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Japanese studies
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Japanese studies
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Japanese studies or Japan studies (Japanese: 日本学, Hepburn: Nihongaku), sometimes known as Japanology in Europe, is a sub-field of area studies or East Asian studies involved in social sciences and humanities research on Japan. It incorporates fields such as the study of Japanese language, history, culture, literature, philosophy, art, music, cinema, and science.

The historical roots of Western Japanese studies may be traced back to the Dutch traders based at Dejima, Nagasaki during the Edo period (1603–1867). The foundation of the Asiatic Society of Japan at Yokohama in 1872 by Western scholars such as Ernest Satow and Frederick Victor Dickins was an important event in the development of Japanese studies as an academic discipline.

Japanese studies organizations and publications

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In the United States, the Society for Japanese Studies has published the Journal of Japanese Studies (JJS) since 1974. This is a biannual academic journal dealing with research on Japan in the United States. JJS is supported by grants from the Japan Foundation, Georgetown University, and the University of Washington in addition to endowments from the Kyocera Corporation and the National Endowment for the Humanities.

The British Association for Japanese Studies (BAJS), founded in 1974, is an association primarily sponsored by Toshiba[1] and the Japan Foundation.[2] The BAJS publishes an academic journal called Japan Forum.[3]

In Europe, the European Association for Japanese Studies (EAJS) is also funded by Toshiba and the Japan Foundation. It has held triennial conferences around Europe since 1973. Other academic journals dealing with Japanese studies include Monumenta Nipponica, a biannual English-language journal affiliated with Sophia University in Tokyo, and Social Science Japan Journal, published by Oxford University Press.

Scholarship on Japan is also within the purview of many organizations and publications dealing with the more general field of East Asian studies, such as the Association for Asian Studies or the Duke University publication Positions: Asia Critique.

The International Research Center for Japanese Studies (Nichibunken) maintains an online database of institutions involved in Japanese studies research worldwide, including information on 1,640 institutions of Japanese studies. The database indicates that the country with the most institutions of Japanese studies outside the United States and Japan is China (121), while other countries containing a significant number of institutions include South Korea (85), England (69), Germany (64), Canada (61), Australia (54), and France (54).

Since the declaration of 2010 as the "Japan Year" in Turkey,[4] a yearly Japan Studies Conference has been held in Turkey.[5]

Scholarly journals

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See also

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References

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Japanese studies

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Japanese studies is an interdisciplinary academic field dedicated to the comprehensive analysis of , encompassing its language, history, , , , , , and through both Japanese and non-Japanese sources in the social sciences and . This discipline integrates methodologies from multiple areas, including , , , and , to provide a holistic understanding of Japanese phenomena. Programs in Japanese studies typically emphasize proficiency in the as a foundational skill, enabling scholars to engage directly with primary sources and conduct fieldwork. The origins of Japanese studies trace back to the 17th century in , initiated by Dutch traders at in during Japan's (1603–1867), with early seminal works such as Engelbert Kaempfer's The History of Japan (1727) and Philipp Franz von Siebold's publications on Japanese culture and (1832). Expansion occurred during Japan's (1868–1912), when European advisers and Japanese intellectuals fostered studies in , , and , leading to the establishment of the first professorships in Japanology at universities in , , , and by the early . World War II disrupted the field across , but it was re-established in the 1950s with a renewed focus on language and literature, broadening into social sciences from the onward; in the United States, initial academic efforts began in the late at institutions like the , followed by significant post-World War II growth tied to U.S. occupation policies and interests. Today, Japanese studies is supported by key institutions and organizations worldwide, including university programs at places like the , which coordinates offerings in language, history, culture, and , and the European Association for Japanese Studies, founded in 1972 to promote scholarly collaboration among over 350 members from 23 countries as of the early 1990s. Influential journals such as The Journal of Japanese Studies, published since 1974, serve as primary venues for English-language research on , covering diverse topics from traditional to contemporary societal issues. The field continues to evolve, incorporating interdisciplinary approaches to address modern challenges like and Japan's role in .

Overview

Definition and Scope

Japanese studies is an interdisciplinary academic field dedicated to the scholarly examination of , encompassing its , , , , , , cinema, theater, , , , , and . This field draws on methodologies from the and social sciences to analyze Japan's multifaceted dimensions, often through specialized departments and programs that foster expertise in these interconnected areas. The scope of Japanese studies spans both traditional and contemporary elements of Japanese life, bridging historical legacies with modern developments. Traditional aspects include the interpretation of classical texts, such as those from the , and arts from the era, which provide insights into enduring cultural practices. In contrast, contemporary explorations address modern pop culture phenomena like , as well as global influences on Japan's economy and society, reflecting the nation's evolving role in international contexts. Unlike broader area studies, which emphasize regional overviews, Japanese studies distinguishes itself by integrating country-specific knowledge of Japan with theoretical frameworks from disciplines such as anthropology and sociology, enabling deeper analyses of social structures and cultural dynamics. This approach allows scholars to apply universal concepts—like social theory—to Japan-specific contexts, enhancing comparative insights without diluting regional focus. A recurring theme within Japanese studies is , discourses exploring theories of Japanese uniqueness, which examine national character, cultural homogeneity, and societal distinctiveness through essentialist lenses. These discussions, often critiqued for their potential to reinforce stereotypes, remain central to debates on identity and otherness in the field.

Importance and Interdisciplinary Nature

Japanese studies play a crucial role in elucidating Japan's post-World War II economic miracle, which transformed the nation from devastation to a global economic powerhouse through rapid industrialization, export-led growth, and institutional reforms under U.S. occupation. Scholars in this field have analyzed how factors such as government-business collaborations (e.g., systems) and policy innovations contributed to sustained high GDP growth rates, averaging approximately 9% annually during the period from the mid-1950s to the early 1970s, providing insights into non-Western paths to modernization. This scholarship extends to Japan's cultural exports, including , , and cuisine like , which have amplified its and economic influence worldwide since the 1990s. These elements not only drive industries worth billions but also shape geopolitical dynamics in the , where Japan's fosters regional interdependence and positions it as a key player in international forums. The interdisciplinary nature of Japanese studies integrates , social sciences, and even elements of STEM to offer a holistic understanding of Japan's complexities. Drawing from in the humanities and in the social sciences, it examines cultural narratives alongside socioeconomic structures. Programs like those at the International Research Center for Japanese Studies emphasize cross-disciplinary research, incorporating natural sciences to explore innovations such as , where leads globally in human-robot interaction and industrial applications. This fusion enables analyses of how technological advancements, like care robotics, intersect with societal needs in an aging population, bridging technical with cultural and ethical considerations. Japanese studies have significantly influenced broader academic fields, including global , , and theories, by presenting Japan as a non-Western model of successful development. In , it has advanced understandings of power dynamics and through initiatives like Inter-Asia Cultural Studies, highlighting audience reception of media and regional flows. Contributions to underscore Japan's evolving role in security and economic ties, with scholars emphasizing over . Regarding , Japan's Meiji-era modernization challenges Eurocentric narratives by demonstrating a non-Western path to industrialization with limited initial Western dependency, while its post-war reconstruction under U.S. occupation has informed theories on economic recovery in Asia. Early Japanese studies faced challenges from and , which often portrayed Japan through exoticized, outsider (etic) lenses that reinforced stereotypes and overlooked internal (emic) perspectives. Contemporary scholarship addresses these by promoting non-Eurocentric approaches, such as comparative analyses that prioritize transnational exchanges and insider viewpoints to mitigate biases. This shift fosters more balanced, culturally sensitive research, enhancing the field's credibility and applicability.

History

Origins and Early Development

The opening of to Western trade and diplomacy following Commodore Matthew Perry's expedition in 1853 marked the beginning of sustained European and American interest in Japanese culture, society, and language, transitioning from sporadic encounters during the period to systematic scholarly engagement. This fascination, fueled by diplomats, traders, and missionaries, prompted early efforts to document and translate Japanese texts, including a partial English rendition of by Kenchō Suematsu in 1882, which introduced Western audiences to classical Japanese literature. Such works highlighted Japan's rich literary heritage and laid the groundwork for philological approaches in the emerging field. Key milestones in the institutionalization of Japanese studies occurred in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, beginning with the founding of of Japan in 1872 in , which served as a hub for research and publications on Japanese history, language, and by Western residents and scholars. Universities soon followed, with offering initial courses in and around 1913 under visiting Anesaki Masaharu, establishing one of the earliest academic programs . In Europe, similar developments took place, as seen in the appointment of lecturers and the growth of departments that incorporated ese by the early 1900s, reflecting broader academic recognition of . Pre-World War II development was shaped by influential figures such as diplomats like Ernest Satow, whose English-Japanese dictionary (first published in 1879) and diplomatic writings provided foundational linguistic tools for Western scholars, and Japanologists like , who from 1886 taught Japanese at Tokyo Imperial University and authored seminal works including Things Japanese (1890), emphasizing and classical texts. These efforts centered on textual analysis of ancient records like the and , prioritizing over modern social sciences. From a Japanese perspective, the indigenous precursor to modern Japanese studies emerged in the Edo period through , or "national learning," a scholarly movement that sought to revive ancient Japanese texts and purge foreign (primarily Chinese) influences from literature and philosophy. Key scholar (1730–1801) exemplified this approach with his extensive commentaries on classical works, such as the 49-volume Kojikiden (completed posthumously in 1822), which analyzed the to affirm Japan's unique cultural essence. Kokugaku's emphasis on native influenced later Meiji-era scholarship, bridging traditional learning with Western-style academic inquiry.

Post-War Expansion and Modern Evolution

Following , Japanese studies underwent a significant boom, particularly in the United States, as part of efforts to cultivate understanding of as a strategic ally against . The , enacted by the U.S. Congress in 1946 to promote international educational exchange and mutual comprehension, began operations in in 1952 and has since supported over 9,700 participants—6,700 Japanese and 3,000 Americans—in fields including language, culture, and , thereby strengthening bilateral ties through academic collaboration. This initiative complemented broader programs funded by foundations like the Carnegie Corporation, which emphasized interdisciplinary research on . A pioneering institution, the Center for Japanese Studies at the , was established in 1947 as the oldest U.S. center dedicated exclusively to Japanese studies; it leveraged prior military language training programs and received initial Carnegie funding to train 25 students in social sciences and fieldwork, aiming to deepen geopolitical insights into under Allied occupation. The 1960s and 1980s marked further expansion of Japanese studies, propelled by Japan's "economic miracle"—a period of rapid growth from 1955 to the early 1990s that increased per capita income from about 20% to over 80% of the U.S. level and drew global scholarly attention to its industrial strategies, export policies, and societal transformations. In response, academic programs proliferated in and Asia, with the European Association for Japanese Studies founded in 1972 to foster research, conferences, and exchanges across the continent and beyond. In the U.S., this era saw steady growth in instruction and courses at universities, reflecting heightened economic interdependence and the perceived need to analyze Japan's model for Western policymakers. Entering the , Japanese studies evolved in the 1990s toward themes of , as scholars examined Japan's reintegration into Asian networks amid and transnational flows, shifting from insular analyses to comparative frameworks on , migration, and cultural . The 2011 Fukushima Daiichi nuclear disaster further redirected focus to disaster management, environmental resilience, and risk governance, inspiring interdisciplinary research on radiological impacts, community recovery, and policy reforms in a seismically vulnerable nation. Concurrently, the digital turn since the early revolutionized access to resources, with initiatives like the National Diet Library's digitization of 97,000 titles by 2007 and the 2005 launch of the ' Digital Archives System enabling global scholars to analyze historical manuscripts, maps, and cultural artifacts without physical constraints. Contemporary trends in Japanese studies emphasize , challenging colonial legacies in the field's methodologies and object choices—such as re-examining Meiji-era representations of Indigenous Ainu or Orientalist lenses in scholarship—to promote inclusive, diverse epistemologies. The incorporation of and has gained prominence since the early 2000s, evolving from 1990s feminist inquiries into women's issues to queer critiques of fixed identities, institutionalized through bodies like the Japan Association for (founded 2007) and university programs exploring non-heteronormative practices in , media, and . Additionally, increasingly addresses Japan's super-aged society, where 28.7% of the population was over 65 in 2019—the highest globally—rising to 29.1% as of 2023, analyzing demographic shifts, labor shortages, and sustainable policies like expanded elderly workforce participation.

Disciplines and Subfields

Language and Linguistics

The belongs to the Japonic family and is characterized as an , where morphemes are sequentially added to roots to indicate , and it follows a subject-object-verb (SOV) . Its combines three scripts: , logographic characters borrowed from Chinese that represent words or morphemes; hiragana, a cursive used for native words and grammatical elements; and , an angular primarily for foreign loanwords and emphasis. This mixed reflects the language's adaptation of external influences while preserving its phonetic structure, which consists of a simple five-vowel system (/a, i, u, e, o/) and limited consonants. A key sociolinguistic feature is the honorific system known as keigo, which encodes social hierarchy and politeness through verb inflections, auxiliary verbs, and lexical substitutions to elevate the addressee (sonkeigo), humble the speaker (kenjōgo), or maintain general courtesy (teineigo). Keigo usage is influenced by factors such as age, status, intimacy, and situational context, promoting social harmony by signaling in-group (uchi) versus out-group (soto) relationships and avoiding direct imposition. This system underscores the language's role in cultural transmission, as appropriate keigo application is essential for navigating interpersonal dynamics in Japanese . Historically, Japanese evolved from , attested in 8th-century texts like the (712 CE) and Man’yōshū (late 8th century), which featured eight vowels, , and a simpler that later simplified to five vowels by the 9th century with the emergence of length distinctions. Chinese influence began in the 5th–6th centuries CE, introducing for writing and thousands of loanwords (), which constitute about 60% of modern lexical items and shaped semantic fields like administration and religion. Subsequent developments include the 9th-century invention of scripts to phonetically transcribe Japanese, diverging from Chinese logographs, while post-Meiji Restoration (1868) Western loanwords—primarily from English, adapted via (e.g., terebi for "television")—expanded the lexicon to reflect technological and cultural modernization. Modern dialects vary regionally, such as Kansai-ben in western , but standard Tokyo-based Japanese dominates due to media and . In , non-native learners face significant challenges due to the opaque , where requires memorizing over 2,000 characters with multiple readings, compounded by the need to distinguish on'yomi (Chinese-derived) from kun'yomi (native) pronunciations. The agglutinative morphology and demand precise attention to and context for meaning, while keigo's nuanced rules often lead to errors in levels, exacerbating sociolinguistic barriers. These hurdles contribute to high attrition rates among learners, with studies highlighting the role of explicit instruction in overcoming phonological and pragmatic difficulties. Translation studies within Japanese linguistics emphasize the complexities of conveying cultural nuances, as seen in adapting poetry—a 5-7-5 form rooted in seasonal and brevity—to other languages, where translators must balance literal fidelity with evocative resonance to preserve (cutting words) that evoke . Efforts by scholars like those examining Masaoka Shiki's works across English, Persian, and Chinese reveal how adaptations often involve cultural reinterpretation to mitigate losses in rhythm and implication. Applications of include systems, where recurrent neural networks (RNNs) with attention mechanisms have been adapted for Japanese-English pairs, achieving improved scores (e.g., 0.73 on controlled corpora) by handling SOV reordering and morphological richness through bidirectional encoding. These tools address challenges like long-distance dependencies in agglutinative structures, facilitating broader access to Japanese texts. Additionally, linguistic research focuses on endangered dialects, particularly the (e.g., Okinawan/Uchinaaguchi, Miyako), which form a sister branch to Japanese within the Japonic family but differ in , , and , with classifying most as definitely or severely endangered due to assimilation pressures and speaker decline among the youth. Documentation efforts highlight their unique features, such as distinct sound systems, to preserve linguistic diversity.

Literature, Arts, and Culture

Japanese literature represents a cornerstone of Japanese studies, tracing its origins to the classical period with seminal works that blend poetry, , and narrative innovation. The Tale of Genji, authored by the noblewoman around 1008 CE, stands as the world's earliest full-length novel, depicting the romantic and political intrigues of Heian court life while delving into themes of impermanence and human through elegant . Traditional poetic forms further define this heritage, including tanka, a 31-syllable verse structure central to courtly expression since the , as seen in anthologies like the Manyoshu, and haiku, a 17-syllable form popularized by Matsuo Basho in the 17th century, capturing fleeting moments of nature and insight. In the modern era, authors like (1925–1970) fused Western influences with traditional aesthetics in works such as tetralogy, exploring nationalism, beauty, and decay, while (b. 1949) has gained global acclaim for surreal narratives in novels like Norwegian Wood (1987), blending everyday life with metaphysical elements. Manga, evolving from 19th-century woodblock illustrations into a prolific 20th-century genre, combines visual storytelling with serialized narratives, exemplified by Osamu Tezuka's (1952), which addresses ethical dilemmas in science fiction. The visual and performing arts of Japan offer profound insights into aesthetic philosophies and historical expressions, bridging ancient rituals with contemporary media. woodblock prints, flourishing during the (1603–1868), captured ephemeral urban pleasures and landscapes, with Hokusai's (c. 1831) exemplifying dynamic composition and natural forces. theater, developed in the 14th century by , integrates stylized dance, music, and masks to convey supernatural and historical tales, emphasizing restraint and spiritual depth as a UNESCO-recognized . In the postwar period, has emerged as a global artistic force, with Studio Ghibli's films—such as Hayao Miyazaki's (2001), which won an Academy Award—merging hand-drawn animation with environmental and coming-of-age themes to critique modernity. Underpinning these forms is the aesthetic, rooted in Zen Buddhism and tea ceremony practices, which celebrates imperfection, transience, and simplicity in objects and art, as articulated in 16th-century treatises like those of Sen no Rikyu. Cultural studies within Japanese arts examine folk traditions and popular phenomena that sustain communal identity and global influence. Matsuri, or Shinto-derived festivals, number over 300,000 annually and feature processions, dances, and floats to honor deities and seasonal cycles, reinforcing social bonds in locales like Kyoto's , dating to 869 CE. The otaku subculture, emerging in the 1980s amid economic boom, encompasses obsessive fandom of , , and video games, often analyzed as a response to urban alienation, with events like drawing hundreds of thousands. Closely linked is the kawaii phenomenon, a post-1970s aesthetic of cuteness in characters like , which permeates consumer goods and reflects societal desires for innocence and escapism. Japanese pop culture exports, including valued at over $20 billion globally by 2020, have shaped international media, fostering hybrid genres and fan communities worldwide. These elements interconnect to mirror societal values, particularly the reverence for nature as a transient, harmonious force. In literature, Basho's haiku evoke seasonal impermanence (mono no aware), paralleled in ukiyo-e depictions of cherry blossoms symbolizing life's brevity, and extended in Ghibli films where human-nature conflicts underscore ecological interdependence, collectively embodying Japan's cultural ethos of balance and contemplation.

History, Society, and Politics

Japanese studies encompasses the historical evolution of Japan through key periods that shaped its national identity and global interactions. The Heian period (794–1185 CE) marked a golden age of courtly culture centered in Kyoto (then Heian-kyō), where aristocratic refinement in poetry, literature, and aesthetics flourished under imperial rule, laying foundations for classical Japanese traditions. The subsequent Edo period (1603–1868), under the Tokugawa shogunate, enforced a policy of national seclusion (sakoku) to stabilize society, fostering urban development in Edo (modern Tokyo) and promoting Confucian social hierarchies that emphasized loyalty and order among samurai, merchants, and peasants. The Meiji Restoration of 1868 dramatically ended shogunal rule, restoring imperial authority under Emperor Meiji and initiating rapid modernization through the abolition of feudal privileges, adoption of Western technologies, and the Charter Oath, which promised deliberative assemblies and knowledge-seeking abroad. World War II (1939–1945) saw Japan's militaristic expansion culminate in defeat, followed by U.S.-led occupation (1945–1952) that demilitarized the nation, enacted land reforms, and dismantled zaibatsu conglomerates to prevent resurgence of imperialism. The economic bubble of the 1980s, driven by speculative real estate and stock market growth, burst in the early 1990s, ushering in the "lost decades" of stagnation, deflation, and banking crises that challenged Japan's post-war economic miracle. In Japanese society, traditional family structures revolved around the ie system, a patrilineal household model legally codified in the Meiji Civil Code of 1898, where inheritance passed to the eldest son to preserve the family line and property, reinforcing hierarchical roles within extended kin groups. Urbanization accelerated post-World War II, with rural-to-urban migration swelling cities like and to over 90% of the population urban by the , straining housing, infrastructure, and community ties while promoting nuclear families over extended ie networks. Gender roles have historically confined women to domestic spheres under the ie system, but modern shifts, influenced by post-war legal equality and workforce participation, reveal persistent disparities, with women facing the "M-curve" in employment—peaking in young adulthood then dropping due to childcare responsibilities—despite rising female labor rates above 70%. Contemporary issues include , or death from overwork, primarily cerebrovascular and cardiovascular disorders triggered by excessive hours (often exceeding 80 monthly overtime), exacerbated by corporate loyalty demands and inadequate labor protections, affecting thousands annually. Similarly, represents acute social withdrawal among youth, involving prolonged isolation from school and work for six months or more, linked to academic pressures, family dynamics, and economic uncertainty, with estimates suggesting over a million cases in . Japan's political landscape features a where the serves as a symbolic without governing powers, a role enshrined to embody national unity post-World War II. The 1947 Constitution, drafted under U.S. occupation, vests in the people, establishes a parliamentary with a bicameral Diet, guarantees fundamental rights including , and notably renounces in Article 9, prohibiting offensive military forces while allowing self-defense capabilities. The Liberal Democratic Party (LDP) has dominated politics since 1955, maintaining near-continuous control through factional alliances and , fostering stability but criticized for and scandals, though brief interruptions occurred in 1993–1994 and 2009–2012. Foreign relations center on the U.S.-Japan Security Treaty of 1960, which hosts American bases and ensures mutual defense, underpinning economic interdependence with bilateral trade exceeding $200 billion annually; ties with involve economic partnerships tempered by territorial disputes in the ; relations with Korea remain strained over historical issues like wartime labor and , alongside North Korean abduction cases hindering normalization. Social theories in Japanese studies highlight the concept of wa, or group harmony, as a core cultural value promoting consensus and conflict avoidance to maintain social cohesion, rooted in Confucian influences and evident in decision-making processes that prioritize over assertion. Debates on versus collectivism in modern examine how traditional collectivist emphases on interdependence and in-group loyalty clash with globalization-induced , as seen in rising youth and declining marriage rates, yet empirical studies show Japanese society retains stronger social bonds and lower interpersonal trust deficits compared to more individualistic Western counterparts. These tensions underscore evolving identities amid economic pressures and demographic shifts.

Religion, Philosophy, and Science

In Japanese studies, religion is characterized by the longstanding of and , known as , which blended indigenous animistic beliefs with imported doctrines from the 6th century onward. , Japan's earliest religion, centers on the worship of —spirits or deities inhabiting natural elements like mountains, rivers, and trees, as well as ancestral figures—through rituals emphasizing purification, offerings, and communal harmony tied to agricultural cycles. This allowed to be reinterpreted as manifestations of Buddhas or bodhisattvas in esoteric sects like Shingon, fostering a fluid religious landscape where shrines and temples often coexisted. , introduced in the 12th century, further enriched this tradition with practices focused on meditation (), study, and disciplined self-cultivation, appealing particularly to and influencing everyday aesthetics such as the tea ceremony and ink painting. Post-World War II, new religions proliferated amid social upheaval, with emerging as a prominent example; founded in 1930 and affiliated with , it grew rapidly after 1945 through aggressive proselytizing (shakubuku) and community-based healing practices centered on chanting daimoku to a , reaching an estimated 3-5 million adherents by the 1990s and establishing international branches like in 1975. Philosophical inquiry in Japanese studies highlights indigenous developments alongside modern syntheses of Eastern and Western thought. The , or Native Studies school, arose in the late 18th century as an intellectual movement rejecting Chinese Confucian influences to revive ancient Japanese texts, poetry, and classics, promoting a sense of national uniqueness through philological analysis of works like the and . In the 20th century, Nishida Kitarō (1870–1945) founded the at Kyoto Imperial University, blending Buddhist insights with Western phenomenology and in his seminal An Inquiry into the Good (1911), which posited reality as a dynamic process of pure experience. The school's core concept of mu (absolute nothingness), elaborated by Nishida and successors like Tanabe Hajime and Nishitani Keiji, draws from emptiness (śūnyatā) to describe a non-dualistic "place" (basho) that transcends subject-object distinctions, serving as the creative ground for self and world in a topological rather than substantialist framework. Scientific and technological advancements form a key pillar of Japanese studies, marked by adaptive innovations from historical encounters to contemporary leadership. In the , the introduction of firearms—known as after the island where traders landed in 1543—revolutionized warfare, enabling by Japanese smiths and shifting tactics toward infantry formations during the . Today, excels in , with government initiatives like the 2019 Integrated Innovation Strategy prioritizing AI for societal challenges such as aging populations and disaster prediction, supported by institutions like RIKEN's AI Research Center that have advanced models for and . In , has pioneered plant gene-editing technologies using CRISPR-Cas9, with regulatory approvals in 2020 facilitating field trials for drought-resistant crops, reflecting a balance between innovation and biosafety amid public concerns over genetic modification. Ethical debates in science intensified after the 2011 Fukushima Daiichi nuclear disaster, where meltdowns exposed flaws in and regulatory oversight, prompting scholarly critiques of technocratic optimism and calls for incorporating societal values into to rebuild . Intersections between and in Japanese studies reveal how traditional concepts shape technological policy, as seen in the historical influence of bushidō—the warrior ethic emphasizing loyalty, discipline, and self-sacrifice—on military innovations during the (1868–1912), where it justified rapid industrialization of armaments like naval to align imperial ambitions with Western powers. This legacy persists in postwar discussions, where ideas of nothingness inform ethical frameworks for AI governance, urging a holistic approach that integrates human dignity with technological progress.

Methodologies and Approaches

Philological and Textual Analysis

Philological and textual analysis forms a cornerstone of traditional Japanese studies, focusing on the meticulous examination of historical language texts to uncover linguistic evolution, cultural contexts, and authentic narratives from Japan's past. This approach emphasizes the study of ancient manuscripts through paleography, which involves analyzing handwriting styles, scripts, and material conditions to date and authenticate documents from periods like the Nara (710–794 CE) and Heian (794–1185 CE) eras. Scholars employ these methods to decipher , known as bungo or kobun, a literary form distinct from modern vernacular that features archaic grammar, vocabulary, and syntax derived from spoken Middle Japanese. Textual analysis in Japanese studies prioritizes the creation of critical editions, which collate multiple manuscript variants to establish reliable versions of foundational works. A prominent example is the (712 CE), Japan's earliest extant chronicle, where philologists reconstruct the text by comparing surviving copies to resolve discrepancies in phrasing and orthography, ensuring fidelity to the original compilation under imperial order. plays a vital role in interpreting ambiguous kanji usages, particularly in pre-modern texts where characters could denote multiple readings or meanings influenced by Sino-Japanese conventions; this interpretive framework draws on contextual clues from surrounding and to clarify intent without altering the source material. Key tools and techniques include the study of , invented in Japan to represent native words lacking direct Chinese equivalents, such as those denoting local or concepts like "work" (働) or "" (鰯); these analyses reveal adaptations in the that bridged indigenous and imported elements. Comparative philology further aids by juxtaposing Japanese texts with , examining shared lexical borrowings and divergences in usage to trace influences from (618–907 CE) literature on early Japanese composition. Applications of these methods extend to reconstructing lost dialects, as seen in phonetic reconstructions of from poetic anthologies like the (759 CE), where variant readings help infer regional pronunciations extinct by the medieval period. Similarly, philological scrutiny verifies the historical authenticity of imperial edicts, such as those from the legal codes, by cross-referencing script styles, seals, and linguistic anomalies against dated artifacts to detect forgeries or later interpolations.

Fieldwork and Ethnographic Methods

Fieldwork and ethnographic methods form a cornerstone of in Japanese studies, emphasizing immersive, on-the-ground approaches to understanding contemporary and . These methods prioritize direct with communities, allowing scholars to observe and participate in daily life, rituals, and social interactions that reveal the nuances of Japanese practices beyond textual or archival sources. , a hallmark of , involves researchers embedding themselves in specific settings for extended periods, often 1-2 years, to gain insider perspectives while maintaining analytical distance. In rural contexts, such as villages in southern , early ethnographers like John F. Embree conducted long-term fieldwork in , living among residents of Suye Mura to document social structures, family dynamics, and economic activities through daily involvement in farming and community events. Similarly, in urban environments, Dorinne K. Kondo's ethnographic study of a workplace in during the 1980s highlighted gender roles and among salarymen and women via prolonged participation in work routines and social gatherings. Interviews and surveys complement by capturing personal narratives and broader patterns in Japanese life. Semi-structured interviews enable in-depth exploration of individual experiences, such as oral histories from (atomic bomb survivors), where researchers like those in qualitative studies at the have combined narrative analysis with ethnographic elements to document survivors' long-term psychological and social impacts from and . Surveys, often qualitative in nature, facilitate the analysis of daily rituals, including household practices or community festivals, by gathering responses from diverse participants to identify recurring themes in cultural continuity and change. These methods are particularly effective in urban culture, where interviews reveal tensions between work demands and , as seen in Kondo's work that integrated conversational data with observed behaviors. Ethical considerations are paramount in ethnographic fieldwork on , especially when addressing sensitive topics involving marginalized groups. is a critical requirement, particularly in studies of indigenous Ainu communities in , where historical exploitation by researchers has fostered mistrust; scholars must navigate these dynamics by clearly explaining research purposes and obtaining explicit permissions, as emphasized in anthropological ethics guidelines and case studies of Ainu refusal. Additionally, researchers grapple with insider/outsider biases, such as positionality as foreigners or ethnic Japanese scholars, which can influence access and interpretations; the Japanese Society of advocates reflexivity to mitigate these issues through transparent documentation of the researcher's role. In practice, these principles guide case studies like those tracking the evolution of tea ceremonies in communities, where Kristin Surak employed over a decade of and interviews to examine how practitioners adapt traditional chanoyu rituals amid modern , ensuring ethical engagement with teachers and participants.

Comparative and Interdisciplinary Techniques

Comparative approaches in Japanese studies involve juxtaposing Japanese historical and social phenomena with those from other cultures to highlight similarities, differences, and unique developments. A prominent example is the comparison of feudal systems in Japan and Europe, where scholars examine structural parallels such as hierarchical land tenure and vassalage while noting divergences in centralization and economic integration; for instance, Japan's feudalism emphasized rice-based taxation and samurai loyalty, contrasting with Europe's manorial systems and knightly oaths. This method, rooted in mid-20th-century historiography, aids in deconstructing Eurocentric narratives by revealing how Japan's Tokugawa-era (1603–1868) social order adapted imported concepts like feudalism to indigenous contexts. Similarly, cross-cultural analyses of politeness norms compare Japanese honorifics (keigo) with equivalents in Korean (e.g., speech levels denoting hierarchy) and English (e.g., indirect requests), demonstrating how Japan's emphasis on group harmony influences linguistic deference more than individualistic English patterns but aligns with Korea's relational deference. Interdisciplinary techniques integrate Japanese studies with fields like and to explore multifaceted impacts, such as measuring 's role in Japan's through economic spillovers and global cultural influence. Researchers quantify this by analyzing export revenues and audience metrics, showing how contributes to a $25 billion (¥3.8 trillion) industry as of that enhances Japan's diplomatic appeal via cultural exports, blending economic modeling with . approaches, such as GIS mapping, further enable interdisciplinary synthesis by overlaying historical data on trade routes, like the Silk Road extensions to medieval , to visualize economic exchanges with and Korea and their effects on . These tools combine geospatial analysis with archival to trace commodity flows, revealing patterns of technological transfer that shaped Japan's early modernization. Quantitative methods in Japanese studies employ statistical techniques to analyze empirical data, providing rigorous insights into political and social dynamics. For election data, researchers use on across prefectures, identifying correlations between , income levels, and participation rates in post-war national elections, which highlight regional disparities in democratic engagement. In political discourse, of platforms like applies to gauge public reactions to events, such as the Ukraine-Russia conflict, classifying Japanese users' posts as positive, negative, or neutral to inform policy sentiment trends. Emerging tools leverage AI and network analysis to uncover patterns in Japanese cultural and economic structures. AI-driven pattern recognition in art databases processes prints to detect stylistic evolutions across artists, quantifying creativity through metrics like motif recurrence and enabling automated of thousands of works for comparative . For business groups, network analysis models as interconnected graphs, examining inter-firm ties in the automotive sector to assess resilience and innovation diffusion, with studies showing how these horizontal and vertical alliances sustained Japan's post-war by facilitating knowledge sharing. These methods, increasingly adopted since the 2010s, bridge with traditional to predict shifts in global supply chains influenced by Japanese conglomerates.

Institutions and Organizations

Academic Programs and Departments

Academic programs in Japanese studies are offered at universities worldwide, typically through dedicated departments or as concentrations within broader frameworks. These programs emphasize interdisciplinary training, integrating with cultural, historical, and social analysis to prepare students for careers in academia, , , and cultural exchange. Degree offerings generally span undergraduate to doctoral levels, with a strong focus on achieving advanced proficiency in as a core requirement. Undergraduate programs, such as the BA in Japanese Studies, often require 30-40 credit hours, including foundational courses in , literature, and society, alongside electives in areas like studies or modern politics. Graduate programs, including MA and PhD degrees in Japanese Studies or with a Japan focus, build on this by demanding original research and thesis work, typically spanning 1-2 years for master's and 4-6 years for doctorates. is central, with requirements varying by program and often equivalent to JLPT N4 to N1 levels to engage with primary sources in Japanese. For instance, the University of Maryland's BA in Japanese requires prerequisite courses in elementary Japanese (12 credits) and additional , civilization, or history credits to foster comprehensive area expertise. Prominent departments exemplify specialized tracks within Japanese studies. Harvard University's Institute of Japanese Studies supports undergraduate concentrations in and graduate programs in and Civilizations, offering tracks that combine language training with research in contemporary . Similarly, SOAS of London's Department of and Cultures provides a BA in Japanese with intensive language modules and an MA in Japanese Studies featuring options in translation, intercultural studies, and historical analysis. Specialized pathways, such as Japanese, are integrated into programs like the of Washington's concurrent BA/MA in International Studies with a Japan track, emphasizing economic relations and professional communication skills. Heritage studies tracks, focusing on cultural preservation and identity, appear in select curricula, such as those at the of San Francisco's Japanese Studies major, which explores and . Training in these programs incorporates practical components, including study abroad opportunities in to enhance immersion. The Council on International Educational Exchange () facilitates semester and summer programs in and , where students undertake coursework in and alongside homestays and excursions, often earning 12-15 transferable credits. Interdisciplinary curricula pair with expertise in fields like or , as seen in Leiden University's two-year MA in Japanese Studies, which requires graduate-level research on modern or pre-modern topics and includes options for fieldwork. These elements ensure graduates develop both analytical skills and . Globally, Japanese studies programs are distributed across regions, with a robust presence in the United States, where approximately 35 institutions offer Japanese Studies degrees, including majors at universities like Binghamton and Lehigh. In , Leiden University's BA and MA programs provide Dutch- and English-taught options emphasizing Japan's historical traditions. Asia hosts collaborative exchanges, such as those through Seoul National University's Institute for Japanese Studies, which facilitates student mobility and joint research with Japanese institutions, promoting cross-cultural academic ties. This international network underscores the field's emphasis on global perspectives.

Professional Associations and Societies

Professional associations and societies in Japanese studies play a crucial role in fostering scholarly collaboration, organizing conferences, and providing resources for researchers and educators worldwide. These organizations facilitate the exchange of knowledge on , culture, history, and society, often through regional and international networks that support fieldwork and academic advocacy. The (AAS), established as a leading body for Asian scholarship, includes a prominent focus on Japanese studies through its annual conferences, which attract over 3,000 participants (e.g., 3,285 in 2025) and feature numerous panels dedicated to Japan-related topics across disciplines such as , , and . The AAS also offers , including travel support for students presenting Japan-focused , enabling broader participation in these events. Additionally, the AAS collaborates with regional affiliates like the (ASCJ), which holds annual meetings in to advance interdisciplinary discussions on Japanese themes. In , the European Association for Japanese Studies (EAJS), founded in , serves as a key hub for scholars, organizing triennial international conferences that draw more than 900 attendees (e.g., over 1,000 in 2023) from , , and beyond to present research and network on topics ranging from to contemporary . The EAJS promotes collaboration through workshops and information dissemination, supporting the growth of Japanese studies as an academic field in the region. Similarly, the Society in the , established in 1891, enhances UK-Japan academic ties by hosting lectures, seminars, and cultural events that encourage research and public engagement with Japanese studies. Regionally in , the Japan Studies Association (JSA) supports educators and researchers by convening annual conferences, such as its 2025 meeting in , where participants share pedagogical innovations and comparative research on Japanese culture and literature. The JSA emphasizes curriculum development and study-abroad initiatives, helping integrate Japanese studies into educational frameworks. Complementing these efforts, the American Association of Teachers of Japanese (AATJ) advocates for education, offering professional development, annual spring conferences, and resources to preserve and promote linguistic heritage amid global challenges. These associations often partner with Japanese institutions like the , which provides funding grants for fieldwork, conference participation, and institutional projects to support international Japanese studies research. Such collaborations enable scholars to conduct on-site investigations in and foster global networks. Collectively, these organizations contribute to standardizing curricula in Japanese studies programs and advocating for to scholarly resources, ensuring wider dissemination of knowledge while supporting ethical research practices.

Publications and Resources

Scholarly Journals

Scholarly journals in Japanese studies serve as vital platforms for peer-reviewed across , social sciences, and interdisciplinary fields, disseminating analyses of Japanese , culture, language, and society. These periodicals, often published in English to reach global audiences, have evolved from print-based outlets to include digital formats, fostering international collaboration among scholars. Prominent examples include long-standing titles that cover broad thematic scopes, from premodern to contemporary politics. One of the foundational journals is Monumenta Nipponica, established in 1938 by in and published semiannually. It focuses on premodern and modern Japanese , , , , thought, and society, providing in-depth scholarly articles that emphasize analysis and cultural interpretations. With an of 13, it remains one of the oldest English-language academic journals in , influencing research on topics such as gender roles in Heian-period . Another key publication is The Journal of Japanese Studies, founded in 1974 by the Society for Japanese Studies and issued biannually. This multidisciplinary outlet prioritizes social sciences, including , , and , while incorporating interdisciplinary approaches to interpret Japanese phenomena. Recognized as the most influential English-language journal on , it has an h-index of 22 and frequently features studies on modern policy issues, such as the implications of Abe Shinzō's administration. For linguistics and literary studies, Japanese Language and Literature, the biannual journal of the American Association of Teachers of Japanese since 1966, publishes research on Japanese linguistics, literary criticism, and pedagogy. It covers topics ranging from classical texts to contemporary , supporting both theoretical and applied scholarship in the field. Publishing trends in Japanese studies journals reflect a broader shift toward , driven by Japan's 2022 policy mandating for peer-reviewed articles from publicly funded , which took effect in April 2025 for certain competitive funding programs. This has encouraged hybrid and fully open models, enhancing global accessibility; for instance, ASIANetwork Exchange, an journal since 2013, includes articles on Japanese topics within , catering to liberal arts educators with pedagogical and essays. Additionally, some journals incorporate multilingual elements, such as original Japanese texts alongside English translations, to preserve source authenticity and broaden readership. Niche publications address specialized subfields, such as Ukiyo-e Art, the journal of the International Ukiyo-e Society, which was first published in 1962 (initially by the Japan Ukiyo-e Society) and examines Edo-period woodblock prints, artist techniques, and art historical contexts through scholarly articles and reproductions. In sociology, the International Journal of Japanese Sociology, established in 1992 and published annually by Wiley-Blackwell on behalf of the Japan Sociological Society, explores Japanese social structures, including policy, family dynamics, community, and urban class issues, with a focus on comparative perspectives. These targeted outlets complement broader journals by deepening expertise in specific areas of Japanese studies.

Key Books, Databases, and Reference Works

In Japanese studies, several seminal books have shaped scholarly understanding of , culture, and history. Donald Keene's World Within Walls: Japanese Literature of the Pre-Modern Era, 1600-1867 (1968) provides a comprehensive analysis of Edo-period literature, highlighting its development within Japan's isolationist policies and its diverse genres from to drama. Ruth Benedict's : Patterns of Japanese Culture (1946), commissioned during , offers an anthropological examination of Japanese societal values, contrasting concepts of and honor with Western norms to explain cultural behaviors. Ian Buruma's Inventing Japan: 1853-1964 (2003) traces Japan's modernization from the through postwar recovery, emphasizing political reinventions and the interplay of tradition and Western influence in shaping national identity. Key databases facilitate access to primary sources and scholarly outputs in Japanese studies. The CiNii Research database, operated by Japan's National Institute of Informatics, aggregates metadata and full-text access to approximately 22 million academic articles (as of 2024), books, and dissertations primarily in Japanese, enabling researchers to query topics like or contemporary across university bulletins and society journals. Nichibunken's Digital Archive, maintained by the International Research Center for Japanese Studies, provides digitized collections of , artworks, and materials, including postcards from art exhibitions and early photographs, supporting interdisciplinary inquiries into premodern . JSTOR's subsets for Japanese studies include digitized journals, books, and primary sources from the onward, such as translations of classical texts and analyses of imperial history, with advanced search tools for cross-referencing English and Japanese scholarship. Reference works serve as foundational tools for overviews and quick consultations in Japanese studies. The Encyclopedia of (1983, with updated digital editions as Encyclopedia of via JapanKnowledge) compiles over 10,000 entries on topics from and to and , drawing on contributions from Japanese and international experts for a balanced portrayal of historical and contemporary . The SAGE Handbook of Modern Japanese Studies (2015), edited by James D. Babb, offers a multidisciplinary reference with 40 chapters on society, economy, and culture from the to the present, synthesizing recent scholarship for students and researchers. These resources play a crucial role in research workflows; for instance, scholars querying Ainu folklore in Nichibunken's databases can access digitized ethnographies and maps to contextualize indigenous narratives within broader Japanese cultural studies.

Notable Scholars

Pioneers and Foundational Figures

(1831–1920), a British diplomat stationed in Japan from 1862 to 1883, played a pivotal role in early Western engagement with Japanese texts and culture. As a skilled translator and interpreter for the British legation, Satow facilitated key diplomatic interactions during the turbulent and early Meiji periods, while amassing a significant collection of Japanese books that documented printing evolution from the 8th century to the era. His bibliographic expertise enabled the acquisition of rare materials, now housed in the , which advanced philological understanding of classical Japanese literature and history. Satow's , A Diplomat in Japan (1921), drew from his diaries to provide firsthand insights into Japan's modernization, influencing subsequent scholarly interpretations of the era. Basil Hall Chamberlain (1850–1935) further solidified Japanese studies in the West as the first professor of Japanese and philology at Tokyo Imperial University from 1886 to 1911. Arriving in Japan in 1873 for health reasons, he became a leading Japanologist, authoring Things Japanese (1890), an encyclopedic guide to Japanese customs, arts, and society that emphasized the nuances of "old Japan" amid rapid . This work, revised through multiple editions, served as a foundational reference for philological and cultural analysis, blending linguistic precision with ethnographic observation. Chamberlain's translations and essays on and mythology established rigorous standards for textual scholarship, shaping academic approaches to in Europe. On the American side, (1910–1990), born in to missionary parents, emerged as a key advocate for after earning his Ph.D. from Harvard in 1939. Teaching at Harvard from 1938 and resuming in 1946, he pioneered interdisciplinary curricula on , including the influential "Rice Paddies" course that integrated history, , and . Reischauer's pre-war scholarship on Japanese Buddhism and diplomacy laid groundwork for post-war U.S. policy, culminating in his role as ambassador to (1961–1966) and his efforts to deepen American comprehension of Japanese society. Ruth Benedict (1887–1948), an anthropologist at Columbia University, contributed seminal cultural analysis through The Chrysanthemum and the Sword (1946), commissioned by the U.S. Office of War Information during . Drawing on ethnographic patterns to explore Japanese values like and , the book offered a relativist framework for understanding enemy behavior without stereotypes, influencing occupation policies and early American Japanese studies. Its blend of and provided conceptual tools for cross-cultural research, establishing Benedict as a bridge between wartime intelligence and academic inquiry. Japanese scholars also drove the field's foundations, with Ueda Kazutoshi (1867–1937) modernizing kokugaku (national learning) by conceptualizing kokugo as the unifying language of a homogeneous nation-state during the Meiji era. As a linguist at Tokyo Imperial University, Ueda promoted linguistic reforms to standardize Japanese, linking language to imperial identity and education, which formalized kokugogaku as a discipline. His ideas, though later challenged by Japan's linguistic diversity, entrenched philological study in national curriculum. Complementing this, William George Aston's A History of Japanese Literature (1899), written as a British consul in Japan, offered the first comprehensive Western survey of Japanese literary evolution from ancient myths to modern prose, emphasizing textual criticism and historical context. Aston's work, grounded in classical translations, influenced global scholarship by highlighting Japan's unique literary traditions. These pioneers' legacies endure in the establishment of philology as Japanese studies' cornerstone and in shaping U.S. toward , from wartime strategies to post-war alliances, by providing verifiable cultural frameworks that informed diplomatic and academic discourse.

Contemporary Contributors

Contemporary contributors to Japanese studies represent a diverse array of disciplines, including history, , , , and , advancing interdisciplinary understandings of Japan's past and present through innovative methodologies and global perspectives. These scholars, often based at leading international institutions, emphasize themes such as , cultural symbolism, state-society dynamics, and , drawing on , ethnographic methods, and transnational comparisons to challenge traditional narratives. Their work not only enriches academic discourse but also informs , cultural preservation, and , with many receiving prestigious awards for bridging Japanese and Western scholarship. In the field of modern Japanese history, Carol Gluck, George Sansom Professor Emerita at , has profoundly influenced studies of Japan's twentieth-century transformations, focusing on , memory politics, and the interplay between national and global histories. Her seminal book Japan's Modern Myths (1985) deconstructs ideologies of progress in Meiji-era , while later works like Past Obsessions (1998) explore how historical memory shapes contemporary identity. Gluck's global approach, including her role as chair of Columbia's Committee on Global Thought, has fostered cross-cultural dialogues, earning her the 2024 NIHU International Prize for Japanese Studies for advancing worldwide. Similarly, Sheldon Garon, Nissan Professor of History at , excels in transnational , examining how state policies intersect with global influences in areas like finance, labor, and everyday life. His book Molding Japanese Minds (1997) analyzes state interventions in moral education and consumer behavior from the late nineteenth century onward, highlighting continuities between imperial and postwar eras. Garon's comparative studies, such as Defend the Nation (2022) on across nations, underscore Japan's adaptive governance models, contributing to broader understandings of authoritarian resilience. For his scholarly impact and promotion of U.S.-Japan academic exchanges, he received the , Gold Rays, in 2025. Turning to literature and cultural studies, Tomiko Yoda, Takashima Professor of Japanese Humanities at , investigates modern and premodern Japanese texts through lenses of , , and . Her research on "girl culture" in contemporary explores how popular media constructs youth identities, as detailed in courses and publications like Gender and National Literature (2004), which critiques canonical formations in Japanese literary history. Yoda's work on Heian-period poetics and modern bridges historical and contemporary divides, influencing debates on translation and canonization in global literary studies. In anthropology, Emiko Ohnuki-Tierney, William F. Vilas Professor at the University of Wisconsin-Madison, has pioneered analyses of symbolic systems in Japanese culture, tracing emblems like , monkeys, and cherry blossoms across millennia. Her book Kamikaze, Cherry Blossoms, and Nationalisms (2002) reveals how floral imagery was militarized during , offering insights into nationalism and sacrifice. Ohnuki-Tierney's broader oeuvre, including Rice as Self (1993) and Flowers That Kill (2015), employs semiotic and historical to unpack human-nature relations, with her 19 authored books translated into ten languages and honored by awards like the . Scholars in and further diversify the field. Gennifer Weisenfeld, Professor of Art, Art History, and Visual Studies at , examines modern Japanese visual culture amid sociopolitical upheavals, focusing on design's role in wartime and postwar reconstruction. Her publications, such as Mavo: Japanese Artists and the Avant-Garde (2002) and Imaging Disaster (2012), which analyzes 3.11 earthquake representations, integrate art with disaster studies and . In , Richard J. Samuels, Ford International Professor at MIT and Director of the Center for International Studies, specializes in Japanese security and . His book Securing Japan (2007) assesses Tokyo's strategic shifts post-Cold War, while Special Duty (2019) details intelligence operations, informing discussions. Samuels' leadership in the National Research Council's Committee on Japan underscores his policy influence.

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  141. https://conf.ling.cornell.edu/whitman/Whitman2009Kokugogaku.pdf
  142. https://onlinebooks.library.upenn.edu/webbin/book/lookupid?key=olbp103140
  143. https://history.columbia.edu/person/gluck-carol/
  144. https://www.nihu.jp/en/publication/nihu_magazine/124.html
  145. https://history.princeton.edu/news-events/news/historian-sheldon-garon-receive-one-japan%25E2%2580%2599s-highest-honors
  146. https://www.ny.us.emb-japan.go.jp/itpr_en/News_042925.html
  147. https://ealc.fas.harvard.edu/people/tomiko-yoda
  148. https://www.harvard-yenching.org/events/womens-voices-in-modern-japan-translation-canonization-and-literary-history/
  149. https://www.anthropology.wisc.edu/staff/ohnuki-tierney-emiko/
  150. https://scholars.duke.edu/person/gennifer.weisenfeld
  151. https://polisci.mit.edu/people/richard-samuels
  152. https://www.cornellpress.cornell.edu/book/9780801457982/securing-japan/
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