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Visualisation of the four-document hypothesis. "L" is the term for material unique to the Gospel of Luke.

In textual criticism of the New Testament, the L source is a hypothetical oral or textual tradition which the author of Luke–Acts may have used when composing the Gospel of Luke.[1][2]

Composition

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The question of how to explain the similarities among the Gospels Matthew, Mark, and Luke is known as the synoptic problem. The hypothetical L source fits a contemporary solution in which Mark was the first gospel and Q was a written source for both Matthew and Luke. According to the four-document hypothesis, the author combined Mark, the Q source, and L to produce his gospel.[1] The material in L, like that in M, probably comes from the oral tradition.[1] I. Howard Marshall (1994) stated: "Luke rightly regarded these sources as reliable".[3]

James R. Edwards (2009) equated the L source with the Hebrew Gospel referred to by patristic authors.[4] His thesis has not been accepted by other scholars.[5][6][7]

Contents

[edit]
See also: Authorship of Luke–Acts § Language
According to Honoré (1968), the unique material ("L") amounted to 35% of the Gospel of Luke.[8]

According to Honoré (1968), the unique material in the third Gospel (termed "L") amounted to 35% of that gospel.[8] Theissen (1998) went further, stating that the special material comprises nearly half of the Gospel of Luke.[9]

L includes the Annunciation, the Visitation, the Lukan account of the virgin birth of Jesus (including the Adoration of the Shepherds, the Circumcision and Presentation of Jesus at the Temple), the Finding in the Temple, many parables of Jesus, and Jesus at Herod's court. Like Matthew's unique source, known as M, the L source has several parables such as the Parable of the Good Samaritan (Luke 10:25–37) and the Parable of the Prodigal Son (Luke 15:11–32).[1]

According to E. Earle Ellis (1999), the L source material exhibits the highest prevalence of Semitisms within the Luke–Acts corpus, so that Semitic sources were probably at the basis of L source verses such as Luke 1:5–2:40; 5:1–11; 7:11–17, 36–50; 8:1–3; 9:51–56; 11:27f.; 13:10–17; 14:1–6; 17:11–19; 19:1–10; 23:50–24:53.[10] By contrast, the portions of the Gospel of Luke that parallel the contents of the Gospel of Mark represented 'a more polished Greek' than Mark's, and show fewer Hebraisms.[10]

See also

[edit]

References

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L source

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The L source is a hypothetical collection of oral or written traditions unique to the Gospel of Luke, consisting of narratives, parables, and sayings not present in the other of Matthew and Mark. In the context of the synoptic problem—the scholarly inquiry into the literary relationships among the first three Gospels—this source is posited as one of the foundational documents used by the author of Luke, alongside the Gospel of Mark and the hypothetical (a collection of sayings shared by Matthew and Luke). Proposed within the developed by biblical scholar in 1924, the L source accounts for a significant portion of Luke's unique content, about 35% of the , emphasizing themes such as compassion for the marginalized, the role of women, and ' interactions with outcasts. Key elements attributed to the L source include much of the extended infancy narratives and parables exclusive to Luke, such as the Good Samaritan (Luke 10:25–37) and the Prodigal Son (Luke 15:11–32), as well as miracle stories like the raising of the widow's son at Nain (Luke 7:11–17). The significance of the L source lies in its revelation of diverse early Christian traditions that shaped Luke's composition around 80–90 CE, likely drawn from pre-Lukan communities in the Eastern Mediterranean or Hellenistic Jewish circles. It underscores the Lukan evangelist's theological priorities, including a universal Gospel message, emphasis on prayer, and portrayal of Jesus as savior for Gentiles and the poor, distinguishing Luke from the more Jewish-oriented Matthew. While the exact nature of L—whether a single document, multiple oral traditions, or partly Lukan invention—remains debated among scholars, its identification supports the broader consensus on Markan priority and the independence of Luke's unique contributions to the New Testament canon.

Historical Context

The Synoptic Problem

The Synoptic Problem designates the scholarly inquiry into the literary interrelationships among the three —Matthew, Mark, and Luke—which exhibit remarkable similarities in content, narrative sequence, and phrasing, while diverging significantly from the Gospel of John. These affinities include parallel accounts of Jesus's ministry, teachings, miracles, and passion narrative, often with verbatim agreements that extend to hundreds of verses. In contrast, John's theological emphases and structure set it apart, prompting focused analysis on the Synoptics' shared framework. Early recognition of these parallels dates to the patristic period, with in the fourth century addressing them in De consensu evangelistarum by proposing a compositional order of Matthew followed by Mark as an abridger and then Luke, aiming to harmonize apparent discrepancies. Systematic investigation emerged in the eighteenth century through Jakob Griesbach, who coined the term "Synoptic" and advocated for Matthean priority with Luke drawing from Matthew and Mark abbreviating both. In the nineteenth century, Karl Lachmann advanced the discussion by arguing for Markan priority based on textual order and agreements, laying groundwork for modern hypotheses. Central evidence includes the triple tradition, comprising approximately 500 verses shared across all three Gospels, such as the and the feeding of the multitudes; the double tradition, featuring about 230 verses unique to Matthew and Luke, like the and the ; and special material unique to each Gospel, reflecting distinct emphases. These patterns—evident in synoptic alignments where Mark's 661 verses appear in 90% of Matthew and 50% of Luke—underscore non-random overlaps that exceed coincidental oral transmission. The implications of this evidence necessitate explanations involving either direct literary dependence among the authors or recourse to hypothetical shared sources, as independent composition struggles to account for the precise verbal parallels and sequential consistencies without positing borrowing or common antecedents. One solution, the , posits Mark and additional sources to resolve these relations. This framework highlights the Synoptics' role in reconstructing early Christian traditions while underscoring ongoing debates in scholarship.

Development of Source Hypotheses

The development of source hypotheses for the began in the 18th century with the Griesbach hypothesis, also known as the two-gospel theory, which posited that the Gospel of Matthew was composed first, followed by Luke drawing upon Matthew, and Mark serving as an abbreviation that conflated material from both Matthew and Luke. This view, articulated by Johann Jakob Griesbach in his Synopsis Evangeliorum (1789–1790), emphasized the priority of Matthew based on early church traditions and sought to explain agreements and discrepancies among the gospels through direct literary dependence without invoking lost documents. Although influential initially, the hypothesis faced challenges from emerging historical-critical methods that highlighted Mark's seemingly primitive style and shorter length. In the , the concept of Markan priority gained prominence, with scholars arguing that Mark represented the earliest due to its concise, unpolished narrative and the tendency of Matthew and Luke to expand or refine its content. Heinrich Julius Holtzmann's Die synoptischen Evangelien (1863) provided a foundational defense of this priority, positing an original form of Mark (Ur-Markus) as the base from which Matthew and Luke derived, while addressing agreements in non-Markan material through hypothetical sources. This shift marked a departure from Matthean priority, establishing Mark as the chronological starting point for Synoptic relationships through detailed textual comparisons. The two-source theory emerged as a refinement, introduced by Christian Hermann Weisse in Die evangelische Geschichte (1838), which combined Markan priority with a shared sayings source (later termed ) to account for material common to Matthew and Luke but absent from Mark. Weisse's model explained the "double tradition" without requiring mutual dependence between Matthew and Luke, influencing subsequent scholarship. Burnett Streeter's The Four Gospels: A Study of Origins (1924) further solidified and expanded this framework, providing comprehensive arguments for Mark and as primary sources while introducing M and L to cover unique material in Matthew and Luke, respectively, thus forming the . In this extension, the L source represented Luke's distinctive traditions, integrated alongside Mark and . Key milestones in the included challenges to the two-source model, such as Austin Farrer's 1955 essay "On Dispensing with Q," which proposed eliminating Q by suggesting Luke directly used Matthew after both drew from Mark, thereby simplifying the dependencies to a sequential . Despite such modifications, multi-source theories, including variants of Streeter's four-document approach incorporating L, have persisted into the , supported by ongoing textual analyses and archaeological correlations that underscore the complexity of oral and written traditions behind the gospels.

The Four-Document Hypothesis

Overview of the Hypothesis

The four-document hypothesis, also known as the four-source theory, posits that the Synoptic Gospels—Matthew, Mark, and Luke—were composed using four primary sources: the Gospel of Mark, the hypothetical sayings source Q, a special source M unique to Matthew, and a special source L unique to Luke. This model, first systematically articulated by B. H. Streeter in his 1924 work The Four Gospels: A Study of Origins, builds on the earlier two-source hypothesis by incorporating M and L to account for material peculiar to each evangelist. Mark serves as the foundational narrative source, reproduced in approximately 90% of its content in both Matthew and Luke, while Q provides shared non-Markan sayings and teachings found in Matthew and Luke but absent from Mark. The M and L sources then supply the distinctive elements: M for Matthew's unique traditions, such as parables and infancy narratives, and L for Luke's specific contributions, including certain miracles and travel discourses. In this framework, the Gospel of Luke is conceptualized as a composite derived from these sources, often represented as Luke = Mark + + , where the L material fills in the unique portions not overlapping with Mark or the Q-shared content. Scholarly estimates suggest that L constitutes approximately 35% of Luke's content, according to A. M. Honoré's statistical analysis in his 1968 study "A Statistical Study of the Synoptic Problem." Other researchers have estimated this proportion closer to 50%, emphasizing L's substantial role in shaping Luke's distinctive theological emphases. One key advantage of the is its ability to explain the extensive non-Markan material in Luke—such as unique parables and narrative expansions—without requiring the assumption that Luke directly depended on Matthew, as in alternative models like the . This approach aligns with the broader Synoptic Problem, which seeks to resolve the literary interdependencies among the Gospels through source-critical methods, thereby preserving the independence of Matthew and Luke in their use of special traditions.

Role of the L Source

In the , the L source represents a hypothetical —potentially oral or textual—exclusive to of Luke, providing material that neither derives from the Gospel of Mark nor overlaps with the shared between Luke and Matthew. This source accounts for content unique to Luke, enabling the evangelist to incorporate distinctive narrative elements without reliance on the other primary documents. As part of this model, L functions as Luke's special source, complementing Mark's framework and Q's sayings to form a cohesive Proto-Luke structure that the author then expanded. The source contributes substantially to the Gospel of Luke, comprising approximately 35-50% of its text or around 400-550 verses out of Luke's total of 1,151 verses. This significant portion fills narrative gaps left by Mark and Q, allowing Luke to develop a more comprehensive account of ' ministry with an emphasis on themes tailored to his . Specifically, L supplies elements that enhance the gospel's focus on ' journey toward , integrating additional teachings and events that underscore , social , and universal . Unlike the Q source, which consists of shared sayings and discourses between Matthew and Luke, the L source is entirely Luke-specific, offering narrative and parabolic material that distinguishes Luke's portrayal of Jesus from the other Synoptics. While Q provides a common foundation of ethical and apocalyptic teachings, L enables Luke to craft unique vignettes and expansions, such as extended infancy narratives and parables, thereby contributing to the gospel's literary and theological uniqueness. This distinction underscores L's role in making Luke the longest and most detailed of the Synoptic Gospels, prioritizing a orderly and inclusive historical narrative.

Composition and Nature

Hypothesized Form and Origins

The hypothesized form of the L source remains a subject of scholarly debate, with the predominant traditional view positing it as an comprising stories and narratives from early Christian communities in . This perspective emphasizes the transmission of material through spoken accounts in the linguistic and cultural milieu of first-century , prior to its incorporation into Luke's Greek composition. Scholars such as I. Howard Marshall have argued that much of the L material likely derives from such Palestinian oral traditions, reflecting localized preaching and teaching practices among ' followers. Alternative textual hypotheses propose that L could represent a written document, potentially a "Hebrew Gospel" or proto-Luke source. James R. Edwards, in his 2009 study, identifies L with references to an early Hebrew gospel tradition, suggesting it served as a distinct written collection of sayings and events that Luke adapted and expanded. This view posits L as a more formalized textual entity, possibly compiled from earlier written fragments, though Edwards acknowledges the challenges in reconstructing its exact . The origins of the are traced to the mid-1st century CE, likely rooted in eyewitness testimonies or communal traditions preserved within the early Jerusalem church. These elements are seen as drawing from direct participants in ' ministry or their immediate circles, aligning with Luke's (:1–4), which alludes to investigations among eyewitnesses and servants of the word. Within the , L functions as the unique source supplying Luke's non-Markan, non-Q material, distinct from shared synoptic traditions. Supporting evidence for the Semitic character of L includes the high concentration of Semitisms in its attributed passages, such as Hebraic or syntactic structures and vocabulary that deviate from standard . E. Earle has noted that L exhibits the greatest density of such features across the Luke-Acts corpus, pointing to non-Greek origins in or Hebrew-speaking environments. These linguistic markers underscore the source's probable emergence from Palestinian Jewish-Christian circles rather than Hellenistic ones.

Scholarly Perspectives on Reliability

Scholars have offered positive assessments of the L source's reliability, emphasizing its temporal and cultural proximity to the events it recounts. I. Howard Marshall (1994) argues that the traditions in L are dependable, as Luke evidently viewed them as trustworthy accounts drawn close to the lifetime of and his immediate followers. Similarly, E. Earle Ellis (1999) points to the presence of Semitic influences, such as linguistic patterns and Jewish interpretive techniques, in the L material as evidence of its early origins and authenticity within Aramaic-speaking Christian communities. Quantitative analyses further bolster these views by highlighting the distinctiveness and coherence of L. A. M. Honoré (1968) employed statistical methods to examine and sentence structures, revealing stylistic consistency in L passages that differentiates them from Markan and Q material, thereby supporting L's identity as an independent source. Gerd Theissen (1998) underscores the substantial volume of L content, which accounts for approximately 35% of the Gospel of Luke, reinforcing its role as a significant, self-contained rather than mere editorial additions by the evangelist. Despite these affirmations, challenges to L's reliability persist, particularly regarding the risks of alteration in its hypothesized oral form. Oral transmission in early Christian communities could introduce embellishments or adaptations over time, potentially shaping narratives to address emerging theological needs before their incorporation into Luke. In scholarly consensus, the L source enjoys broad acceptance within the as a reliable repository of unique traditions, integral to understanding the Gospel's composition, although its precise boundaries and transmission remain subjects of qualification and further .

Contents and Characteristics

Specific Material Attributed to L

The L source encompasses material unique to the Gospel of Luke, distinct from the Markan and Q traditions, and is estimated to comprise approximately 500 verses. This special source forms a substantial portion of Luke's composition, representing about 43% of the gospel's 1,151 verses. A primary contribution from the L source is the infancy narrative in :1–2:52, which details the to Zechariah (1:5–25), the birth and concerning (1:57–80), the to Mary (1:26–38), the visitation (1:39–56), the birth of (2:1–20), the presentation in the temple (2:21–38), and ' childhood encounter in the temple (2:41–52). The L source also provides several distinctive parables, including the (10:25–37), which illustrates neighborly love through a Samaritan's aid to a robbed traveler; the (15:11–32), depicting a father's of his wayward son; and the (16:19–31), contrasting the fates of a wealthy man and a beggar. Other narrative events attributed to the L source include Jesus' trial before (23:6–12), where Herod questions and mocks Jesus without finding guilt, and the road to appearance (24:13–35), recounting a post-resurrection encounter with two disciples. The L source further supplies the framework for the extended travel narrative in :51–18:14 (often extended to 19:27), structuring Jesus' journey to with unique episodes such as the sending of the seventy-two disciples (10:1–24), the story of and Mary (10:38–42), the raising of the widow's son at Nain (7:11–17), and the encounter with (19:1–10). This section integrates L material to emphasize themes of journey and preparation, excluding overlaps with Mark or .

Linguistic and Thematic Features

The material attributed to the L source in Luke's Gospel is characterized by a high density of Semitisms, including Hebrew idioms particularly evident in parables and Semitic syntax that surpasses the prevalence found in Markan or material incorporated into Luke. According to E. Earle Ellis, this L material exhibits the highest concentration of Semitisms within the entire Luke-Acts corpus, indicating reliance on Semitic oral or written traditions as its origins. These linguistic traits contribute to a distinctive Hebraic flavor, as analyzed by Joseph A. Fitzmyer, who notes that while Luke's Greek is generally polished and Hellenistic, the Semitisms in special Lukan sections suggest direct influence from or Hebrew sources rather than solely Septuagintal mediation. Furthermore, the L source enriches Luke's vocabulary with unique terms known as Lukanisms—over 300 words appearing exclusively in Luke or Luke-Acts—which underscore the evangelist's idiomatic style and theological precision. This specialized , including words related to , salvation, and social reversal, appears more densely in L sections than in parallels drawn from Mark, enhancing the Gospel's rhetorical elegance and conceptual depth. Thematically, the L source emphasizes as a central spiritual discipline, featuring nine instances of praying that are unique to Luke and absent from the other Synoptics, such as his withdrawal to pray before selecting the apostles or teaching the in response to a disciple's request. It also highlights the prominence of women, portraying figures like Mary and Elizabeth as active participants in God's redemptive plan within the infancy narratives, and extends compassion to social outcasts, including , the poor, and tax collectors, through parables and encounters that illustrate . These emphases align with Luke's broader motif of universal salvation, portraying God's kingdom as inclusive of marginalized groups across ethnic and social boundaries. In narrative style, L material demonstrates an expansive and orderly progression, particularly in the central journey to Jerusalem section (Luke 9:51–19:27), where it structures events with deliberate theological layering to convey progression toward fulfillment. Compared to Markan parallels in Luke, these L sections exhibit greater theological depth, integrating ethical teachings on , , and discipleship with vivid, illustrative episodes like the to deepen the reader's understanding of and grace.

Scholarly Debate

Criticisms and Challenges

One of the primary criticisms of the L source hypothesis is the complete absence of any surviving document or external attestation, rendering it an entirely speculative construct inferred solely from perceived literary seams in the Gospel of Luke. Unlike Mark, which exists as a physical text, or Q, which is reconstructed from parallel passages in Matthew and Luke, L relies on indirect evidence from Luke's unique narratives, such as the infancy story and certain parables, leading scholars to question whether these elements necessitate a distinct written source or could simply reflect the evangelist's creative redaction. This evidential gap has been highlighted as a methodological weakness in source criticism, where the multiplication of hypothetical documents risks overcomplicating explanations for textual similarities without empirical support. Further challenges arise from ambiguities in identifying L material, as some passages attributed to it exhibit potential overlaps with traditions in Mark or Q that could stem from oral variants rather than a unique written document. William R. Farmer, in his influential 1964 analysis, critiques the four-document hypothesis by arguing that such overlaps are better explained through direct literary dependence among the gospels, as in the Griesbach theory, obviating the need for L as a separate entity. Farmer contends that assuming L leads to , where source divisions are imposed retroactively to fit preconceived models, potentially misattributing Luke's adaptations of shared oral or Markan elements to a lost text. Stylistic analyses have also undermined the coherence of as a distinct source, with critics noting that its purported content integrates too seamlessly with Luke's overall vocabulary, theology, and narrative style to suggest an external document. In the Farrer-Goulder hypothesis, scholars like Michael Goulder argue that material traditionally assigned to —such as the Good Samaritan parable or the road to —bears the unmistakable imprint of Lukan authorship, lacking the linguistic discontinuities expected from a pre-existing source blended with Mark and . This critique posits that the hypothesis over-relies on arbitrary demarcations, as the fluidity of ancient composition allows for authorial invention or reworking without invoking additional lost writings. Modern scholarship has intensified these objections through the resurgence of theories, which reduce the explanatory burden of written sources like by emphasizing performative and communal transmission in . Scholars such as James D. G. Dunn, drawing on Bailey's concept of "informal controlled oral tradition" preserved through communal memory practices in Jewish and early Christian communities, propose that Luke's special material likely drew from such oral traditions, accounting for thematic consistencies without positing a unified written L. This approach, supported by form-critical studies of variation in synoptic parallels (e.g., 10-40% wording differences attributable to oral ), aligns with archaeological and textual evidence of limited in first-century , fostering minimalist views that favor fewer hypothetical documents in favor of dynamic, non-literary origins.

Alternatives and Relations to Other Sources

In the four-source hypothesis, the L source serves as the counterpart to Matthew's M source, encompassing material unique to Luke's Gospel, such as the birth narrative, the Good Samaritan parable, and the prodigal son, while Q provides the shared sayings tradition between Matthew and Luke. Potential overlaps exist in the double tradition, where some scholars argue that certain L-like elements may have been influenced by or oral parallels, though L is typically defined as distinct from Q's core content. Alternative models to the four-source hypothesis challenge the existence of L as a discrete written document. The , which posits Mark and as the primary sources for both Matthew and Luke, absorbs L material into oral traditions, minor written sources, or Luke's independent composition, thereby simplifying the explanatory framework without requiring a dedicated L document. In contrast, the proposes that Luke drew directly from Mark and Matthew, rendering both and L unnecessary, as Luke's unique content arises from redactional expansion rather than a separate source. The proto-Luke hypothesis, meanwhile, envisions L as an early, pre-existing proto-gospel that Luke later integrated with Markan material, potentially positioning it as a bridge between oral traditions and the final form. Comparatively, three-source views (incorporating Mark, , and L) treat L as a specialized supplement to for Luke's narrative expansions, preserving a multilayered dependency that accounts for stylistic variances in Luke's special material; however, this is critiqued for multiplying hypothetical sources. In two-source models, L merges conceptually with or diffuse oral elements, impacting synoptic solutions by favoring parsimony and reducing reliance on lost documents, though it struggles to explain Luke's cohesive non-Markan sections. Since the post-1950s, with the rise of the and refinements to the two-source model, has been retained in many reconstructions of Luke's composition but remains debated, as contemporary scholarship increasingly favors integrated source theories over isolated documents like .

References

  1. http://www.crivoice.org/pdf/synoptic.pdf
  2. https://www.apostolic-times.com/Files/GospelsActs/Luke-Acts/Luke.html
  3. https://www.dikaioma.com/wp-content/uploads/2017/01/The-Synoptic-Problem.pdf
  4. https://digitalcommons.georgefox.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1148&context=gfes
  5. https://www.oxfordbibliographies.com/abstract/document/obo-9780195393361/obo-9780195393361-0120.xml
  6. https://www.crivoice.org/synoptic.html
  7. https://douglasbeaumont.com/wp-content/uploads/2020/03/introduction_to_the_synoptic_problem.pdf
  8. https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/new-testament-studies/article/lukes-doublets-and-the-synoptic-problem/54BB3D3FFBCA6D2981E85874D4CCC11A
  9. https://rss.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1111/j.1740-9713.2006.00195.x
  10. https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/0142064X7900200303
  11. https://directionjournal.org/10/2/synoptic-problem-and-genre-question.html
  12. https://archive.org/details/diesynoptischen00holtgoog
  13. https://archive.org/details/dieevangelischeg0002weis
  14. https://archive.org/details/fourgospelsstudy0000stre
  15. https://johnmarkharris.net/wp-content/uploads/2015/07/Farrer-On-Dispensing-with-Q.pdf
  16. https://www.thegospelcoalition.org/themelios/article/the-q-debate-since-1955/
  17. https://biblicalstudies.org.uk/pdf/4gospels_streeter/complete.pdf
  18. https://catholic-resources.org/Bible/Synoptic_Problem.htm
  19. https://textandcanon.org/b-h-streeters-four-gospels-at-one-hundred/
  20. https://rsc.byu.edu/new-testament-history-culture-society/synoptic-gospels
  21. https://brill.com/display/book/9789004696372/BP000012.pdf
  22. https://digitalcommons.liberty.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=2087&context=masters
  23. https://translation.bible/wp-content/uploads/2024/06/marshall-1994-commentaries-on-the-synoptic-gospels-mark-and-luke.pdf
  24. https://www.thegospelcoalition.org/themelios/article/synoptic-studies-some-recent-methodological-developments-and-debates/
  25. https://www.britannica.com/topic/biblical-literature/The-Gospel-According-to-Luke
  26. https://biblequestions.info/2019/07/13/what-are-the-m-and-l-sources/
  27. http://oldsite.english.ucsb.edu/faculty/oconnell/lukeunique.htm
  28. https://books.google.com/books?id=k5-J92rnKOEC
  29. https://books.google.com/books/about/The_Gospel_According_to_Luke_I_IX.html?id=hWEqNAAACAAJ
  30. https://www.tyndalebulletin.org/article/30644.pdf
  31. https://books.google.com/books?id=RSNT4X_FdpEC
  32. https://www.jstor.org/stable/43049023
  33. https://place.asburyseminary.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1108&context=jibs
  34. https://www.markgoodacre.org/Q/goulder.htm
  35. https://www.thegospelcoalition.org/themelios/article/informal-controlled-oral-tradition-and-the-synoptic-gospels/
  36. https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/pdf/10.1177/1030570X0601900105
  37. https://archive.org/details/fourgospels0000stre
  38. https://www.jstor.org/stable/3261771
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