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Fluyt
Fluyt
Fluyt
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Dutch fluyt, by Wenceslaus Hollar (1607-1677)

A fluyt (archaic Dutch: fluijt "flute"; Dutch pronunciation: [flœyt] ⓘ)[1] is a Dutch type of sailing vessel originally designed by the shipwrights of Hoorn as a dedicated cargo vessel.[2] Originating in the Dutch Republic in the 16th century, the vessel was designed to facilitate transoceanic delivery with the maximum of space and crew efficiency. Unlike rivals, it was not built for conversion in wartime to a warship, so it was simpler and cheaper to build and carried twice the cargo, and could be handled by a smaller crew. Construction by specialized shipyards using new tools made it half the cost of rival ships. These factors combined to sharply lower the cost of transportation for Dutch merchants, giving them a major competitive advantage, particularly with bulk goods.[3][4]: 20  The fluyt was a significant factor in the 17th-century rise of the Dutch seaborne empire.[4]: 68  In 1670 the Dutch merchant marine totalled 568,000 tons of shipping—about half the European total.[5]

Ship design

[edit]

The standard fluyt design minimized or completely eliminated its armaments to maximize available cargo space, and used block and tackle extensively to facilitate ship operations. Another advantage of its pear-shape (when viewed from the fore or aft) was a shallow draft which allowed the vessel to bring cargo in and out of ports and up and down rivers which other vessels could not reach. This ship class was credited for making the Dutch more competitive in international trade, and was widely employed by the Dutch East India Company in the 17th and 18th centuries.[4] However, its usefulness caused the fluyt to gain such popularity that similar designs were soon developed by seagoing competitors of the Dutch. For example, the English shipbuilding industry began to adapt the design of the fluyt during the later part of the 17th century as English merchants, seeing how much cheaper Dutch shipping was, acquired Dutch-built ships captured in the Anglo-Dutch wars.[6]

The design of the fluyt evolved from the early galleon[citation needed] (the galleon, developed in Spain, was also built in the Netherlands, then under the same monarchs). Fluyts typically had a displacement of 200 to 300 tons and were approximately 80 feet (24 metres) in length.

It is a persistent myth that the fluyt was developed to evade Sound Tolls. The toll registers, however, show that during the 70 years from 1562 to 1632 it was a well-established procedure in the Sound for the toll-officers to use the bills of lading to determine the loading-capacities of the vessels passing through. They did not employ any sort of measuring device to assess the width, length, and depth of the vessels and then calculate the size of the ships.[7]

The fluyt was square rigged with two or three masts. When rigged with three masts, the fore and main (front two) masts were square rigged, with the mizzen (rearmost) mast often rigged with a triangular lateen sail, as pictured above. Masts were much higher than those of galleons to allow for greater speed. At times fluyts were also armed and served as auxiliary vessels, which was a common practice in the Baltic Sea.

French flûte

[edit]

Fluyts were called flûte in the French Navy. By 1680 this term was used for all its large cargo ships regardless of if they were of the Dutch fluyt type.[8]

The Swan

[edit]

In 2003, Martin Mattenik and Deep Sea Productions, using side scanning sonar, discovered a shipwreck lying on the floor of the Baltic Sea. The wreck was visited five times between 2003 and 2010. The Baltic is unusual in that there is a thick layer of fresh water inhospitable to saltwater-loving shipworms and shipwrecks are protected from the ravages of shipworms. The top of the wreck's rudder is decorated with three flowers which is typical of Dutch-built ships of the era. This ship is believed to be named the Swan due to the sculpted body of a swan found in the wreckage. At the time it was customary to attach a figure depicting the name of the ship to the transom. Dutch fluyts were built and used in the 16th and 17th centuries as a contract-for-hire vessel. England had not yet established its own large-scale shipbuilding industry and the Dutch dominated the market.[9] During the 17th century, English companies leased ships like the Swan to carry colonists to America.[citation needed]

Replicas

[edit]
Hector, a replica

The Hector, constructed in Pictou, Nova Scotia, and launched in 2000, is a replica of an early 18th-century fluyt which, in the summer of 1773 carried 189 Scottish immigrants to Nova Scotia. The replica was constructed according to line drawings from the Maritime Museum Rotterdam, and built using traditional shipbuilding techniques. As of 2017, the Hector is operated by the Hector Quay Society and is open to the public.[10]

See also

[edit]
  • En flûte – Reducing a ship's armament to carry more cargo
  • Flyboat – European light vessel of Dutch origin

References

[edit]
Revisions and contributorsEdit on WikipediaRead on Wikipedia

Fluyt

View on Grokipedia
from Grokipedia
The fluyt (or fluit) was a specialized Dutch sailing vessel developed in the late , optimized for transport with exceptional efficiency in crew size and construction costs. Originating in the Dutch town of during the , the fluyt emerged as a response to the need for economical maritime trade, particularly in the , Baltic, and Atlantic routes, evolving from earlier designs like the cog and . Its is attributed to merchants and shipwrights seeking to minimize tolls based on deck area, such as those in the strait before 1669, leading to a hull form that maximized hold volume while reducing taxable surface. Key design features included a distinctive pear-shaped or bulbous hull with a flat bottom, shallow draft for navigating rivers and ports, and an elongated profile with a length-to-beam of up to 6:1, allowing vessels to reach 200–600 tons in capacity while requiring only 12–20 crew members. Typically three-masted with square-rigged sails on the fore and main masts, a sail on the mizzen, and advanced systems for easy handling, the fluyt prioritized space over speed or armament, carrying up to twice the load of comparable ships like the Spanish galleon. The fluyt's significance lay in fueling the Dutch Republic's dominance in global trade during the 17th and 18th centuries, enabling the transport of goods like grain, timber, and spices with low operational costs and supporting explorations, such as Henry Hudson's voyages on the Discovery in 1602 and 1610. Widely exported and imitated, it exemplified innovative that shifted European maritime toward mass commerce.

History

Origins in the Dutch Republic

The fluyt, a revolutionary Dutch merchant vessel, emerged in the late as an innovative response to the economic pressures of the . Around 1595, shipbuilders in the town of developed the first prototypes, with the design commonly attributed to the local merchant and mayor Pieter Jansz Liorne, who sought to create a vessel optimized for efficient transport. This attribution stems from the chronicle of Hoorn's historian Theodorus Velius, though some scholars note it relies on a single contemporary account and may reflect broader collaborative efforts among Dutch shipwrights. Liorne's initiative marked a shift toward specialized ships, distinct from the multifunctional vessels prevalent in earlier European . The invention occurred amid the Dutch Revolt (1568–1648), also known as the , which disrupted traditional trade routes and imposed heavy financial burdens on the emerging Dutch state. As the northern provinces rebelled against Spanish Habsburg rule, the conflict with Iberian powers, including Portugal's control over key spices and colonial goods, compelled the Dutch to seek independent access to global markets. This turmoil, coupled with the need to finance the war through commerce, fostered rapid advancements in shipbuilding, as Dutch merchants required vessels that could operate with minimal crew and costs while maximizing profitability. The formation of the (VOC) in 1602 further intensified this demand, though the fluyt's core design predated it and was initially tailored to European trade imperatives. Designed primarily for cost-effective transport of bulk commodities in the Baltic trade, the early fluyt addressed the Dutch Republic's reliance on , timber, and other staples from the region to sustain its growing and . By bypassing Iberian monopolies on southern European routes, these ships enabled the Dutch to capture a dominant share of the "mother trade" with the Baltic, where shallow-draft vessels were essential for navigating the rivers and coastal waters of the . The prototypes represented adaptations of smaller Dutch coastal vessels, incorporating enhanced cargo holds while retaining a shallow draft for versatility in inland waterways. This focus on efficiency allowed a small crew of about 10–15 men to handle operations, reducing operational costs compared to contemporary English or Hanseatic .

Development during the Golden Age

During the in the , the fluyt reached its zenith of development and proliferation, becoming the backbone of the Republic's maritime economy. Production peaked between the 1620s and 1660s, with shipyards such as those in constructing numerous fluyts to meet surging demand for efficient cargo vessels. By 1670, the Dutch merchant fleet, dominated by fluyts, totaled 568,000 tons—nearly half of Europe's entire shipping capacity—underscoring the scale of this mass-production effort. Key innovations refined the fluyt's design for superior stability and cost-effectiveness, including the adoption of a stern—a rounded, narrow transom that reduced drag while maintaining structural —and a pronounced hull, where the sides curved inward toward the deck to enhance balance under heavy loads. These features, combined with standardized construction techniques, enabled and drastically cut operational expenses by reducing required crew sizes from around 30–40 on comparable vessels to just 12–15 men, thanks to simplified and hull efficiency. Economically, the fluyt facilitated the vital "Mother Trade" along Baltic routes, transporting bulk goods like timber and grain that formed the foundation of Dutch commerce, while its versatility supported expansion into Asian and American trades through entities like the . This maritime dominance contributed to sustained economic growth during the , with per capita GDP increasing at approximately 0.2% annually, driven by shipping gains and volume increases. However, the fluyt's merchant-oriented design exposed vulnerabilities during the Anglo-Dutch Wars (1652–1674), where its light armament and lack of speed made it susceptible to English privateers and naval squadrons, prompting minor fortifications such as added gun ports on select vessels without fundamentally altering the core unarmed cargo configuration.

Design Features

Hull and Rigging

The fluyt's hull design emphasized efficiency and seaworthiness through a long, narrow beam structure, typically featuring a length-to-beam ratio of 4:1 to 6:1, which provided a streamlined profile for better handling in varied conditions. The hull was characterized by a rounded bow and stern, a flat bottom for shallow draft, and a bulbous shape that narrowed upwards toward the deck, often with tumblehome sides for added stability. Construction utilized carvel planking—smooth, edge-to-edge oak boards fastened to internal frames—allowing for a robust yet lightweight vessel with displacements generally between 200 and 400 tons. Tonnage figures typically refer to burthen (cargo capacity in volume-equivalent tons), with actual cargo weight varying by goods density. Waterline lengths for typical fluyts measured around 100 to 120 feet, enabling effective navigation along coastal and transoceanic routes. Construction techniques for the fluyt incorporated standardized molds and templates for framing, a Dutch innovation that facilitated repeatable hull shapes and significantly accelerated assembly in shipyards. These methods, often involving whole-moulding to define curves and alignments, leveraged efficient timber processing from Baltic sources like or . Minimal iron fittings were used to keep weight low, with the flat-bottomed design and vertical stem and sternposts further simplifying fabrication while maintaining structural integrity. The of the fluyt was a three-masted arrangement optimized for simplicity and performance in light to moderate winds prevalent on trade routes, consisting of square sails on the foremast and mainmast, a on the mizzenmast, and a beneath the . This configuration allowed for easy handling by a small , with total areas tailored to the hull's capabilities—such as the approximately 110 m² on the 1639 Zeehaen—prioritizing steady over speed. Shorter masts and simplified lines contributed to the vessel's economic operation without compromising seaworthiness. Stability was achieved through a low freeboard combined with heavy placement, which lowered the center of and permitted substantial loads while minimizing excessive listing under . The wide beam at the and deep further enhanced balance, though the could lead to rolling in ballast-only conditions; when laden, however, it provided reliable equilibrium for long voyages. These features underscored the fluyt's role in enabling efficient bulk transport.

Cargo Capacity and Efficiency

The fluyt's innovative hull design, characterized by a rounded cross-section and flush decking, maximized space by minimizing internal obstructions and , enabling holds to carry 100–400 tons (approximately 55–200 last) with 70–80% volume utilization. This capacity far exceeded that of contemporary vessels like galleons, which allocated significant to armaments and quarters, limiting their to about half the fluyt's volume for similar displacements. The ship's efficiency stemmed from its low operating costs, requiring only a of 10–20 men compared to over 50 for comparable galleons, thanks to a simplified that reduced labor needs. This design cut freight rates by 20–30% relative to rivals, while achieving speeds of 6–8 knots in favorable winds, prioritizing reliable volume transport over rapid passage. Economically, the fluyt's model favored high-volume, low-margin trade, achieving break-even profitability on Baltic routes through 4–6 round voyages annually, which underpinned Dutch by emphasizing bulk goods over high-value, speed-dependent cargoes. Its focus on capacity over versatility amplified trade volumes, contributing to the Dutch merchant fleet's dominance in the . Despite these advantages, the fluyt's deep-loaded stability and blunt hull shape compromised maneuverability in heavy seas, often necessitating protection by warships to mitigate risks from storms and privateers.

Operational Role

Merchant Trade

The fluyt served as the backbone of Dutch merchant trade during the , primarily facilitating transport across key global routes. In the Baltic "mother trade," fluyts carried essential commodities such as grain and timber, which constituted the majority of the Dutch Republic's imports and supported its growing urban population. These voyages targeted ports like Danzig and , where Dutch vessels dominated the lucrative exchange of northern European raw materials for manufactured goods. Beyond the Baltic, fluyts undertook Atlantic crossings to the , transporting , tobacco, and other colonial products back to European markets, often under the auspices of the . For long-distance Asian commerce, fluyts functioned as support vessels for the (VOC), aiding in the by shuttling intra-Asian cargoes between ports like Batavia, though larger retourschepen handled the primary Europe-bound legs. By the mid-17th century, fluyts handled a substantial portion of Europe's bulk cargoes through their sheer numbers and efficiency, particularly dominating Baltic trade where they comprised 70–90% of ships passing the Danish in the 1630s and 1640s, with the Dutch merchant marine reaching approximately 568,000 tons by 1670—roughly half the European total. This dominance was evident in the 1630s, when annual Baltic convoys often comprised over 200 fluyts, loading vast quantities of and timber to meet surging demand in the and beyond. Such volumes underscored the fluyt's role in scaling up trade, as thousands of these vessels were constructed specifically for Baltic and Atlantic routes, enabling consistent high-capacity shipments that outpaced competitors. Operational tactics emphasized safety and synchronization, with fluyts typically sailing in large convoys for mutual protection against and adverse weather, particularly on the exposed Baltic runs. Schedules were aligned with seasonal and ice-free periods, allowing departures from Dutch ports in spring and returns by autumn to maximize turnaround times. The design's low crew requirements—often half that of comparable vessels—further optimized these operations, reducing labor costs and permitting faster loading in shallow Baltic harbors. The economic significance of fluyt-based trade was profound, enabling the to control about 50% of European shipping tonnage and establishing as Europe's premier entrepôt. This maritime supremacy fueled rapid , with 's population tripling by 1650 as trade inflows supported industries like sugar refining and . By channeling bulk resources into the Republic's , fluyts not only sustained the prosperity but also positioned the Dutch as intermediaries in transcontinental commerce. While primarily designed as efficient carriers, the fluyt was adapted for limited roles through the addition of armament, resulting in variants known as "war fluyts" or armed merchantmen. These modifications typically involved mounting light cannons along the broadsides, with decks reinforced to accommodate during firing. Such adaptations allowed fluyts to provide defensive without significantly compromising their cargo capacity, though they remained lightly built compared to purpose-built warships. In the Anglo-Dutch Wars, fluyts played a notable auxiliary role, particularly as supply and vessels. During the (1652–1654), the rapidly expanded its naval forces by converting over 100 fluyts into armed auxiliaries, integrating them into fleets commanded by admirals like , who led squadrons exceeding 100 ships in total. These vessels supported major engagements by transporting troops, provisions, and munitions, leveraging their large holds for logistical sustainment while contributing light gunfire in fleet actions. Fluyts also saw use in privateering operations, especially in the during the 1620s, where Dutch raiders targeted Spanish shipping and settlements. Armed with minimal ordnance for and pursuit, these vessels exploited their shallow draft and speed in light winds to intercept prizes, aiding the ' colonial ambitions against Iberian dominance. Despite these adaptations, fluyts' inherent limitations—slow maneuverability, poor upwind performance, and basic hull vulnerabilities—made them unsuitable for frontline against agile frigates or heavily gunned ships of the line, confining them primarily to supportive and opportunistic roles.

Notable Examples

The Swan

No historical fluyt named The Swan from 1599 exists; this subsection has been removed due to factual inaccuracies.

Other Fluyt Ships

Beyond early prototypes, several other fluyt vessels exemplify the type's adaptability across trade, exploration, and military roles during the . These ships, adhering to the core fluyt design of a rounded hull, minimal deck space, and efficient for small crews, varied in scale to suit diverse operations. Larger "great fluyts," often exceeding 400 tons (measured in last, where 1 last ≈ 2 tons), were optimized for long-haul voyages to , carrying spices, textiles, and other high-value cargoes with crews as few as 40-50 men despite capacities up to 800 tons. In contrast, smaller coastal variants, typically 100-200 last (200-400 tons), facilitated and Baltic fisheries and short-haul trade, leveraging their shallow draft for navigating sandbars and estuaries while transporting , timber, and . The prototype fluyt, developed by merchant Pieter Jansz Liorne in around 1595, incorporated key innovations like a pear-shaped hull and simplified , laying the foundation for the type without a specific recorded name. One prominent example is the Zeehaen, a VOC fluyt launched in 1639 with a burden over 170 last (approximately 340 tons), which served as a cargo and exploration vessel under explorer . In 1642, it accompanied the Heemskerck on a voyage from Batavia, charting parts of , , and —the first European sighting of the latter—while carrying provisions and trade goods to expand Dutch influence in the southern Pacific. This mission highlighted the fluyt's role in collective exploration efforts, supporting VOC ambitions beyond mere commerce by enabling sustained voyages with limited manpower. The Gulden Phenix, a substantial retourschip of around 400 last (800 tons) built for the VOC in the 1650s, exemplified the great fluyt's prowess in routes. Operating between the and until at least 1665, it transported pepper, cloves, and on return legs from Batavia, benefiting from the type's vast hold capacity that minimized operational costs and maximized profits in the competitive intra-Asian network. Similarly, the Noordster example has been removed due to inaccurate historical details. Archaeological preservation of fluyts provides insights into their construction and daily use. The Avondster, a 250-last (500-ton) VOC intra-Asian trader wrecked in 1659 off Bay, , after two prior groundings, has yielded artifacts such as Chinese martavans (porcelain jars) and navigational tools, revealing the ship's lightweight planking and cargo-handling features tailored for tropical routes. These finds, excavated between 1993 and 2004, underscore the fluyt's vulnerability to monsoons yet its enduring impact on global exchange.

Legacy

Influence on Shipbuilding

The fluyt's innovative design, emphasizing cargo maximization and operational efficiency, rapidly spread beyond the , influencing European maritime practices by the mid-17th century. In , the vessel was adopted and termed a "fly-boat," with early examples including Henry Hudson's Discovery (1610–1611), which facilitated North American exploration and . This adoption stemmed from the fluyt's slender hull and reduced crew needs, which Dutch shipbuilding guilds disseminated through journeymen and networks, impacting British designs like kofs and galliots. In , the concept inspired the naval term "en flûte," referring to warships reconfigured as transports by removing armaments to increase cargo space, mirroring the fluyt's unarmed, efficiency-focused profile. The fluyt's principles of hull optimization—featuring a high length-to-beam (up to 6:1), flat-bottomed construction, and minimal superstructure—profoundly shaped 18th-century merchant . These elements carried forward into designs like the East Indiamen of the (VOC), where fluyts handled intra-Asian bulk trade, boosting efficiency and enabling the VOC's global network from to . By prioritizing and capacity over armament or speed, the fluyt model persisted in European merchantmen, fostering a shift toward specialized bulk carriers that lowered transport costs for commodities like and timber. Despite its enduring influence, the fluyt declined in the late as demands for faster vessels outpaced its capabilities. It was gradually superseded by more versatile full-rigged ships and, ultimately, steam-powered vessels around 1800, which better suited expanding naval and imperial needs. In the Baltic trade, where fluyts had dominated since the late , their use waned by the mid-18th century, replaced by smaller, more agile types like koffs amid rising competition from English and Swedish fleets. Overall, the fluyt catalyzed a transition from multi-purpose galleons to dedicated merchant hulls, enhancing colonial economies by enabling affordable, high-volume trade that underpinned the Dutch Republic's dominance—its merchant fleet reaching 568,000 tons by 1670, exceeding rivals combined. This specialization facilitated the VOC's multinational operations, which reached a peak of 78 million guilders by the end of the seventeenth century, and set precedents for efficient global commerce.

Replicas and Reconstructions

One notable full-scale replica is the Half Moon, constructed in 1989 in , as a reconstruction of the 1609 Dutch fluyt that carried on his exploratory voyage. Measuring approximately 85 feet in length with a beam of 17 feet, the vessel was built using traditional Dutch techniques at the Snow Dock to emphasize the original's pear-shaped hull and efficient . It operated as a working , conducting educational sails along the and hosting a sea cadet program to teach young participants traditional and navigation skills. Relocated to , , in 2015 amid financial challenges, the replica operated there until 2019, when local support ended. It was subsequently dismantled around 2020 due to escalating maintenance costs and lack of funding, with its oak timbers preserved for potential use in a future reconstruction. Another significant example is the , launched in 2000 in , , replicating the 1773 Dutch-built fluyt that transported Scottish immigrants across the Atlantic. At 85 feet long with three masts and a displacement of around 200 tons, the replica faithfully reproduces the fluyt's characteristic sides and shallow draft for maximizing cargo space. Docked at the Hector Heritage Quay, it functions primarily as a offering deck tours and harbor excursions powered by auxiliary solar propulsion, while interpreting the vessel's role in early colonial migration. Undergoing major restoration from 2023 onward—including hull planking, blacksmithing for fittings, and structural reinforcements to meet contemporary safety standards—the ship was successfully relaunched in July 2025 after a $1.2 million CAD investment. In addition to full-scale builds, several museum-scale models contribute to educational and research efforts. The Kaap Skil Maritime & Beach Museum in , , features a detailed cross-section model of a 17th-century fluyt, allowing visitors to examine the interior layout, holds, and to understand the ship's operational efficiency. Similarly, the New Bedford Whaling Museum houses a rare 17th-century Dutch fluytschip model, one of only two surviving examples, which highlights adaptations for voyages and informs studies on fluyt versatility. These models support hydrodynamic research through scaled testing; for instance, 2000s experiments with fluyt-inspired hull forms in towing tanks have analyzed stability and resistance, confirming the design's low drag coefficients for laden conditions. Contemporary reconstruction projects face substantial hurdles, including adherence to modern maritime regulations that necessitate steel reinforcements for hull integrity and absent in original designs. Full-scale builds often exceed $1 million USD, as seen in the Hector's recent refurbishment, compounded by sourcing period-accurate timber like amid supply shortages and skilled labor demands. Despite these obstacles, initiatives like the Half Moon's planned successor underscore ongoing commitment to preserving fluyt heritage through operational vessels for public engagement.

References

  1. https://exploration.marinersmuseum.org/watercraft/fluit/
  2. https://www.dhm.de/mediathek/en/ship-types/milestones-in-the-history-of-european-shipbuilding/09-fluyt/
  3. https://kaapskil.nl/en/discover/collection-highlights/fluyt-ship-cross-section/
  4. https://encyclopedia.nahc-mapping.org/node/21165
  5. https://journals.openedition.org/archaeonautica/754
  6. https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/10572414.2024.2413068
  7. https://dare.uva.nl/document/2/47038
  8. https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/eb60/d00a1afff8af4fd1e1c17841d777be775946.pdf
  9. https://www.academia.edu/126435408/Innovation_institutions_and_migration_transfer_of_technology_in_Dutch_shipbuilding_500_1700
  10. https://dokumen.pub/the-eighty-years-war-from-revolt-to-regular-war-1568-1648-9789087283339-9789400604988.html
  11. https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/how-transformative-innovations-shaped-the-rise-of-nations/fluyt-and-the-building-of-the-dutch-empire/C3B419B5B207CA412BAD09274B674B8D
  12. https://brill.com/display/book/9789004426344/BP000011.xml
  13. https://www.britannica.com/technology/ship/17th-century-developments
  14. https://diving-rov-specialists.com/index_htm_files/arch_151-a-17th-century-fluit-wreck.pdf
  15. https://www.rug.nl/ggdc/historicaldevelopment/maddison/publications/wp14.pdf
  16. https://mass.cultureelerfgoed.nl/dutch-fluyt
  17. https://www.oxfordreference.com/display/10.1093/oi/authority.20110803095825642
  18. https://www.mpiwg-berlin.mpg.de/sites/default/files/Preprints/P245.pdf
  19. https://www.captaincooksociety.com/cooks-life/cooks-ships/the-ships-cook-sailed-in/fluyts-and-katts
  20. https://www.ostia-antica.org/fulltext/houston/houston-1988.pdf
  21. https://www.guampedia.com/manila-galleon-crew-members/
  22. https://media.fupress.com/files/pdf/24/13618/37618
  23. https://www.academia.edu/27270969/Roots_of_growth_and_productivity_change_in_Dutch_shipping_industry_1500_1800
  24. https://www.quora.com/Say-you-outfitted-a-Dutch-Fluyt-sailing-ship-with-guns-and-a-large-crew-How-would-you-go-about-rearming-it-from-a-cargo-ship-to-an-effective-warship-and-could-it-rival-a-frigate
  25. https://eh.net/encyclopedia/the-dutch-economy-in-the-golden-age-16th-17th-centuries/
  26. https://www.academia.edu/35702909/THE_COROLLA_WRECK_EXPOSED_HISTORICAL_ARCHAEOLOGICAL_ANALYSIS_OF_NORTH_CAROLINA_S_OLDEST_SHIPWRECK
  27. https://www.armyupress.army.mil/Portals/7/combat-studies-institute/csi-books/OP32_Piracy.pdf
  28. https://www.americanhistorycentral.com/entries/first-anglo-dutch-war/
  29. https://www.ebsco.com/research-starters/history/anglo-dutch-wars
  30. https://www.jstor.org/stable/40107087
  31. https://medium.com/@michaelzibulevsky/from-viking-longships-to-the-dutch-fluyt-the-maritime-innovations-that-changed-the-world-97799c06b263
  32. https://collections.sea.museum/objects/40202/dutch-fluyt-zeehaen
  33. https://journals.openedition.org/archaeonautica/754?lang=en
  34. https://brill.com/display/book/9789004194403/9789004194403_webready_content_text.pdf
  35. https://www.cse.iitk.ac.in/users/amit/books/parthesius-2010-dutch-ships-in.html
  36. https://www.newyorkalmanack.com/2015/03/replica-half-moon-leaves-ny-waters/
  37. https://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/nova-scotia/historic-nova-scotia-ship-that-led-to-wave-of-scottish-immigrants-relaunched-1.7583808
  38. https://www.shiphectorcampaign.com/experience
  39. https://newbedford.emuseum.com/objects/186864/dutch-fluytschip
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