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German grammar
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The grammar of the German language is quite similar to that of the other Germanic languages. Although some features of German grammar, such as the formation of some of the verb forms, resemble those of English, German grammar differs from that of English in that it has, among other things, cases and gender in nouns and a strict verb-second word order in main clauses.
German has retained many of the grammatical distinctions that other Germanic languages have lost in whole or in part. There are three genders and four cases, and verbs are conjugated for person and number. Accordingly, German has more inflections than English, and uses more suffixes. For example, in comparison to the -s added to third-person singular present-tense verbs in English, most German verbs employ four different suffixes for the conjugation of present-tense verbs, namely -e for the first-person singular, -st for the informal second-person singular, -t for the third-person singular and for the informal second-person plural, and -en for the first- and third-person plural, as well as for the formal second-person singular/plural.
Owing to the gender and case distinctions, the articles have more possible forms. In addition, some prepositions combine with some of the articles (e.g. In dem ---> Im).
Numerals are similar to other Germanic languages. Unlike modern English, Swedish, Norwegian, Icelandic and Faroese, units are placed before tens as in Afrikaans, Early Modern English, Danish, Dutch, Yiddish and Frisian, e.g. twenty-one: one-and-twenty.
Nouns
[edit]Gender
[edit]Students of German are often advised to learn German nouns with their accompanying definite article, as the definite article of a German noun corresponds to the gender of the noun. However, the meaning or form, especially the ending, of a noun can be used to recognize 80% of noun genders.[1] For instance, nouns ending in the suffixes -heit, -keit, -ung, -schaft or -tät are always feminine.[2]
Case
[edit]Articles
[edit]Adjectives
[edit]Declension of adjectives
[edit]Pronouns
[edit]Adverbial phrases
[edit]Verbs
[edit]Separable verbs
[edit]Conjugation
[edit]Modal particles
[edit]Sentence structure
[edit]German sentence structure is similar to other Germanic languages in its use of V2 word order.
See also
[edit]References
[edit]- ^ Durrell & Hammer 2002, pp. 1–10.
- ^ Marian, Jakub. "How to recognize gender in German using suffixes". www.jakubmarian.com. Retrieved 2020-12-29.
Bibliography
[edit]- Durrell, Martin; Hammer, A.E. (2002). Hammer's German Grammar and Usage (Fourth ed.). McGraw-Hill. ISBN 978-0-07-139654-7.
- Hawkins, John A. (2015-07-03). A Comparative Typology of English and German: Unifying the Contrasts. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-317-41972-3.
- Wietusch, Gudrun (2006). Grundkurs Grammatik. Cornelsen. ISBN 978-3-464-61805-9
- Pahlow, Heike (2010). Deutsche Grammatik - einfach, kompakt und übersichtlich. Engelsdorfer Verlag, Leipzig. ISBN 978-3-86268-012-2
External links
[edit]
Wikibooks has a book on the topic of: German
- Deutsch-ueben tk blog – German Grammar exercises for all levels with explanations in German.
- German Grammar – Toms Deutschseite – German grammar explained by a native speaker (in English)
- German Grammar Lessons – German grammar lessons along with exercises
- Lingolia German Grammar – German Grammar explanations with exercises
- German grammar overview German grammar (in English) (+ multiple choice test) explained by a native speaker.
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German grammar
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Nouns
Gender
In German, grammatical gender is an inherent lexical property of every noun, classifying it into one of three categories—masculine, feminine, or neuter—regardless of the noun's referent's biological or natural gender. This system, a remnant of Proto-Indo-European noun classes, requires speakers to memorize or infer the gender of each noun, as it does not always align with semantic expectations; for instance, inanimate objects like der Tisch (the table) are masculine despite lacking any male connotation. The gender assignment combines semantic and morphological principles, with semantic rules often applying to animate nouns and morphological suffixes providing reliable cues for many others.[6] Semantic rules primarily govern nouns referring to humans and animals: those denoting males are typically masculine (e.g., der Mann 'the man', der Löwe 'the lion'), females feminine (e.g., die Frau 'the woman', die Löwin 'the lioness'), and young offspring or infants neuter (e.g., das Kind 'the child', das Fohlen 'the foal'). Languages, infinitive nouns, and certain abstract concepts also tend toward neuter (e.g., das Deutsch 'the German language'). Morphological rules, based on suffixes, offer stronger predictability: masculine nouns often end in -er (e.g., der Lehrer 'the teacher'), -ling (e.g., der Schüler 'the student'), or -ismus (e.g., der Tourismus 'tourism'); feminine nouns in -ung (e.g., die Zeitung 'the newspaper'), -heit (e.g., die Freiheit 'freedom'), or -keit (e.g., die Möglichkeit 'possibility'); and neuter nouns in -chen (e.g., das Mädchen 'the girl') or -lein (e.g., das Büchlein 'the little book'). These patterns cover a significant portion of the vocabulary but are probabilistic rather than absolute, with about 46% of nouns feminine, 34% masculine, and 20% neuter overall.[6][7][8] Gender profoundly influences grammatical agreement, dictating the forms of definite and indefinite articles (der/die/das, ein/eine/ein), attributive adjectives (e.g., ein großer Tisch 'a big table' vs. eine große Tür 'a big door'), and pronouns (e.g., er for masculine, sie for feminine or plural, es for neuter). This agreement extends throughout noun phrases and clauses, ensuring syntactic cohesion but posing challenges for learners due to the system's opacity for many nouns. Gender also interacts with case marking in noun declensions, though the specifics of those forms are addressed separately.[9] Common exceptions and irregularities arise, particularly with loanwords (e.g., das Joghurt or der Joghurt regionally) and compound nouns, where gender follows the Last Member Principle: the gender of the final (head) constituent determines the whole (e.g., der Dampf 'the steam' [masculine] + die Maschine 'the machine' [feminine] = die Dampfmaschine 'the steam engine' [feminine]). This principle applies to most compounds, overriding individual elements' genders, though rare conflicts or lexical overrides occur in established terms. Such irregularities underscore the need for rote learning alongside rule application.[10][7]Cases
German grammar employs a system of four cases—nominative, accusative, dative, and genitive—to indicate the grammatical function of nouns and pronouns within a sentence, allowing for relatively flexible word order compared to languages like English.[11] The nominative case primarily marks the subject of a finite clause, identifying the entity performing the action, as in Der Mann sieht den Hund ("The man sees the dog"), where der Mann is nominative.[11] The accusative case denotes the direct object receiving the action, such as den Hund in the same sentence, and is also required by certain verbs and prepositions.[11] The dative case indicates indirect objects, beneficiaries, or recipients, often governed by verbs like helfen ("to help"), as in Dem Hund helfe ich ("I help the dog").[11] The genitive case expresses possession or relations like origin, as in des Mannes Hut ("the man's hat"), though it is increasingly rare in everyday use.[11] Case is realized primarily through changes in determiners and adjectives, but nouns themselves exhibit limited inflectional endings that vary by gender, number, and declension class. Strong nouns, which form the majority, show minimal case markers: masculine and neuter nouns typically add -es or -s in the genitive singular (e.g., des Mannes, "of the man"; des Hauses, "of the house"), while feminine nouns and all nominative/accusative forms often remain unchanged. Weak nouns, mostly masculine and ending in -e or -er in the nominative singular (e.g., der Junge, "the boy"; der Name, "the name"), add -n or -en in all other cases and numbers. In the plural, weak forms consistently take -n or -en in the dative and genitive (e.g., den Jungen, dative plural), regardless of the base plural ending. Gender influences these endings, as masculine and neuter nouns are more likely to show distinct markers in the dative singular (e.g., dem Mann, "to the man") and genitive singular.[12] The following table illustrates case endings for representative strong and weak nouns across genders and number (endings shown after the base form; determiners omitted for focus on nouns):| Case | Masculine Strong (Mann, "man") | Masculine Weak (Junge, "boy") | Feminine (Frau, "woman") | Neuter (Kind, "child") | Plural Strong (Männer, "men") | Plural Weak (Jungen, "boys") |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Nominative | Mann-∅ | Junge-∅ | Frau-∅ | Kind-∅ | Männer-∅ | Jungen-∅ |
| Accusative | Mann-∅ | Jungen | Frau-∅ | Kind-∅ | Männer-∅ | Jungen |
| Dative | Mann-(e) | Jungen | Frau-∅ | Kind-∅ | Männern | Jungen |
| Genitive | Mann-(e)s | Jungen | Frau-∅ | Kind-(e)s | Männer-∅ | Jungen |
Plural Formation
German nouns form their plurals through a combination of suffixation and, in some cases, stem vowel changes called umlauts, resulting in several distinct morphological patterns. These patterns are not entirely predictable but show tendencies based on the noun's gender and etymological origin. All plural nouns, regardless of their singular gender, are grammatically feminine and take the definite article die in the nominative and accusative cases.[15] The primary plural suffixes include -e, -er, -(e)n, -s, and zero marking, with frequencies varying across noun corpora. In a dataset derived from Wiktionary covering German noun inflections, -(e)n accounts for 44.7% of plurals, -e for 26.3%, zero marking for 16.9%, -s for 5.4%, and -er for 3.5%. Masculine and neuter nouns tend to use -e or -er, while feminine nouns predominantly take -(e)n; however, masculines exhibit the most variation among the genders.[16][15] Nouns forming plurals with -e often involve an umlaut on the stem vowel if it is a, o, u, or au, changing to ä, ö, ü, or äu respectively; this applies to about 90% of qualifying masculine nouns and many neuters. For example, der Apfel (apple) becomes die Äpfel, and das Pferd (horse) becomes die Pferde (without umlaut). The -er suffix, typical for around 20% of neuter nouns and some masculines, almost always includes an umlaut, as in das Kind (child) → die Kinder or der Mann (man) → die Männer.[15][15] The -(e)n suffix is added to most feminine nouns, particularly those ending in -e, -el, or -er, and to certain weak masculine nouns, without umlaut; examples include die Frau (woman) → die Frauen and der Name (name) → die Namen. It also applies to abstract nouns with suffixes like -ei, -heit, or -ung, such as die Freiheit (freedom) → die Freiheiten. The -s ending is reserved mainly for loanwords, abbreviations, and family names, like das Auto (car) → die Autos or die DVD → die DVDs. Zero-marked plurals occur with some nouns that show only umlaut or no change, such as der Löffel (spoon) → die Löffel. Umlaut insertion appears in approximately 20% of cases overall, primarily with -e and -er formations but occasionally with zero marking.[15][15][17] In compound nouns, pluralization affects only the head (final) noun, following its standard pattern while the modifying elements remain unchanged; for instance, der Haus + der Schlüssel (house key) forms der Hausschlüssel → die Hausschlüssel. Exceptions include invariable plurals like die Leute (people), which take no suffix or umlaut, and diminutives ending in -chen or -lein, which remain formally singular but function as plurals, such as das Mädchen (girl) → die Mädchen. These patterns ensure plural agreement in gender but are independent of case inflections.[15][15]Determiners and Adjectives
Definite and Indefinite Articles
In German grammar, definite articles correspond to the English "the" and agree in gender, number, and case with the noun they modify, reflecting the noun's grammatical role in the sentence. The definite article paradigm is as follows:| Case | Masculine | Feminine | Neuter | Plural |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Nominative | der | die | das | die |
| Accusative | den | die | das | die |
| Dative | dem | der | dem | den |
| Genitive | des | der | des | der |
| Case | Masculine | Feminine | Neuter |
|---|---|---|---|
| Nominative | ein | eine | ein |
| Accusative | einen | eine | ein |
| Dative | einem | einer | einem |
| Genitive | eines | einer | eines |
Adjective Declension
In German, attributive adjectives—those positioned before the noun they describe—inflect to agree in gender, number, and case with the noun, following one of three declension paradigms determined by the preceding determiner. The strong declension applies when no article or possessive precedes the adjective, requiring full endings to convey grammatical information. The weak declension is used after definite articles (der, die, das) or similar demonstrative determiners (der-words like dieser, jeder), featuring simplified endings since the determiner already indicates much of the case and gender. The mixed declension occurs after indefinite articles (ein, eine, ein) or possessives (mein, dein), blending strong endings in nominative and accusative singular with weak endings elsewhere.[26] The following tables present the standard endings for each paradigm in attributive position, applicable across all four cases (nominative, accusative, dative, genitive) and genders (masculine, feminine, neuter, plural). These paradigms hold for base-form adjectives; exceptions include adjectives ending in -el, -en, or -er (which drop the -e- before adding endings, e.g., dunkel becomes dunklem) and certain loanwords or colors (e.g., lila, which take no endings).[27][28][29] Strong Declension (no preceding article)| Case | Masculine | Feminine | Neuter | Plural |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Nominative | -er | -e | -es | -e |
| Accusative | -en | -e | -es | -e |
| Dative | -em | -er | -em | -en |
| Genitive | -en | -er | -en | -er |
| Case | Masculine | Feminine | Neuter | Plural |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Nominative | -e | -e | -e | -en |
| Accusative | -en | -e | -e | -en |
| Dative | -en | -en | -en | -en |
| Genitive | -en | -en | -en | -en |
| Case | Masculine | Feminine | Neuter | Plural |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Nominative | -er | -e | -es | -en |
| Accusative | -en | -e | -es | -en |
| Dative | -en | -en | -en | -en |
| Genitive | -en | -en | -en | -en |
Possessive Determiners
Possessive determiners in German, also known as possessive adjectives, are words such as mein (my), dein (your informal singular), sein (his/its), ihr (her/their informal), unser (our), euer (your informal plural), and Ihr (your formal singular or plural), which precede and modify nouns to indicate ownership, possession, or a close relationship between the possessor and the possessed item.[32] These determiners agree in gender, number, and case with the noun they modify, rather than the gender of the possessor, and they do not distinguish gender for third-person possessors—sein serves for both masculine (his) and neuter (its), while ihr covers feminine (her) and plural informal (their).[32] Unlike standalone possessive pronouns, these forms always require a following noun or noun phrase and function attributively within the noun phrase.[33] The declension of possessive determiners follows the pattern of indefinite articles (ein, eine, etc.), known as the mixed or ein-word declension, where endings are added to the base form based on the noun's grammatical properties across the four cases (nominative, accusative, dative, genitive) and three genders (masculine, feminine, neuter), as well as plural.[33] For example, using mein as the base (with other bases declining identically):| Case | Masculine | Feminine | Neuter | Plural |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Nominative | mein (Hund) | meine (Katze) | mein (Haus) | meine (Häuser) |
| Accusative | meinen (Hund) | meine (Katze) | mein (Haus) | meine (Häuser) |
| Dative | meinem (Hund) | meiner (Katze) | meinem (Haus) | meinen (Häusern) |
| Genitive | meines (Hundes) | meiner (Katze) | meines (Hauses) | meiner (Häuser) |
Pronouns
Personal and Reflexive Pronouns
Personal pronouns in German replace nouns to refer to specific individuals or entities, inflecting for person (first, second, third), number (singular or plural), gender (in the third person singular), and case to indicate grammatical function. They play a central role in sentence structure, serving as subjects in the nominative case or as objects in oblique cases, and distinguish between informal and formal address.[39][40] In the nominative case, which identifies the subject, the forms are ich (I), du (you, informal singular), er (he), sie (she), es (it), wir (we), ihr (you, informal plural), sie (they), and Sie (you, formal singular and plural). The third-person singular forms agree in gender with the antecedent noun: masculine nouns take er, feminine take sie, and neuter take es. The formal Sie, always capitalized, conveys respect or politeness and functions like the second-person plural in verb conjugation.[39][40] For oblique cases, personal pronouns adopt distinct forms to mark their role as direct or indirect objects, following the broader German case system. The following table summarizes the declension across nominative, accusative, and dative cases (genitive forms, such as meiner or dir, are archaic and rarely used in modern speech, often replaced by prepositional phrases like von mir).[41][42][40]| Person | Nominative (Subject) | Accusative (Direct Object) | Dative (Indirect Object) |
|---|---|---|---|
| 1st Singular | ich | mich | mir |
| 2nd Singular Informal | du | dich | dir |
| 3rd Singular Masculine | er | ihn | ihm |
| 3rd Singular Feminine | sie | sie | ihr |
| 3rd Singular Neuter | es | es | ihm |
| 1st Plural | wir | uns | uns |
| 2nd Plural Informal | ihr | euch | euch |
| 3rd Plural | sie | sie | ihnen |
| 2nd Formal (Singular/Plural) | Sie | Sie | Ihnen |
Demonstrative and Indefinite Pronouns
In German grammar, demonstrative pronouns (Demonstrativpronomen) refer to specific entities in the discourse, often indicating spatial or temporal proximity or distance, and function either as standalone pronouns or pronominal adjectives modifying nouns.[2] The primary forms include der, die, das (used for "that" or general reference), dieser, diese, dieses (for "this" or near reference), and jener, jene, jenes (for "that" or distant reference).[46] These pronouns decline according to gender, number, and case, following patterns similar to definite articles, with der/die/das matching the definite article exactly in most cases except genitive singular (dessen or deren) and dative plural (denen).[2] For example, dieser in the nominative singular masculine is dieser, becoming diesen in the accusative and diesem in the dative; the full paradigm for dieser (strong declension) is shown below:| Case | Masculine | Feminine | Neuter | Plural |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Nominative | dieser | diese | dieses | diese |
| Accusative | diesen | diese | dieses | diese |
| Dative | diesem | dieser | diesem | diesen |
| Genitive | dieses | dieser | dieses | dieser |
Relative Pronouns
Relative pronouns in German introduce subordinate clauses that provide additional information about a noun or pronoun (the antecedent) in the main clause. These pronouns connect the relative clause to the antecedent and must agree with it in gender and number, while their case is determined by their syntactic role within the relative clause itself. The most common relative pronouns are inflected forms of der/die/das (used for both restrictive and non-restrictive clauses) and welcher/welche/welches (primarily in restrictive clauses and more formal registers). Additionally, was serves as a relative pronoun for neuter antecedents, indefinite or impersonal references, or entire clauses, while wer is used for indefinite human antecedents meaning "whoever."[49][50] The forms of der/die/das as relative pronouns follow the definite article paradigm but extend to all cases, including genitive (dessen, deren). For example, in the nominative: der (masculine singular), die (feminine singular or plural), das (neuter singular); in the accusative: den (masculine), die (feminine or plural), das (neuter); in the dative: dem (masculine or neuter), der (feminine), denen (plural); in the genitive: dessen (masculine or neuter), deren (feminine or plural). The welcher series declines similarly to interrogative welcher, with forms like welcher (masculine nominative), welche (feminine nominative or accusative plural), welches (neuter nominative or accusative). Was remains invariant and is used without gender agreement, as in references to neuter nouns like das Haus or abstract concepts.[49][50] Agreement rules require the relative pronoun to match the antecedent's gender and number but adopt the case required by its function in the relative clause, which typically follows subordinate word order with the finite verb at the end. Prepositions governing the pronoun determine its case, such as dative after mit or accusative after für. For instance, with a masculine antecedent like der Mann (nominative in the main clause), the pronoun is der if it is the subject of the relative clause (Der Mann, der kommt), but den if the direct object (Der Mann, den ich sehe). With a neuter antecedent like das Buch, das is used in nominative (Das Buch, das ich lese would actually use das for nominative but das remains the same; for accusative, it stays das). In genitive constructions, possession is expressed with dessen or deren, as in Die Frau, deren Sohn studiert (feminine antecedent). The welcher forms follow the same agreement, e.g., Das Buch, welches ich lese (neuter accusative).[49][50] The following table summarizes the declension of der/die/das as relative pronouns for singular forms:| Case | Masculine | Feminine | Neuter |
|---|---|---|---|
| Nominative | der | die | das |
| Accusative | den | die | das |
| Dative | dem | der | dem |
| Genitive | dessen | deren | dessen |
Verbs
Verb Conjugation
German verbs are classified into three main categories based on their conjugation patterns: weak (regular), strong (irregular), and mixed verbs. Weak verbs form the past tenses by adding specific endings to the stem without vowel changes, while strong verbs involve stem-vowel alterations (ablaut) in the past and participle forms. Mixed verbs combine elements of both, featuring vowel changes but weak endings. This classification affects how verbs conjugate across tenses, with approximately 200 strong verbs and a smaller number of mixed ones in common use.[53] In the present tense (Präsens), conjugation follows a standard pattern for most verbs, with endings added to the infinitive stem after removing -en: -e for ich, -st for du, -t for er/sie/es, -en for wir, -t for ihr, and -en for sie/Sie. Weak verbs like spielen (to play) conjugate as ich spiele, du spielst, er spielt, wir spielen, ihr spielt, sie spielen. However, some strong and mixed verbs exhibit stem changes, such as e to i in sehen (to see): ich sehe, du siehst, er sieht, wir sehen, ihr seht, sie sehen. These changes occur in the du and er/sie/es forms for certain verbs to reflect historical vowel gradation.[54][53] The past tenses include the simple past (Präteritum or Imperfekt), used primarily in written narratives, and the present perfect (Perfekt), common in spoken language. For weak verbs, the Präteritum adds -te to the stem: spielen becomes ich spielte, du spieltest, er spielte, wir spielten, ihr spieltet, sie spielten. Strong verbs like singen (to sing) use ablaut without -te: ich sang, du sangst, er sang, wir sangen, ihr sangt, sie sangen. Mixed verbs, such as denken (to think), blend patterns with a vowel change and -te: ich dachte, du dachtest, er dachte, wir dachten, ihr dachtet, sie dachten. The Perfekt is formed with haben (or sein for motion/change-of-state verbs) in the present tense plus the past participle (Partizip II): weak verbs end in -t (gespielt), strong in ge-...-en (gesungen), and mixed similarly with vowel change (gedacht). Example: Ich habe gespielt (I played).[53][55] The future tense (Futur I) is a periphrastic construction using the present tense of werden (I will become) followed by the infinitive of the main verb at the sentence end. For spielen, it conjugates as ich werde spielen, du wirst spielen, er wird spielen, wir werden spielen, ihr werdet spielen, sie werden spielen. This form expresses future actions or intentions, unlike the present tense which can also imply near future through context.[56][57] The subjunctive mood (Konjunktiv) handles hypothetical or indirect speech, with basic forms derived from indicative tenses. The present subjunctive (Konjunktiv I) uses endings like -e (ich), -est (du) for weak verbs, often identical to the indicative except in strong verbs with umlaut (e.g., ich habe, du habest from haben). For hypotheticals, the past subjunctive (Konjunktiv II) bases on the Präteritum: weak verbs add -e (e.g., ich spielte), strong verbs umlaut the vowel if possible (e.g., singen → ich sänge), and mixed follow suit (denken → ich dächte). These forms convey unreality or politeness.[58][59]| Tense/Form | Weak Example: spielen | Strong Example: singen | Mixed Example: denken |
|---|---|---|---|
| Present (ich/du/er) | spiele/spielst/spielt | singe/singst/singt | denke/denkst/denkt |
| Präteritum (ich/du/er) | spielte/spieltest/spielte | sang/sangst/sang | dachte/dachtest/dachte |
| Partizip II | gespielt | gesungen | gedacht |
| Future (ich) | werde spielen | werde singen | werde denken |
| Konj. II (ich) | spielte | sänge | dächte |
Modal Verbs
Modal verbs in German, known as Modalverben, are a class of auxiliary verbs that express modality, including ability, obligation, permission, volition, and likelihood. The six primary modal verbs are dürfen (to be allowed to), können (to be able to, can), mögen (to like), müssen (to have to, must), sollen (to be supposed to, shall), and wollen (to want to).[60] These verbs are defective, meaning they lack certain forms like the present participle, and they conjugate irregularly in the present tense while sharing a common pattern in other tenses.[60] In the present tense, modal verbs follow a stem change where the infinitive ending -en is dropped, and endings are added: -Ø (ich), -st (du), -Ø (er/sie/es), -en (wir), -t (ihr), -en (sie/Sie). Specific forms include: darf/darfst/darf/dürfen/dürft/dürfen for dürfen; kann/kannst/kann/können/könnt/können for können; mag/magst/mag/mögen/mögt/mögen for mögen; muss/musst/muss/müssen/müsst/müssen for müssen; soll/sollst/soll/sollen/sollt/sollen for sollen; and will/willst/will/wollen/wollt/wollen for wollen.[60] When used with a main verb, the modal takes the second position in the clause, and the main verb appears in its infinitive form at the end, as in Ich kann schwimmen (I can swim).[60] The past participle of the modal is not used in such constructions; instead, the main verb's participle is employed if needed elsewhere.[61] For past tenses, modal verbs form the simple past by adding -te to the stem (often without umlauts), yielding forms like durfte/durfte/durfte/durften for dürfen, konnte/konnte/konnte/konnten for können, musste/musste/musste/mussten for müssen, mochte/mochtest/mo chte/mochten for mögen, sollte/sollte/sollte/sollten for sollen, and wollte/wollte/wollte/wollten for wollen.[61] In the perfect tense (Perfekt), they combine with haben and form a double infinitive construction when paired with another verb: the infinitive of the main verb followed by the infinitive of the modal, as in Ich habe schwimmen können (I have been able to swim).[61] This structure applies similarly in the past perfect (Plusquamperfekt), such as Ich hatte schwimmen können (I had been able to swim).[61] Subjunctive forms of modal verbs are used for hypothetical situations, politeness, or indirect speech. The subjunctive II (Konjunktiv II) often employs the simple past as its base, like könnte (could, might) from können, or müsste (would have to) from müssen, for politeness in requests such as Könnten Sie mir helfen? (Could you help me?).[58] In past subjunctive contexts with another verb, the construction uses hätte plus the infinitive of the modal and the main verb, as in Ich hätte gehen können (I could have gone).[58] Subjunctive I (Konjunktiv I) is rarer and formal, typically for reported speech, with forms like er dürfe (he may, reportedly).[58] Semantically, modal verbs distinguish between deontic (agent-oriented, involving permission or obligation, e.g., Du musst gehen for "You must go" as a directive) and epistemic (speaker-oriented, expressing inference or possibility, e.g., Er muss krank sein for "He must be sick" as a conclusion).[62] For instance, müssen conveys necessity in deontic uses but probability in epistemic ones, while können indicates ability deontically or possibility epistemically.[62] These nuances arise from the verbs' grammaticalization paths in Germanic languages.[62]Prefix Verbs
Prefix verbs in German, also known as prefixed verbs, consist of a base verb combined with a prefix that modifies its meaning, often deriving from prepositions or adverbs. These verbs are categorized primarily into separable and inseparable types, with a few mixed cases; the prefix influences not only semantics but also morphological behavior during conjugation and sentence positioning.[63][64][65] Separable prefix verbs feature prefixes that detach from the verb stem in certain constructions, particularly in main clauses, where the prefix moves to the end of the clause. The stress falls on the root verb, as in aufmáchen (to open), and the prefix often carries directional or locative meanings derived from prepositions. Common separable prefixes include over 20, such as an- (on/toward, e.g., anfangen – to begin: Ich fange das Meeting an.), auf- (up/open, e.g., aufmachen – to open: Ich mache die Tür auf.), aus- (out, e.g., ausgehen – to go out), ab- (away/off, e.g., abfahren – to depart), durch- (through, e.g., durchfahren – to pass through: Die Züge fahren durch.), ein- (in, e.g., eintreten – to enter), mit- (with, e.g., mitbringen – to bring along), nach- (after, e.g., nachlaufen – to run after), vor- (before, e.g., vorschlagen – to suggest: Ich schlage das vor.), and zu- (to/closed, e.g., zumachen – to close). In the infinitive form, the prefix attaches directly to the stem, but in finite main clause forms, it separates, as in Ich stehe auf (I get up).[63][65] Inseparable prefix verbs, by contrast, have prefixes that remain attached to the verb stem in all forms and tenses, with stress on the root rather than the prefix, as in verstÉhen (to understand). These prefixes typically impart abstract or resultative meanings and do not separate, even in main clauses. Common inseparable prefixes include be- (making the verb transitive or intensive, e.g., beachten – to pay attention to: Wir beachten die Regeln.), emp-/ent- (e.g., empfehlen – to recommend; entdecken – to discover), er- (e.g., erklären – to explain: Sie erklärt die Geschichte.), ver- (e.g., verstehen – to understand; vergessen – to forget), zer- (destructive, e.g., zerbrechen – to break into pieces), miss- (wrongly, e.g., missverstehen – to misunderstand), wider- (against, e.g., widersprechen – to contradict), and ge- (as in resultative or collective senses, e.g., geschehen – to happen, which is inseparable). Vergessen exemplifies the ver- prefix as inseparable.[64][66] Conjugation of prefix verbs follows standard patterns for the base verb, but the prefix's position varies by type and tense. For separable verbs, the prefix attaches in the infinitive (aufmachen) and past participle (auf gemacht, but with ge- infixed as aufge macht – habe aufgemacht), while in present tense main clauses, it detaches to the end (mache ... auf). In subordinate clauses or with modals, the full infinitive with prefix at the end appears, as in Ich will die Tür aufmachen (I want to open the door). Inseparable verbs conjugate without separation or additional ge- in the past participle (verstanden – habe verstanden), maintaining the prefix throughout all tenses, such as present (verstehe), past (verstand), and future (werde verstehen).[63][64][65] The addition of a prefix often results in idiomatic shifts, transforming the base verb's meaning into something more specific or non-literal. For instance, machen (to make/do) becomes anmachen (to turn on, separable: Ich mache das Licht an.), while laufen (to run/walk) yields verlaufen (to get lost, inseparable: Ich habe mich verlaufen.). These changes can render the prefixed verb's sense unpredictable from its components, emphasizing the prefix's role in lexical innovation.[65][64]Adverbs and Particles
Adverbs
Adverbs in German, known as Adverbien, are invariable words that modify verbs, adjectives, other adverbs, or entire sentences, providing information on manner, time, place, degree, or other circumstances without changing form for case, gender, or number.[67] Unlike in some languages, German adverbs often derive directly from adjectives without alteration, allowing the same word to function in both roles; for instance, the adjective schnell (fast) serves as an adverb in Er läuft schnell (He runs fast).[68] Other adverbs are formed using the suffix -weise to indicate manner or frequency, such as wöchentlich (weekly) from Woche (week), or exist as fixed, unchangeable forms like hier (here) and dort (there).[67] German adverbs are classified into several types based on the aspect they describe. Manner adverbs (Modaladverbien) specify how an action occurs, such as schnell (quickly) or gern (gladly), as in Sie singt schön (She sings beautifully). Time adverbs (Temporaladverbien) indicate when or how often, including bald (soon) or täglich (daily), exemplified by Wir treffen uns morgen (We meet tomorrow). Place adverbs (Lokaladverbien) denote location or direction, like draußen (outside) or hierher (here), as in Das Buch liegt dort (The book is there). Degree adverbs (Gradadverbien) express intensity or extent, such as sehr (very) or etwas (somewhat), modifying adjectives or verbs: Das ist sehr interessant (That is very interesting). Interrogative adverbs, used to form questions, include wann (when), wo (where), and wie (how), as in Wo wohnst du? (Where do you live?).[67] Placement of adverbs in German sentences is flexible but follows general principles to maintain clarity. In main clauses, adverbs typically appear after the finite verb but before accusative objects and after dative objects or pronouns; for example, Ich lese das Buch gern (I read the book gladly), where gern follows the verb but precedes the object. If an adverb begins the sentence, it triggers verb-second word order: Heute gehe ich einkaufen (Today I go shopping). Multiple adverbs often follow the sequence time-manner-place, though this is not rigid. A more detailed descriptive ordering principle for adverbial attributes in the Mittelfeld of a German clause is TKML (Temporal–Kausal–Modal–Lokal), which states the default (unmarked) order in which different types of adverbials tend to appear after the finite verb:- Temporal – when? how often?
- Kausal – why? for what reason?
- Modal – how? in what manner? with what means?
- Lokal – where? to where? from where?
Er arbeitet heute (T) wegen des Wetters (K) sehr konzentriert (M) im Büro (L).This is a tendency, not a strict rule. Deviations occur due to focus, contrast, weight, or discourse context. It applies mainly to neutral prose and standard written German and is comparable to the older mnemonic TeKaMoLo. Adverbial phrases, such as mit dem Auto (by car) or nach oben (upward), function similarly and integrate into this order.[67][69][70] Adverbs in German can be compared in a manner similar to adjectives, particularly those derived from them, using the suffixes -er for comparative and am ...-sten for superlative; for example, schnell becomes schneller (faster) and am schnellsten (fastest), as in Er läuft schneller als ich (He runs faster than I). However, many pure adverbs, like hier or leider (unfortunately), do not inflect for comparison.[68] A notable feature involves adverbial uses of the accusative and dative cases to express direction, duration, or extent without prepositions. The adverbial accusative indicates duration or extent, answering "how long?" or "how far?", such as den ganzen Tag (the whole day) in Ich arbeite den ganzen Tag (I work the whole day) or acht Meter (eight meters) in Er sprang acht Meter weit (He jumped eight meters far). The adverbial dative, less common in this pure form, often appears with prepositions to denote static position or indirect direction, but can imply manner or instrument, as in idiomatic expressions like im Allgemeinen (in general). These constructions provide concise ways to adverbially modify verbs without additional words.[71]
Modal Particles
Modal particles, also known as Abtönungspartikeln or discourse particles, are uninflected words in German that modify the illocutionary force of an utterance by expressing the speaker's attitude, such as certainty, emphasis, or politeness, without altering the propositional content.[72] They are particularly characteristic of spoken and colloquial German, where they contribute to natural fluency and interpersonal nuance, often proving untranslatable into other languages due to their context-dependent subtleties.[73] Common modal particles include ja, doch, wohl, aber, auch, denn, schon, halt, eben, nur, bloß, etwa, eigentlich, mal, and vielleicht, among a core set of about 15 to 17 identified in linguistic analyses.[72][73] For instance, ja signals that the information is already known or evident to the listener, as in "Du kommst ja morgen" ("You're coming tomorrow, as you know"), reinforcing shared knowledge.[73] Doch conveys counterexpectation or softens a contradiction, such as "Das ist doch nicht wahr" ("That's not true, is it?"), often assuring or challenging mildly.[73] Wohl expresses probability or uncertainty, like "Er wird wohl kommen" ("He'll probably come"), indicating the speaker's tentative assessment.[73] Aber highlights surprise in exclamations, e.g., "Hast du aber einen schönen Hut!" ("What a nice hat you have!").[73] Nur restricts or limits emphasis, as in "Ich will nur helfen" ("I only want to help"), adding a sense of modesty or focus.[72] These particles guide the interlocutor's interpretation by relating the utterance to the discourse context, such as marking evident propositions (ja), contradictions (doch), or motivations (denn in questions like "Warum bist du denn hier?" "Why are you here, anyway?").[73][72] In terms of placement, modal particles are confined to the middle field of the sentence (Mittelfeld), typically following the finite verb and before other adverbials, as in "Ich komme ja morgen" where ja appears after the verb but within the core clause structure.[73] They cannot occupy sentence-initial or final positions, nor can they be focused, negated, or coordinated, distinguishing them syntactically from adverbs or conjunctions.[72] This positioning underscores their role in fine-tuning the utterance's interpersonal layer rather than modifying descriptive elements. Discourse functions of modal particles center on establishing and maintaining common ground between speakers, appraising mutual knowledge, and facilitating conversational flow by signaling attitudes like emphasis (halt, e.g., "Das ist halt so" "That's just how it is") or approximation (eben, e.g., "Er ist eben müde" "He's just tired").[73] They operate on a meta-communicative level, often evoking epistemic stances—such as certainty with ja or evidentiality with wohl—and can influence coherence, for example, by promoting causal interpretations in ambiguous contexts.[72] In spoken discourse, they are a significant portion of utterances, enhancing politeness and naturalness.[73] Modal particles are more prevalent in colloquial and spoken German than in formal writing, where they may be omitted to maintain neutrality, and their use signals advanced language proficiency among learners.[73] Regionally, variations occur; for example, halt is more frequent in southern dialects like Bavarian, while eben shows sociolinguistic patterns tied to age, gender, and urban-rural divides across Germany, Austria, and Switzerland.[74] These dialectal tendencies highlight modal particles' role in marking regional identity and social dynamics in everyday communication.Negation
In German, negation is primarily achieved through the adverb nicht ("not"), which negates verbs, adjectives, prepositional phrases, and other non-nominal elements, and the indefinite determiner kein ("no" or "not any"), which negates nouns in indefinite contexts.[75] Nicht is invariable in form and its position determines the scope of negation, typically placed immediately before the negated constituent within the sentence's middle field.[76] For primary sentential negation or negation of the main verb, nicht appears at the end of the verb phrase, often sentence-finally in main clauses; for example, Ich esse nicht ("I am not eating").[77] When negating a direct object or adverbial element, nicht follows that element to focus the negation; for instance, Ich esse den Apfel nicht ("I am not eating the apple," negating the object rather than the verb).[78] The indefinite negator kein replaces the indefinite article ein ("a" or "an") before nouns, declining in gender, number, and case to agree with the noun it modifies, such as keinen (masculine accusative) or keine (feminine nominative).[79] It expresses the absence of any instance of the noun, as in Ich habe kein Geld ("I have no money").[80] Kein can precede a noun phrase including adjectives, which then take weak endings; for example, kein gutes Buch ("no good book").[81] In colloquial usage, kein extends to emphatic constructions with adjectives or adverbial nouns, such as kein bisschen müde ("not tired at all," literally "no bit tired").[82] Negation of verbs in modal or infinitive clusters positions nicht directly before the infinitive form at the end of the verb chain, ensuring the negation targets the lexical verb rather than the modal.[77] For example, Sie muss nicht gehen ("She does not have to go") negates the infinitive gehen, while Sie muss gehen nicht would incorrectly shift focus.[78] In separable prefix verbs, nicht precedes the entire cluster, but scope can vary based on intonation.[75] The placement of nicht can create scope ambiguities, altering interpretation depending on whether it negates the higher verb or a lower element.[83] For instance, Ich mag nicht tanzen means "I do not like to dance" (negation over mögen), whereas Ich mag tanzen nicht implies "I like to dance, not [something else]" (negation over an implied alternative).[75] Such ambiguities often resolve through context or prosody, with the default scope favoring wide negation over the main verb.[84] Multiple negation is uncommon in standard German, where combining nicht with another negative typically yields a positive meaning, but it occurs in dialects via negative concord to intensify the negation.[85] In Bavarian or Alemannic varieties, for example, Ich hab nix net reinforces "I have nothing" rather than canceling it.[86] Adverbial negators like nie or niemals ("never"), nirgends ("nowhere"), niemand ("nobody"), and nichts ("nothing") function independently or with nicht in dialects, replacing positive counterparts without requiring additional negation in standard usage; for example, Ich gehe nie aus ("I never go out").[87][78]Prepositions
Spatial and Temporal Prepositions
German prepositions expressing spatial and temporal relations are essential for indicating location, direction, duration, and sequence in sentences. These prepositions often govern specific cases, influencing the form of the nouns or pronouns they accompany, such as the accusative for motion or destination and the dative for static position or location.[88] Spatial prepositions primarily describe physical positions or movements, while temporal ones relate to points or periods in time, with some overlap in usage.[89]Spatial Prepositions
Spatial prepositions in German typically fall into two categories: two-way prepositions, which alternate between accusative and dative cases, and fixed-case prepositions that always require one case. The two-way prepositions include an (at/on), auf (on), hinter (behind), in (in), neben (next to), über (over), unter (under), vor (in front of), and zwischen (between).[88] These take the accusative case to indicate direction or motion toward a place, as in Ich gehe in die Stadt (I go into the city), and the dative for location or static position, such as Ich bin in der Stadt (I am in the city).[88] For example, Das Buch liegt auf dem Tisch (dative: the book is on the table) contrasts with Ich lege das Buch auf den Tisch (accusative: I put the book on the table). In the case of neuter nouns, the accusative form appears as "auf das", often translated as "onto the" to indicate direction or motion, as in Ich lege das Buch auf das Bett (I lay the book onto the bed), contrasting with the dative "auf dem Bett" (on the bed) for static location.[89] Fixed-case spatial prepositions include those requiring the accusative, such as durch (through), which implies motion, as in Ich laufe durch den Park (I run through the park), and those requiring the dative, like aus (out of/from), bei (at/by/near), mit (with), nach (to/after), von (from/of), and zu (to).[88] An example is Ich komme aus dem Haus (dative: I come from the house).[88] These prepositions help convey precise spatial relationships without case alternation.[89]| Preposition | Case | Basic Meaning | Example |
|---|---|---|---|
| an | Acc/Dat | at/on | Ich hänge das Bild an die Wand (acc: I hang the picture on the wall); Das Bild hängt an der Wand (dat: The picture hangs on the wall) |
| auf | Acc/Dat | on | Ich lege das Buch auf das Bett (acc: I lay the book onto the bed); Das Buch liegt auf dem Bett (dat: The book lies on the bed) |
| hinter | Acc/Dat | behind | Ich gehe hinter das Haus (acc: I go behind the house); Das Auto steht hinter dem Haus (dat: The car stands behind the house) |
| in | Acc/Dat | in | Ich trage das Paket in das Zimmer (acc: I carry the package into the room); Das Paket ist in dem Zimmer (dat: The package is in the room) |
| neben | Acc/Dat | next to | Ich stelle den Stuhl neben den Tisch (acc: I put the chair next to the table); Der Stuhl steht neben dem Tisch (dat: The chair stands next to the table) |
| über | Acc/Dat | over/above | Ich hänge die Lampe über den Tisch (acc: I hang the lamp over the table); Die Lampe hängt über dem Tisch (dat: The lamp hangs over the table) |
| unter | Acc/Dat | under/below | Ich schiebe die Katze unter das Bett (acc: I push the cat under the bed); Die Katze liegt unter dem Bett (dat: The cat lies under the bed) |
| vor | Acc/Dat | in front of | Ich stelle mich vor die Tür (acc: I stand in front of the door); Der Hund sitzt vor der Tür (dat: The dog sits in front of the door) |
| zwischen | Acc/Dat | between | Ich lege das Buch zwischen die Seiten (acc: I put the book between the pages); Das Buch liegt zwischen den Seiten (dat: The book lies between the pages) |
Temporal Prepositions
Temporal prepositions express relations in time, such as points, durations, or sequences, and may also be two-way or fixed-case. Common ones include am (on/at, contraction of an + dative article, used for dates and days), bis (until, accusative), durch (through/during, accusative), für (for, accusative), gegen (around/against, accusative), ohne (without, accusative), and seit (since, dative).[90] For instance, am Montag (on Monday) uses the dative idiomatically for specific days, while Ich warte bis morgen (I wait until tomorrow) employs accusative for endpoint.[91] Seit 2020 (since 2020) indicates a starting point with dative, as in Ich wohne seit 2020 hier (I have lived here since 2020).[90] Fixed-case temporal prepositions like um (at/around, accusative) specify exact times, e.g., um acht Uhr (at eight o'clock), and durch can denote duration, as in durch die Nacht (through the night).[88] Gegen approximates time, such as gegen Abend (around evening), and für indicates duration or purpose in time, like für zwei Stunden (for two hours).[90] Two-way prepositions also appear temporally; for example, in with dative for seasons (im Winter, in winter) or accusative for future spans (in zwei Wochen, in two weeks).[91]| Preposition | Case | Basic Meaning | Example |
|---|---|---|---|
| am | Dat | on/at (dates/days) | Die Besprechung ist am Dienstag (The meeting is on Tuesday) |
| bis | Acc | until | Wir reisen bis Freitag (We travel until Friday) |
| durch | Acc | through/during | Er arbeitete durch die Woche (He worked through the week) |
| für | Acc | for (duration) | Das dauert für eine Stunde (That takes for one hour) |
| gegen | Acc | around (time) | Gegen sechs Uhr (Around six o'clock) |
| ohne | Acc | without | Ohne Pause (Without a break) |
| seit | Dat | since | Seit gestern (Since yesterday) |
Prepositional Phrases and Cases
In German grammar, prepositional phrases consist of a preposition followed by its object, which is a noun, pronoun, or noun phrase in a specific grammatical case determined by the preposition. This case government is essential for conveying precise relationships such as location, direction, time, or cause. Prepositions are categorized based on the case they require: accusative, dative, genitive, or two-way (Wechselpräpositionen) that alternate between accusative and dative depending on whether they indicate motion (accusative) or static position (dative).[88][92] Accusative prepositions include durch (through), für (for), gegen (against), ohne (without), and um (around), always requiring the accusative case for their objects. For example, durch den Tunnel (through the tunnel) uses the accusative article den. Dative prepositions such as aus (out of), bei (at/by), mit (with), nach (to/after), seit (since), von (from/of), and zu (to) govern the dative case, as in mit dem Freund (with the friend), where dem is the dative form. Two-way prepositions like an (at/on), auf (on), hinter (behind), in (in), neben (next to), über (over), unter (under), vor (in front of), and zwischen (between) take the accusative for direction (Ich gehe in die Schule – I go into the school) and dative for location (Ich bin in der Schule – I am in the school).[88][92][93] Genitive prepositions, which are fewer and more formal, include wegen (because of), während (during), trotz (despite), and aufgrund (due to), requiring the genitive case in standard usage. Examples include wegen des Wetters (because of the weather) and trotz der Probleme (despite the problems). However, the genitive case overall is declining in spoken and informal written German, particularly among younger speakers, where dative substitutions like wegen dem Wetter are common without altering meaning. This shift reflects a broader trend toward simplification, with the genitive now largely confined to formal or written contexts.[94][95] Prepositional phrases can include adjectives or other modifiers inserted between the article and the noun, maintaining the required case. For instance, in dem großen Haus (in the big house) places the adjective großen in the dative masculine form after the preposition in and article dem. Pronouns can also serve as objects, such as mit mir (with me) using the dative pronoun. In addition, certain verbs form fixed combinations known as prepositional verbs, where the preposition is inseparable from the verb and governs a specific case; examples include warten auf + accusative (Ich warte auf den Bus – I wait for the bus), sich freuen auf + accusative (Ich freue mich auf das Wochenende – I look forward to the weekend), and sich interessieren für + accusative (Ich interessiere mich für Musik – I am interested in music). These must be memorized as units, as the case does not follow general rules.[88][96] Contractions occur frequently in spoken and informal written German when a preposition combines with a definite article (der, das, dem, den, die, das), particularly in dative and accusative contexts, to streamline pronunciation. These are obligatory in some cases and optional in others, but they are standard in everyday use. Below is a table of over 20 common contractions:| Preposition | Contraction Examples |
|---|---|
| an + das/dem | ans, am |
| auf + das | aufs |
| bei + dem | beim |
| durch + das | durchs |
| für + das | fürs |
| in + das/dem | ins, im |
| über + das | übers |
| um + das | ums |
| unter + das | unters |
| von + dem | vom |
| vor + das/dem | vors, vorm |
| zu + dem/der | zum, zur |
| hinter + das | hinters |
| neben + das | nebs (rare) |
| zwischen + dem/das | zwischendem, zwischendas (informal, rare) |