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The Kangly (康曷利;[1] pinyin: Kānghélì; Middle Chinese (ZS): /kʰɑŋ-ɦɑt̚-liɪH/ or 康里 pinyin: Kānglĭ < MC-ZS: /kʰɑŋ-lɨX/;[2]Karakhanid: قنكلى, romanized: Kaɣnï or قنكلى romanised: Kaŋlï, also spelled Qaŋlï,[3] Qanglı, Kanly, Kangly, Qangli, Kangli or Kankali) were a Turkic people of Eurasia who were active from the Tang dynasty up to the Mongol Empire and Yuan dynasty.

Origins

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Their exact origin remains uncertain. Erkoç (2023) propose that they may be related to the Kipchaks or Pechenegs, or they may have been a branch of the Kök Turks who were conquered by the Tang dynasty of China or Qaŋlï might originated from Tiele tribes (*Tägräk).[3]

Historical references

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History

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After the fall of the Pecheneg Khanate in the early 10th century, the role of the Kanglys became prominent. Different Pontic Steppe's Turkic nomadic peoples, who might have been separate and distinct earlier, would eventually become assimilated into each other by the 13th century. The eastern grouping of Cumania was indeed known as Qanglı (Latin: Cangle).[13]

Many Kangly warriors joined the Khwarezmid Empire in the 11th century. In 1175 some of them lived north of Lake Balkhash and transferred their allegiance from the Qara Khitai (Western Liao dynasty) to the Jin dynasty.[14]

They were conquered by Genghis Khan's armies during the Mongol conquest of Central Asia in 1219–1223. All Kanglys in Bukhara who were taller than a wheel, were slain by the Mongols. Jochi subdued remnants who still lived in the land of the Kyrghyz and Kipchak steppes in 1225. Khwarizmi Kangly remnants submitted to Great Khan Ögedei after a long resistance under Jalal al-Din Mangburni against his general Chormaqan and governor Chin-temur. After the Mongol conquest, the remaining Kanglys were absorbed into other Turks and Mongols. Some of them who served in the Yuan dynasty became Kharchins.

There are Kangly clans among the Kazakhs, Uzbeks, Kyrgyz, Bashkirs, Nogais, Karakalpaks and Yakuts (Sakha).

References

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See also

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Kangly

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The Kangly (also spelled Kangar, Qaŋlï, or Qangli) were a prominent Turkic nomadic people of the Eurasian steppes, active from at least the 7th century CE through the 13th century, known for their participation in tribal unions, military campaigns, and integration into major empires such as the Khwarazmshahids and Ayyubids. Originating possibly from the Tägräk or Tiele tribes in southern , they first appear in historical records in the as a distinct group inhabiting regions from modern in to the and . Following the collapse of the around 659 CE, the Kangly formed the core of the Kangar Union, a confederation that controlled much of present-day (excluding the Zhetysu region) with its capital in the Ulytau Mountains, repelling Chinese incursions and incorporating vassal groups like the Oghuz, Kimak, and later Kipchak tribes. This union dissolved in the amid secessions by the Oghuz and pressures from Arab conquests and the rising Kimak Khanate, leading to westward migrations that influenced the formation of the Pecheneg confederation in by the 9th–10th centuries. By the , the Kangly had reemerged as a significant force in the western steppes, particularly along the Lower , where they allied with and served in the Empire, contributing to its military strength before the Mongol invasions. In the early 13th century, Kangly warriors played key roles in regional conflicts, including the capture of Jerusalem from the Crusaders in 1244 alongside Ayyubid forces, an event that provoked the Seventh Crusade (1248–1254). Distinguished from neighboring Kipchaks (Cumans) in Mongol-era texts and intelligence reports, the Kangly maintained a separate ethnic identity, with subgroups like the Qara Qaŋlï noted in 8th-century Uyghur and Chinese sources for their cart-riding nomadic lifestyle. Their legacy persists in modern Turkic peoples, including elements of Kazakh, Uzbek, Karakalpak, and Bashkir clans bearing the Kangly name, reflecting their enduring genetic and cultural impact across Central Asia and beyond.

Name and Etymology

Name Variants

The name of the Kangly has appeared in various forms across historical records, reflecting transliterations in different scripts and languages. Common variants include Kangly, Qanglı, , Kengeres, Kangdy, Kangarlyk, and Qaŋlï, each attested in specific sources from antiquity to the medieval period. By the 7th–8th centuries CE, the form Kangheli (康曷利) appears in Tang dynasty records, including the Tang Huiyao, denoting a Turkic plural form referring to Kangar-related peoples in the Syr Darya region. An early 8th-century reference appears in the Tibetan document Pelliot tibétain 1283 from southern Siberia. The Orkhon inscriptions from the 8th century use Kengeres, an instrumental form in Old Turkic, to describe allied tribes in the Göktürk context. In the , Byzantine sources employ , notably in Porphyrogenitus's (chapters 37 and 38), where it refers to a of in the context of migrations. The marks a shift to Islamic scholarship, with Qanglı (or Qaŋlï) attested as a Kipchak chief's in Mahmud al-Kashgari's Kitāb Dīwān Luγāt al-Turk, glossed in relation to nomadic implements but clearly an . Kangdy emerges as a phonetic variant in Persianate texts around this era, though less frequently documented, often interchangeable with Kangly in descriptions of Central Asian tribes. By the 13th century, the name stabilizes as Kangly or Qaŋlï in Mongol-era sources, such as the Yuan Shi, where Kangli (康里) denotes tributary groups, and in Western accounts like those of Ioannes de Plano Carpini, using Qaŋlïs for distinct Turkic entities allied with . This evolution from early Chinese transcriptions to medieval Turkic and European forms underscores the Kangly's enduring presence across Eurasian sources, with nomenclature adapting to linguistic conventions while maintaining core phonetic elements.

Linguistic Origins

The name Kangly, rendered in various forms such as Qaŋlï in medieval Turkic sources, derives from the Old Turkic root qaŋ, meaning "wagon" or "cart," reflecting the cart-riding nomadic lifestyle of the group, as glossed by . This etymology aligns with broader Turkic linguistic patterns where terms related to mobility denote tribal identities. Alternatively, scholars link the name to the ancient "Kang" region around the (Jaxartes) River, evoking the historical kingdom and suggesting a geographic origin tied to Central Asian territories. A key distinction appears in the compilation Tang Huiyao, which differentiates Kangly (transcribed as Kangheli, 康曷利) horses from those of the (Kang nation), implying a separate ethnic or regional identity for the Kangly despite superficial name similarities. This reference, from volume 72 (p. 1308), highlights the Kangly's tamgha (tribal emblem) resembling the Chinese character zhai (宅), underscoring their distinct nomadic equine culture within Turkic confederations. Linguistically, the Kangly name exhibits ties to the Kipchak branch of , with the suffix -lï potentially indicating a or occupational related to cart-riding nomads, as analyzed in and later Mongol texts. This structure parallels other Turkic ethnonyms, emphasizing identities rooted in mobility and symbolism rather than fixed territorial claims.

Origins

Possible Ancestral Connections

The origins of the Kangly (Qaŋlï) people remain a subject of scholarly debate, with theories primarily situating them within proto-Turkic tribal confederations rather than earlier Iranic or Scythian groups. Historians propose that the Kangly emerged as a branch of the Tiele (Tägräk) tribes, a collection of cart-riding nomadic groups active in the Eurasian steppes during the early medieval period, which were loosely affiliated with the Göktürk Khaganate. This connection underscores their Turkic linguistic and cultural identity, rejecting earlier hypotheses linking them directly to or nomads due to a lack of linguistic continuity and archaeological evidence supporting Turkic migrations instead. Early historical references provide tentative links to even older entities, such as the state mentioned in 2nd-century BCE Chinese sources like the Shiji, which some scholars view as a possible precursor to later Kangly formations in the region, though distinctions in nomenclature suggest evolutionary rather than direct continuity. By the CE, the Kangly appear as vassals under the , evidenced by the title "Tigin Kangshaoli" in contemporary records around 618 CE, indicating their integration into the Göktürk political structure as subordinate allies. The Tang Huiyao further differentiates the Kangheli (a variant for Kangly) from the ancient polity, reinforcing their separate tribal development within Turkic frameworks. Debates persist regarding the Kangly's precise distinctions from related groups like the Kangar and Kangaris, with some 8th-10th century sources blurring these lines—such as potential overlaps with Kangheli references that may denote either Qaŋlï proper or Kängäräs subgroups. Modern analyses, including those by Erkoç (2023), suggest possible relations to the Kipchaks (as an eastern branch) or Pechenegs (via Kangar affiliations), positioning the Kangly as a dynamic offshoot within the broader Oghuz and Kipchak tribal networks, though not identical to either. These theories emphasize their Turkic roots over non-Turkic antecedents, supported by onomastic and toponymic evidence from Central Asian inscriptions.

Geographic and Archaeological Context

The Kangly people, identified as a Turkic group within the broader Tiele confederation, originated in the and during the 6th to 8th centuries CE, where they were known as Tägräk tribes in contemporary sources. Their migration patterns reflect a southward and westward expansion from these northern territories, driven by political dynamics among steppe confederations, leading to settlement in the semi-arid s of by the 7th century. Primary regions of early Kangly presence included the valley, historically termed Kang country and associated with their ethnonym, as well as the Kipchak s extending across modern . By the late 12th century, specifically around 1175, Kangly groups had established communities north of , where they shifted allegiances amid regional power struggles involving the and Jin dynasties. These areas provided suitable pastoral landscapes for nomadic herding, facilitating their integration into larger steppe networks. Archaeological evidence for the Kangly remains indirect, with potential connections to Tiele-related sites in the , , through references in the 8th-century to groups such as the Kängäräs, possibly early variants of the Kangly . indicators, including horse burials characteristic of Turkic nomadic practices, appear in medieval sites across the Kipchak steppes, where sacrificed horses accompanied human interments to signify status and mobility, distinguishing these rituals from the earlier, non-Turkic kingdom's burial traditions through the emphasis on equestrian symbolism and steppe-specific artifacts. Such evidence underscores the Kangly's adaptation to semi-arid environments, with mounds and associated reflecting their equestrian lifestyle.

Early History

References in Tang Dynasty Sources

The Kangly, transcribed in Chinese sources as Kangheli (康曷利), appear in Tang Dynasty records as a vassal tribe of the Eastern Turks, closely associated with the khagan's court and involved in early diplomatic exchanges. In 618 CE, the Eastern Turkic Khagan Shibi (also transliterated as Dugi Sibir in some accounts) dispatched an embassy to the newly established Tang court, led by the Kangheli tegin (prince) Kangheli, which presented 1,000 horses as tribute. This event, recorded in the Jiu Tangshu and Tang Huiyao, underscores the Kangly's subordinate status and their role in facilitating relations between the Eastern Turks and Tang China. The Tang Huiyao, a 10th-century institutional compilation drawing from earlier Tang materials, provides further details on the Kangheli in its section on horse tamgas from vassal principalities (chapter 72). It lists the Kangheli separately from the (康居) state—likely referring to the earlier Central Asian polity around the —based on differences in branding marks; their resembled the Chinese character zhai (宅). These descriptions portray the Kangly as nomadic pastoralists with a horse-centric economy, supplying mounts for military and tributary purposes to their Turkic overlords. After the Tang Dynasty's decisive campaigns subdued the Eastern Turks by 630 CE, the Kangly, identified as part of the broader Tiele tribal confederation, submitted as vassals to the Tang court and rendered . Tang annals note their contributions of troops and continued payments, often in the form of horses, integrating them into the empire's frontier defense system without specific population estimates recorded. This period marks their transition from Turkic dependents to direct Tang tributaries, highlighting their strategic value in diplomacy.

Relations with Göktürks and Tiele Tribes

During the 6th to 8th centuries, the Kangly maintained a subordinate relationship with the Eastern Göktürk Khaganate, serving as vassals within the broader Turkic confederation. Historical records indicate that by 618 CE, the Kangly (referred to as Kangheli or Kangshaoli in Chinese sources) were recognized as a vassal tribe closely aligned with the khagan's court, evidenced by the Eastern Turkic Khagan Shibi (r. 608–619 CE) dispatching an embassy led by the Kangheli tegin to the Tang court, presenting 1,000 Kangly-bred horses as tribute. This vassalage integrated the Kangly into the Göktürk administrative and economic systems, where they contributed to the khaganate's nomadic hierarchy as a peripheral tribe located near the northwestern borders in southern Siberia, adjacent to groups like the Uyghurs.[](Zuev, Yu.A. (1960). Horse Tamgas from Vassal Princedoms. Almaty: Kazakh SSR Academy of Sciences, p. 107) As members of the Tiele tribal confederation, ancestral Kangly groups—identified as Tägräk (cart-riding nomads)—participated alongside other Tiele tribes in key uprisings against Göktürk overlordship, reflecting the volatile dynamics of steppe alliances. The Tiele were nominal vassals but frequently rebelled, such as the major revolt incited by Tang diplomacy against Tardu Khagan's forces around 603 CE, which weakened Western Göktürk control. A more decisive uprising occurred between 626 and 630 CE under Illig Qaghan, where Tiele tribes, allied with Tang forces, contributed to the collapse of the Eastern Göktürk Khaganate; this involvement stemmed from the Tiele's dissatisfaction with Göktürk tribute demands and marked a shift in power toward Tang influence in the region. The Kangly's ties to the Göktürks extended to military engagements, including joint campaigns against in the early , where tribes bolstered Göktürk raids on northern Chinese territories. Following the CE defeat of the Eastern Göktürks by Tang armies, many Tiele-affiliated groups, including the Kangly, were absorbed into the remnants of Göktürk military structures. Culturally, this subordination facilitated exchanges such as the adoption of shared pastoral nomadic practices, including horse-based mobility and tribal confederation models, though direct evidence of Orkhon script influence on the Kangly remains limited to the broader Turkic linguistic sphere.

Medieval Period

Emergence in Kipchak Steppes

In the 11th century, the Kangly (Qaŋlï), often associated with the eastern branches of the Kipchak confederation but debated as a distinct group, emerged prominently in the eastern Kipchak steppes around the and regions. This followed the westward Kipchak migrations ca. 1020–1050, which displaced the and filled power vacuums in the broader steppes, though the Kangly maintained activities primarily in rather than the western Pontic-Caspian areas. Their earlier 8th-century associations with Tiele confederations positioned them within Turkic networks, but this period solidified their role in eastern nomadic alliances. By the 11th century, the Kangly were linked to the Kipchak groups, with noting in his (ca. 1077) a Kipchak chief bearing the surname Qanglı, highlighting their status; he glossed qanglı as denoting "a for carrying load," reflecting their pastoral-nomadic lifestyle. No specific names of these chiefs are detailed in contemporary sources, but their prominence underscores the Kangly's influence among eastern Kipchak tribes, who dominated steppes from the to the . Politically, the Kangly contributed to tribal confederations in Kipchak society, enabling mobility and defense in the eastern steppes. These alliances supported trade along the Volga-Ural and corridors, exchanging furs, slaves, and horses for Central Asian and Islamic goods. This economic strategy underscored their adaptability in the region during the .

Alliances and Conflicts with Khwarezm

During the , many Kangly (also known as Qangli), as part of eastern Kipchak groups, integrated into the military structure of the emerging , serving as warriors and mercenaries against regional rivals. This alliance was facilitated by their nomadic lifestyle north of the , providing cavalry support in exchange for protection and opportunities in the empire's domain. A notable indicator of close ties was the marriage of Terken , a Kangly noblewoman, to the Khwarezmshah Tekish in the late 12th century; she became the mother of Muhammad II and wielded significant influence, highlighting the tribe's political penetration into the ruling elite. During the rise of Khwarezmshah Tekish (r. 1172–1200), segments of the Kangly shifted allegiances from the Kara-Khitai to the Khwarezmshahs as the latter consolidated power in , allowing the tribe to maintain autonomy in pastoral activities while acknowledging imperial . This positioned them along trade corridors, contributing to security as mobile guardians against banditry and rival nomads. Conflicts during this period included early raids by Kipchak groups, including Kangly, on Khwarezmid territories in the 1030s, evolving into formalized service. Internal tribal disputes within the disrupted cohesion, as clan rivalries over grazing lands fragmented alliances. Additionally, the Kangly clashed with during Seljuk expansions and with other groups over territorial dominance in during the 12th century. Economically, the Kangly's —centered on herding sheep, horses, and cattle—complemented Khwarezmid by supplying hides, dairy, and mounts to urban centers, while their control of northern routes facilitated the flow of goods like silk, spices, and metals between and the Islamic world. This symbiotic relationship enhanced the empire's wealth but exposed the Kangly to vulnerabilities of nomadic dependence on imperial stability.

Mongol Conquest and Integration

Subjugation by Genghis Khan

The subjugation of the Kangly tribe formed a critical component of the Mongol Empire's invasion of the Khwarezmian Empire, spanning 1219 to 1223, as Genghis Khan sought to punish Shah Muhammad II for the execution of Mongol envoys and the seizure of a trade caravan. The Kangly, a prominent Turkic nomadic group within the broader Kipchak confederation, had forged strong ties with the Khwarezmian rulers through marital and military alliances; notably, Terken Khatun, the powerful consort of Shah Ala al-Din Tekish and mother of Muhammad II, hailed from the Qanğlı (Kangly) subgroup of the Qıpčaq Turks, which bolstered their role as elite warriors in the empire's defense. These alliances positioned the Kangly as key defenders, contributing contingents to the Khwarezmian armies that initially numbered in the hundreds of thousands, though fragmented by internal divisions and the shah's indecisiveness. Genghis Khan divided his forces into multiple columns to overwhelm the Khwarezmian defenses, leading to decisive defeats of Kangly and other allied contingents in battles along the Syr Darya (ancient Jaxartes) River, the strategic frontier of the empire. After capturing Otrar in 1219, where initial resistance delayed the Mongols for five months, Genghis's main army crossed the Syr Darya and engaged scattered Khwarezmian forces, including Kangly horsemen loyal to the shah, in a series of skirmishes and pursuits that shattered organized opposition. A pivotal phase unfolded during the chase of the fleeing Muhammad II westward from Samarkand in late 1220; Mongol generals Jebe and Subutai Noyan led a detachment that routed the shah's rearguard—comprising Kangly warriors—near the river's banks and beyond, preventing any effective counterattack and forcing Muhammad to seek refuge on an island in the Caspian Sea, where he died in 1221. These engagements, documented in Persian chronicles, highlighted the Kangly's fierce but ultimately futile resistance against the Mongols' superior mobility and tactics. The aftermath of these victories brought widespread devastation to the Kangly, with massacres and enslavement decimating their population and scattering survivors across the steppe. In the sacked cities of Bukhara and Samarkand, Mongol troops systematically executed adult male defenders, including Kangly soldiers who formed part of the garrisons, while enslaving women, children, and artisans for labor or distribution as war spoils; Juvayni records that in Bukhara alone, tens of thousands perished, with the city's irrigation systems destroyed to ensure long-term depopulation. Displaced Kangly families faced forced relocation, and many able-bodied survivors were conscripted into Mongol tumens (units of 10,000) as auxiliaries, their nomadic expertise repurposed to support further conquests, marking the tribe's effective dissolution as an independent entity.

Service in the Yuan Dynasty

Following the Mongol conquests that dispersed many Kangly tribes across the empire, surviving members were absorbed into the 's (1271–1368) military and administrative apparatus, serving primarily in elite guard units loyal to the emperor. In 1287, under Kublai Khan's orders, specialized guard formations were established incorporating Kangly warriors alongside , with reinforcements added in 1291 to bolster the imperial defenses in Dadu (modern ). These units, part of the broader keshig system, performed critical duties such as security and ceremonial roles, reflecting the Kangly's transition from independent nomads to integrated auxiliaries within the Mongol-Chinese hierarchy. Kangly elites of Turkic origin rose to prominence in the Yuan court, holding influential positions in administration and scholarship. Notable figures included Buhumu, a Kangly who, along with his son Naonao, contributed to compiling key dynastic chronicles documented in the Yuan Shi; Naonao later served as a high-ranking bureaucrat. Others, such as and Dingzhu, headed government councils under the last Yuan emperor, Toghon-Timur (r. 1333–1368), while Tughluq exemplified Kangly presence in elite society. Additionally, scholars like Oros, of Kangly descent, participated in historical compilations, underscoring their administrative impact. These roles often involved Kipchak-Kangly collaborations, as seen in the ascension of Toghon-Timur to the throne, which highlighted peak Turkic influence in Yuan politics. Culturally, Kangly integration marked a shift from to sedentary court service, with many adopting roles as poets, writers, artists, and scholars that bridged Turkic and Chinese traditions. This adaptation facilitated intermarriage with Mongol , fostering hybrid elites who contributed to Yuan cultural production, such as literary works and artistic patronage under imperial sponsorship. By the dynasty's later years, such assimilation had embedded Kangly descendants into the broader (various-category) class, enhancing the multicultural fabric of Yuan governance.

Legacy and Descendants

Modern Ethnic Groups

Contemporary populations claiming descent from the Kangly are primarily found among various Turkic ethnic groups, where Kangly lineages persist as distinct clans preserved through oral traditions and genealogical records. Among the , the Kangly form one of the recognized tribes within the Middle Zhuz , with members distributed across and maintaining traditional kinship structures. Similarly, Kangly clans are documented among the and , often integrated into broader tribal alliances but retaining specific ethnonyms and customs linked to their historical nomadic heritage. Genetic studies provide evidence of these connections through Y-chromosome s associated with Kangly descendants. In Kazakh populations, the Kangly tribe shows a notably high frequency of Q (66.7%), distinguishing it from other tribes and supporting paternal lineage continuity from medieval nomads. Among , G1 expansions in the Kangly subgroup are dated to the CE, indicating post-Mongol integration and migration patterns into the Volga-Ural region. Ethnographic research further identifies Kangly subgroups, such as those in the Kanlin ulus, based on territorial and histories. These groups are geographically concentrated in , including and , where Kazakh, Uzbek, and Karakalpak communities reside; and the Volga-Ural area in .

Historical Significance

The Kangly, also known as Qaŋlï, played a pivotal role in bridging the Turkic and Mongol worlds during the 12th and 13th centuries, serving as a cultural and political intermediary in the Eurasian s. Their integration into Mongol structures is evidenced in primary sources such as The Secret History of the Mongols and Rašīd al-Dīn’s Jāmiʿ al-Tavārīkh, which highlight their distinct identity while documenting their alliances with groups like the and their participation in broader steppe confederations. This bridging function facilitated the transmission of Turkic nomadic traditions into emerging Mongol imperial frameworks, influencing governance and military organization across . The Kangly exerted significant influence on the Kipchak language and confederations, often appearing alongside in historical accounts while maintaining a separate . European traveler William of Rubruck's 13th-century observations describe their presence in Kipchak territories, underscoring their contributions to the linguistic and tribal composition of the Dasht-i Kipchak region. As a major component of Kipchak military forces under the Khwarezmshahs, the Kangly helped shape the confederation's resilience and expansion, blending Oghuz and Kipchak elements into a cohesive nomadic . Scholarly debates persist regarding the relations between the Kangly and the earlier tribe, with unresolved questions about direct ethnic continuity or shared nomenclature from the Kingdom. Proponents of linkage cite linguistic parallels and geographic overlaps in sources like the works of Ekrem (1998) and Kljaštornyj (1964), yet consensus remains elusive due to sparse textual evidence from the 8th to 11th centuries. Additionally, there is a pressing need for expanded archaeological investigations at pre-Tang sites, such as those along the , to corroborate textual references and clarify early Kangly beyond reliance on Chinese like the Tongdian. In terms of legacy, the Kangly's movements contributed to the dynamics of trade and migrations, enhancing connectivity between eastern Turkic heartlands and western Eurasian networks through their control of key routes and interactions with sedentary powers. Their role in these processes is noted in Yuan sources like the Yuanshi (120.2970), which detail their facilitation of and shifts amid 12th-century upheavals. Western prior to 2023 studies, such as Marquart's 1914 , often presents outdated or incomplete coverage, emphasizing the necessity for recent interdisciplinary approaches to fully assess their enduring impact on Eurasian nomadic history.

References

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  3. https://www.jstor.org/stable/23658648
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  8. http://www.chinaknowledge.de/Literature/Historiography/tanghuiyao.html
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  20. https://real.mtak.hu/45784/1/aorient.58.2005.3.3.pdf
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  23. https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0122968
  24. https://www.jstor.org/stable/26571579
  25. https://e-history.kz/en/history-of-kazakhstan/show/9508
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