients and full-color reproduction. The CMYK color gamut, however, is limited compared to additive models like RGB, covering a smaller portion of the colors visible to the and struggling to reproduce bright, saturated hues such as vivid oranges and greens due to the subtractive nature of ink absorption on substrates. For more precise color matching in branding and , the Matching System extends CMYK by incorporating spot colors—premixed inks applied directly via additional plates—to achieve consistent, specialized shades that may fall outside the standard process . A key approximation for ink mixing in CMYK models opacity (or coverage) additively under the assumption of independent layers, where the resulting coverage CresultC_{\text{result}} for multiple inks is given by: Cresult=1−∏i(1−Ci)C_{\text{result}} = 1 - \prod_{i} (1 - C_i) Here, each CiC_i represents the fractional coverage of an individual layer (0 to 1), reflecting how light transmission decreases multiplicatively. This principle underpins conversions from RGB to CMYK, where ideal subtractive mixing first computes CMY from RGB as C=1−R′C = 1 - R', M=1−G′M = 1 - G', Y=1−B′Y = 1 - B' (with R′,G′,B′R', G', B' normalized to 0-1), then determines K=min⁡(C,M,Y)K = \min(C, M, Y) to undercolor for economy, subtracting it from the primaries before scaling.

Other Models and Phenomena

Average and Intermediate Mixing

Average mixing, also known as or blending, involves computing the of two colors' component values in a chosen to produce an intermediate result. This model is commonly applied in simple for blending hues, where the resulting color is calculated as the average of corresponding channels, such as (R1+R2)/2(R_1 + R_2)/2, (G1+G2)/2(G_1 + G_2)/2, and (B1+B2)/2(B_1 + B_2)/2 in RGB space for basic midpoint hues. For more perceptually intuitive results, averaging is often performed in HSV (Hue, Saturation, Value) space, where the hue component requires special handling due to its circular nature—typically by selecting the shortest angular arc between values before averaging, while saturation and value are linearly averaged. The averaged HSV values are then converted back to RGB, yielding: Havg={H1+H22if ∣H1−H2∣≤180∘H1+H2+360∘2mod  360∘otherwise (shortest arc),Savg=S1+S22,Vavg=V1+V22.\begin{align*} H_{\text{avg}} &= \begin{cases} \frac{H_1 + H_2}{2} & \text{if } |H_1 - H_2| \leq 180^\circ \\ \frac{H_1 + H_2 + 360^\circ}{2} \mod 360^\circ & \text{otherwise (shortest arc)} \end{cases}, \\ S_{\text{avg}} &= \frac{S_1 + S_2}{2}, \\ V_{\text{avg}} &= \frac{V_1 + V_2}{2}. \end{align*} This approach approximates perceptual uniformity better than direct RGB averaging, though HSV itself is not fully uniform. For even better perceptual uniformity, averaging can be performed in spaces like CIELAB, which model human vision more accurately than HSV. Intermediate colors arise from mixing adjacent primary and secondary colors, creating gradients such as orange from and , which serves as a bridge between pure hues in color wheels. These mixtures produce tertiary shades like red-orange or yellow-green, enhancing transitional tones in artistic compositions. In techniques, average and intermediate mixing appear in glazing, where thin, transparent layers of intermediate colors are applied over dried underlayers to optically blend hues and build depth without physical mixing on the palette. Similarly, in CGI , average blending simulates smooth transitions by interpolating colors across surfaces, such as in vertex shading or , to achieve realistic gradients without complex light simulations. Unlike additive or subtractive mixing, averaging often yields desaturated, muted results approaching gray, as the mean reduces saturation intensity.

Common Misconceptions and Limits

A common misconception in color mixing is that combining primary colors always yields or equivalently across all systems, whereas in additive mixing with , equal parts of , , and primaries produce , but in subtractive mixing with pigments or inks, they typically result in a dark, muddy or near- due to the absorption of wavelengths rather than . This error often stems from conflating the two distinct processes, leading to confusion in applications like versus digital displays. Historically, Johann Wolfgang von Goethe's 1810 Theory of Colours proposed a phenomenological view of color as arising from interactions between and darkness, rejecting Isaac Newton's earlier prismatic decomposition of white into a spectrum of pure colors, which Goethe saw as overly mechanistic and disconnected from human . Goethe's approach emphasized subjective experiences, such as afterimages and colored shadows, but it was largely superseded by Newton's particle-wave duality model, ultimately resolved and validated by 19th- and 20th-century , which confirmed the spectral nature of and the objective wavelengths underlying color . One fundamental limit of color mixing models is the gamut restriction: it is impossible to reproduce all visible colors using just three primaries, as the selectable range () of any trio—whether RGB for additive or CMY for subtractive—excludes certain hues, saturations, and brightness levels beyond the primaries' spectral coverage. In printing, this necessitates the four-color CMYK process, where (K) ink supplements , , and to expand the gamut, achieve deeper blacks, and reduce ink usage for cost efficiency, as three colors alone cannot adequately cover the full required for high-fidelity reproduction. Metamerism represents another perceptual limit, where two colors with different spectral compositions appear identical under one illuminant but diverge under another, complicating consistent mixing and matching in fields like textiles or design. For instance, a fabric dyed to match a standard under daylight might shift hues under fluorescent light due to varying spectral reflections. Color blindness further constrains individual perception of mixed colors, as deficiencies in cone cells—most commonly affecting red-green discrimination—affect about 8% of males and 0.5% of females in Caucasian populations, altering how mixtures are distinguished and leading to confusions between shades that trichromats perceive distinctly. This variability means color mixing outcomes are not universal, impacting applications from art to . Environmental factors, particularly lighting conditions, impose practical limits on mixing reliability; for example, daylight provides a balanced that renders colors vibrantly, while fluorescent sources often distort them by emphasizing certain wavelengths, causing a perceived flattening or shift in hue intensity compared to natural illumination.

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