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When a person (traditionally the wife in many cultures) assumes the family name of their spouse, in some countries and cultures that name replaces the person's previous surname, which in the case of the wife is called the maiden name ("birth name" is also used as a gender-neutral or masculine substitute for maiden name), whereas a married name is a family name or surname adopted upon marriage.

In some jurisdictions, changing names requires a legal process. When people marry or divorce, the legal aspects of changing names may be simplified or included, so that the new name is established as part of the legal process of marrying or divorcing. Traditionally, in the Anglophone West, women are far more likely to change their surnames upon marriage than men, but in some instances men may change their last names upon marriage as well, including same-sex couples.[1]

In this article, birth name, family name, surname, married name and maiden name refer to patrilineal surnames unless explicitly described as referring to matrilineal surnames.

Name changes upon marriage

[edit]

Women changing their own last name after marriage encounter little difficulty in doing so when the opportunity is included in the legal process of marrying.[1][2] Unless the statutes where the marriage occurred specify that a name change may occur at marriage (in which case the marriage certificate indicates the new name), courts following common law officially recognize it as the right of a person (man, woman, and sometimes child) to change their name. However, men encounter more difficulties in changing their last names.[3]

Use husband's family name

[edit]

In the past, a woman in England usually assumed her new husband's family name (or surname) after marriage; often she was compelled to do so under coverture laws. Assuming the husband's surname remains common practice today in the United Kingdom (although there is no law that states the name must be changed) and in other countries such as Australia, New Zealand, Pakistan, Gibraltar, Falkland Islands, India, Philippines, Canada (excluding Quebec), and the United States. Often there are variations of name adoption, including family name adoption. Usually, the children of these marriages are given their father's surname.

Some families (mainly in the US) have a custom of using the mother's maiden name as a middle name for one of the children—Franklin Delano Roosevelt received his middle name in this way,[4] as did Isambard Kingdom Brunel in Britain. Some even use the mother's maiden name as a first name, such as Spessard Holland, a former governor of Florida and former senator, whose mother's maiden name was Virginia Spessard.

Retain the birth name

[edit]

Women who keep their own surname after marriage may do so for a number of reasons:

  • They see no reason to change their name, much like men often see no reason to change theirs.
  • Objection to the one-sidedness of this tradition.[5]
  • Being the last member of their family with that surname.
  • To avoid the hassle of paperwork related to their change of name.
  • Wishing to retain their identity.
  • Preferring their last name to their spouse's last name.
  • To avoid professional ramifications.[6]

Feminism

[edit]

The feminist Lucy Stone (1818–1893) made a national issue of a married woman's right to keep her own surname (as she herself did upon marriage) as part of her efforts for women's rights in the U.S. Because of her, women who choose not to use their husbands' surnames have been called "Lucy Stoners".[7] The feminist Elizabeth Cady Stanton took her husband's surname as part of her own, signing herself Elizabeth Cady Stanton or E. Cady Stanton, but she refused to be addressed as Mrs. Henry B. Stanton. She wrote in 1847 that "the custom of calling women Mrs. John This and Mrs. Tom That and colored men Sambo and Zip Coon, is founded on the principle that white men are lords of all."[8][9] Later, when addressing the judiciary committee of the state legislature of New York in 1860 in a speech called "A Slave's Appeal", she stated in part, "The negro [slave] has no name. He is Cuffy Douglas or Cuffy Brooks, just whose Cuffy he may chance to be. The woman has no name. She is Mrs. Richard Roe or Mrs. John Doe, just whose Mrs. she may chance to be."[10][11]

The feminist Jane Grant, co-founder of The New Yorker, wrote in 1943 of her efforts to keep her name despite her marriage, as well as other women's experiences with their maiden names regarding military service, passports, voting, and business. More recently, the feminist Jill Filipovic's opposition to name change for women who marry was published in The Guardian in 2013 as "Why should married women change their names? Let men change theirs", and cited as recommended reading on the theory of social construction of gender in Critical Encounters in Secondary English: Teaching Literacy Theory to Adolescents by Deborah Appleman (2014).[12][13][14] When Filipovic married in 2018, she kept her last name.[15][16]

Join both names (hyphenation)

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Main article: Double-barrelled name

It is less common for women, especially in the United States and Canada, to add their spouse's name and their own birth name.[1] There are examples of this, however, in U.S. senator Cindy Hyde-Smith and U.S. sitting congresswomen Sheila Cherfilus-McCormick and Mariannette Miller-Meeks, as well as U.S. former congresswomen Lucille Roybal-Allard, Ileana Ros-Lehtinen, and Debbie Mucarsel-Powell. Former U.S. president Barack Obama's only maternal half-sibling is Maya Soetoro-Ng, formerly Maya Soetoro. Farrah Fawcett was known as Farrah Fawcett-Majors during her marriage to Lee Majors until their separation in 1979. Activist Ruby Doris Smith-Robinson was known as Ruby Doris Smith prior to her marriage.

Name blending

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Main article: Name blending

Although less common than name joining, a growing trend is the blending of two surnames upon marriage.[17] This means adding parts of the two names. An example is Dawn O'Porter (from Porter and O'Dowd).[18]

Birth name as middle name

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Examples include Amy Coney Barrett, Maryanne Trump Barry, Maud Gage Baum, Shirley Temple Black, Vera Cahalan Bushfield,[19] Marguerite Stitt Church,[20] Bonnie Watson Coleman, Cindy Parlow Cone, Hillary Rodham Clinton (dropped maiden name in 2007),[21] Ruth Bader Ginsburg, Marjorie Taylor Greene, Katherine Gudger Langley,[22] Ruth Hanna McCormick,[23] Nelle Wilson Reagan, Edith Nourse Rogers,[24] Sarah Huckabee Sanders, Margaret Chase Smith,[25] and Jada Pinkett Smith. During their respective marriages, Kim Kardashian and Robin Wright were known as Kim Kardashian West (from Kanye West) and Robin Wright Penn (from Sean Penn). Politician Nikki Haley is sometimes referred to as Nikki R. Haley; the "R" stands for Randhawa, her birth surname.

Spouse's surname as middle name

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Examples include Brooklyn Peltz Beckham and John Ono Lennon (wife's name) and Marie Gluesenkamp Perez (husband's name). When British author Neil Gaiman married American musician Amanda Palmer, he added his wife's middle name to his, becoming Neil Richard MacKinnon Gaiman.[26]

New name

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Some couples will create an entirely new surname for themselves upon marriage, with no ties to either's original surname. This practice is less common than name blending.[27]

North America

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Canada

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Main article: Canadian name

In most of Canada, either partner may informally assume the spouse's surname after marriage, so long as it is not for the purposes of fraud. The same is true for people in common-law relationships, in some provinces. This is not considered a legal name change in most provinces, excluding British Columbia.[28] For federal purposes, such as a Canadian passport, Canadians may also assume their partner's surname if they are in a common-law relationship.[29] In the province of British Columbia, people have to undergo a legal name change if they want to use a combined surname after marriage.[30] Their marriage certificate is considered proof of their new name.[31][32]

The custom in Québec was similar to the one in France until 1981. Women would traditionally go by their husband's surname in daily life, but their maiden name remained their legal name.[33] Since the passage of a 1981 provincial law intended to promote gender equality, as outlined in the Québec Charter of Rights, no change may be made to a person's name without the authorization of the registrar of civil status or the authorization of the court. Married individuals who wish to change their names upon marriage must therefore go through the same procedure as those changing their names for other reasons. The registrar of civil status may authorize a name change if:

  1. the name the person generally uses does not correspond to the name on their birth certificate,
  2. the name is of foreign origin or too difficult to pronounce or write in its original form, or
  3. the name invites ridicule or has become infamous.[34]

Marriage by itself is not considered to be an acceptable reason for a legal name change and a person may be required to show documentation that keeping their maiden name would cause psychological harm. This law has been criticized as taking away a woman's choice in choosing her name.[35] Women married outside of Quebec are also expected to use their birth name as their legal name if they reside in the province.[36]

United States

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There were some early cases in the United States that held that under common law, a woman was required to take her husband's name,[37] but newer cases overturned that (see "Retain the birth name" above).[38] Currently, American women do not have to change their names by law.[39] Lindon v. First National Bank, 10 F. 894 (W.D. Pa. 1882), is one of the very earliest precedent-setting US federal court cases involving common law name change.[40] A woman who had changed her last name to one that was not her husband's original surname was trying to claim control over her inheritance. The court ruled in her favor. This set forth many things. By common law, one may lawfully change their name and be "known and recognized" by that new name. Also, one may enter into any kinds of contracts in their new adopted name. Contracts include employment (see Coppage v. Kansas 236 U.S. 1), and one can be recognized legally in court in their new name. In 1967 in Erie Exchange v. Lane, 246 Md. 55 (1967) the Maryland Court of Appeals held that a married woman can lawfully adopt an assumed name, even if it is not her birth name or the name of her lawful husband, without legal proceedings.[41] In the United States, only eight states provide for an official name change for a man as part of their marriage process,[citation needed] and in others a man may petition a court or—where not prohibited—change his name without a legal procedure (though government agencies sometimes do not recognize this procedure). The practice remains popular in the 21st century. According to a Pew Research Center survey published in September 2023, nearly 4 out of every 5 women in heterosexual marriages in the United States changed their last names to those of their husbands. On the other hand, 92% of all men in these marriages kept their last names.[42]

In 2007, Michael Buday and Diana Bijon enlisted the American Civil Liberties Union and filed a discrimination lawsuit against the state of California. According to the ACLU, the obstacles facing a husband who wishes to adopt his wife's last name violated the equal protection clause provided by the 14th Amendment of the Constitution.[43] At the time of the lawsuit, only the states of Georgia, Hawaii, Iowa, Massachusetts, New York and North Dakota explicitly allowed a man to change his name through marriage with the same ease as a woman. As a result of the lawsuit, the Name Equality Act of 2007 was passed to allow either spouse to change their name, using their marriage license as the means of the change; the law took effect in 2009.[3][44]

In the United States, some states or areas have laws that restrict what surname a child may have. For example, Tennessee allows a child to be given a surname that does not include that of the father only upon "the concurrent submission of a sworn application to that effect signed by both parents."[45]

In Massachusetts, a Harvard study in 2004 found that about 87% of college-educated women take their husbands' name on marriage, down from a peak before 1975 of over 90%, but up from about 80% in 1990. The same study found women with a college degree were "two to four times (depending on age) more likely to retain their surname" than those without a college degree.[46]

Mexico

[edit]

Following Latin American tradition, children are typically given a surname that combines the paternal surnames of their parents. In 2017, a child took their parents maternal surnames and was the first person to be legally allowed to do so.[47]

Europe

[edit]

Austria

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In Austria, since 1 April 2013, marriage does not automatically change a woman's name; therefore a name change can only take place upon legal application. Before that date, the default was for a married woman's name to be changed to that of her husband, unless she legally applied to opt out of this.[48]

France

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In France, by executive decision since 2011[49] and by law since 2013,[50] any married person may officially use their spouse's name as a common name by substituting or compounding it to their own. Before this it was common for married women to use their husband's name in everyday life, but this had no legal recognition.

A common name does not replace a person's family name as written on their birth certificate.

From 4 March 2002 to 4 December 2009, children given both parents' names had to have them separated by a double dash (ex: Dupont--Clairemont). On 4 December 2009, the Conseil d'État ruled that a space can be used instead of the double dash. As a result, forms asking for the choice of family name for a child (nom de famille) do so on two lines ("1ère partie: ..... ", "2e partie: ....")[51]

Germany

[edit]

In Germany, since 1977, a woman may adopt her husband's surname or a man may adopt his wife's surname. As an alternative, one of them may adopt a name combined from both surnames; the remaining unchanged surname is the "family name" (Ehename), which will be the surname of the children. If a man and woman both decide to keep and use their birth names after the wedding (no combined name), they shall declare one of those names the "family name". A combined name is not possible as a family name, but, since 2005, it has been possible to have a double name as a family name if one already had a double name, and the partner adopts that name. Double names then must be hyphenated. All family members must use that double name.[52][53] In 2025 true double names became legal for spouses as well as the possibility to have children bearing a double name whereas parents retain their birth names [54]

Greece

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Since 1983, when Greece adopted a new marriage law which guaranteed gender equality between the spouses,[55] women in Greece are required to keep their birth names for their whole lives.[56]

Iceland

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In Iceland, women retain their birth surnames, which are typically patronymic or occasionally matronymic: they indicate the woman's father (or mother) and not a historic family lineage. Iceland shares a common cultural heritage with the Scandinavian countries of Denmark, Norway, and Sweden. Unlike these countries, Icelanders have continued to use their traditional name system, which was formerly used in most of Northern Europe. The Icelandic system is thus not based on family names (although some people do have family names and might use both systems). Generally, a woamn's last name indicates the first name of her father (patronymic) or in some cases mother (matronymic) in the genitive, followed by -dóttir ("daughter"). Icelanders, male and female, are not addressed using surnames, but first names. For example, the Icelandic prime minister Kristrún Mjöll Frostadóttir, though married, is referred to as Kristrún.

Italy

[edit]

Spouses keep their original surnames. According to the Italian Civil Code (article 143 bis), a woman who marries keeps her surname and has the option of adding her husband's surname after hers. Non-Italian citizens getting married in Italy will not have their surname changed in Italy. However, brides or grooms can request their surname change in their home country.[57]

Netherlands

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In the Netherlands, persons who have been married in the Netherlands or entered into a registered partnership will remain registered under their birth name. They are, however, permitted to use their partner's last name for social purposes or join both names. Upon marriage or registered partnership, one may also indicate how one would like to be addressed by registering one's choice at the Municipal Basis Administration (Basisregistratie Personen), although their birth name does not change. One may choose to be called by one's own name, one's partner's name, one's own name followed by one's partner's name (hyphenated), or one's partner's name followed by their own name (hyphenated; this was the prevailing convention up to very recently. In this case the maiden name following the hyphen only uses a capital if it is a noun; if it is an affix like van or de the affix remains uncapitalized; this is an exception to the general rule for surnames that are capitalized when standing alone[58]). Both men and women may make this choice upon registering to get married or entering into a registered partnership. If the marriage or registered partnership ends, one may continue to use the ex-partner's last surname unless the ex-partner disagrees and requests the court to forbid the use of the ex-partner's surname.[59]

Before the birth or adoption of a first child, married parents or parents in a registered partnership may choose the child's surname. This can be either the father's name, the mother's name or both.[60] There is a maximum of two last names, so children of people with double last names AB and CD have to choose between either of those names (AB or CD), or a combination of these names (AC, CA, AD, DA, BC, CB, BD, DB), but not only one part (A, B, C or D) or reverse of current names (BA or DC). If no choice is made, the child automatically bears (only) the father's surname. Any further children will also go by this name. If the parents are not married, the children will automatically have their mother's name unless otherwise indicated.[61]

Portugal

[edit]

Wives usually append the family name of their spouse to their legal name, although there is a recent trend of women keeping their maiden names.[62] Following Portuguese naming customs, a person's name consists of a given name (simple or composite) followed by two family names (surnames), the mother's and the father's. Any children whom a couple have together, take both second-surnames.

Russia

[edit]

There is a widespread, though not universal, custom for a newly married wife to adopt the husband's family name. However, as Russia is not a common law country, any name change requires a formal procedure including an official application to the civil acts registrar. As the same registrar also records marriages, for the convenience sake it is often done during the marriage proceedings, as governed by the Federal Law #143-FZ "On Civil State Acts", and the couple's marriage certificate has an option of having one common family name, or both spouses going by their original surname. However, the law is entirely gender neutral, and the couple may adopt either of their surnames (a husband adopting his wife's family name is an uncommon but by no means unheard-of practice, which is generally accepted and carries little to no social stigma), or even a completely different one. The law also recognizes the couple's right to use the combined family name, and for the either of the spouses to reclaim their original surname in the case the marriage is dissolved.

Scotland

[edit]

In the lowlands of Scotland in the 16th century, married women did not change their surnames, but today it is common practice to do so.[63]

Spain

[edit]

Spouses have always kept their original surnames. Following Spanish naming customs, a person's name consists of a given name (simple or composite) followed by two family names (surnames), the father's and the mother's. Any children whom a couple have together take both first-surnames, so if "José Gómez Hevia" and "María Reyes García" had a child named "Andrés", the resulting name would be "Andrés Gómez Reyes".

Law 11/1981 in Spain, enacted in 1981, declared among other things that children, on turning 18, now had a legal option to choose whether their father's or mother's surname came first. If a family did not exercise an option to change the order of the names in their surname, the law defaulted to the father's surname as the first.[64]

Also in Spain, a 1995 reform in the law allows the parents to choose whether the father's or the mother's surname goes first, although this order must be the same for all their children. For instance, the name of the son of the couple in the example above could be "Andrés Gómez Reyes" or "Andrés Reyes Gómez".[65]

In some Spanish-American countries it is customary for women to unofficially add the husband's first surname after her own, for social purposes such as invitation letters or event announcements. The couple above may introduce themselves as José Gómez Hevia and María Reyes de Gómez. It is also common to name, in formal settings, the wife of a man as "señora de", followed by her husband's first surname.

Turkey

[edit]

Since 2014, women in Turkey are allowed to keep their birth names alone for their whole life instead of using their husbands' names.[66] Previously, the Turkish Code of Civil Law, Article 187, required a married woman to use her husband's surname; or else to use her birth name in front of her husband's name by giving a written application to the marriage officer or the civil registry office. In 2014, the Constitutional Court ruled that prohibiting married women from retaining only maiden names is a violation of their rights.[67]

Asia

[edit]

China

[edit]

Traditionally, unlike in Anglophone Western countries, a married woman keeps her name unchanged, without adopting her husband's surname.[68] In mainland China a child inherits their father's surname as a norm, though the marriage law explicitly states that a child may use either parent's surname. It is also common for two children born to the same parents to take different surnames, one after the father and the other after the mother. It is also possible, though far less common, for a child to combine both parents' surnames. Amongst the Chinese diaspora overseas, especially in Southeast Asia, women rarely legally adopt their spouse's surname.

Hong Kong

[edit]

Due to British influence, some people in Hong Kong have also adopted the tradition of women changing their English last name, or prepending their husband's Chinese surname to their own in official occasions or business cards but rarely on resident identification or travel documents. An example is former chief executive Carrie Lam Cheng Yuet-ngor, who prepended her husband Lam Siu-por's surname to hers.

Iran

[edit]

It became mandatory in 1918 to use surnames in Iran, and only in this time, the heads of families had the right to choose their family members' (including the wife) surname. It is stated in the article four of the law on Civil Registration in 1925, that "Everybody should choose his/her own name. The wife... maintains her family name that was called by." The same thing has been restated in the article three of the law on Civil Registration in 1928. There is not much difference in the article 38 of the law on Civil Registration in 1940, but there is another article (43) that says "If the couple separate legally, maintaining husband's surname is allowed if the husband allows, and if the husband has taken wife's family name, maintaining wife's surname is allowed if the wife allows." In the last related article (the article 42 of the law on Civil Registration in 1976) the same thing is said about wife's surname change, but it is silent about husband's surname change.[69][70] Currently, it is very unusual that either spouse change his/her surname after marriage in Iran.

Japan

[edit]

Japanese law does not recognize married couples who have different surnames as lawful husband and wife.[71] According to 2019 data, 95.5% of women took their husband's surname upon marriage.[72] The constitutionality of this law has been challenged in court.

In a 2015 ruling, and again in a 2021 ruling, the plaintiffs argued that forcing couples to share a surname violates the constitution, specifically the principles of individual dignity and gender equality, as the burden of changing a name disproportionately falls on women, causing a loss of identity.[73][74]

However, the Supreme Court of Japan has twice upheld the law, ruling it constitutional. In both the 2015 and 2021 decisions, the Court stated that the single-surname system is well-established in Japanese society and is a rational way to identify family members. The Court also noted that any disadvantages from a name change are mitigated by the widespread informal use of maiden names, and concluded that the issue of allowing separate spousal names is a matter for the Diet (Japan's parliament) to decide, not the judiciary.[75][76]

Legal challenges continued in 2024. In March, on International Women's Day, a total of twelve plaintiffs (six couples) filed lawsuits against the government in both the Tokyo and Sapporo district courts.[77] The plaintiffs are seeking damages, arguing that "the current situation, where one party must abandon their surname to marry, harms individual dignity."[78]

The issue has also drawn international scrutiny. In November 2024, the U.N. Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination against Women (CEDAW) urged the Japanese government to revise the Civil Code to allow married couples to choose separate surnames. The committee expressed deep concern that the current system is discriminatory and disproportionately impacts women, recommending that Japan "ensure that women and men can choose their family name upon marriage without any constraints or discrimination."[79]

North Korea and South Korea

[edit]

Traditionally, Korean women keep their family names after their marriage, while their children usually take the father's surname. Korea used to be relatively gender equal as of inheritance and familial duties up until at least the late 17th century.[citation needed] Often, family genealogy books would keep track of the daughters and their spouses and offspring too. As such, it was the norm for women to keep their maiden name and they were considered to be part of the family even after marriage. Before modern times, people were very conscious of familial values and their own family identities. It is therefore traditional for Korean women keep their surnames after marriage, based on traditional reasoning that it is what they inherited from their parents and ancestors.[80] Colloquially, Koreans consider the name of an individual as a singular entity, and changing the family name syllable would make the name sound strange with the other syllables of the given name.

Nowadays, women still keep their names after marriage. Children can have either parent's surname, but it is customary to use the father's surname.

Philippines

[edit]
Main article: Filipino name § Maiden and married names

Article 370 of the Civil Code states:

A married woman may use:
(1) Her maiden first name and surname and add her husband’s surname, or
(2) Her maiden first name and her husband’s surname, or
(3) Her husband’s full name, but prefixing a word indicating that she is his wife, such as “Mrs.” [81]

The usage of the word “may” implies that a woman can retain her maiden name without adding her husband's, and Articles 371 and 372 explicitly state that a woman may resume using her original name upon legal separation or exercise the option to continue using the husband's name unless either the court decrees otherwise or either spouse remarries. The Supreme Court ruling Yasin v. Sharia Court reiterated this, noting Arturo Tolentino's commentary that usage of “may” indicates a permissive action.[82] Nevertheless, this caused confusion among some people, leading them to believe that the Civil Code required women to change their surnames, when it wasn't actually the case.[83] On 21 March 2023, the House of Representatives passed a bill to revise the Civil Code to explicitly declare that a woman can keep her surname.[83][84][85][86][87]

Married women in professional circles (e.g. Gloria Macapagal Arroyo, Korina Sanchez-Roxas, Vilma Santos-Recto) typically join their maiden and married surnames in both professional and legal use. This allows them to be identified as married, and keep track of their professional achievements without being confused for any similarly named individuals. An older scheme based on Spanish naming customs add the particle de ("of") between the maiden and married surnames. This tradition is no longer common.

Taiwan

[edit]

Taiwanese women generally keep their surnames after marriage, while their children may inherit either the father's or the mother's. It is, however, legal to take the spouse's surname.[88] Some older women have the husband's surname tagged on to theirs, as was common in the early to mid-20th century.

Thailand

[edit]

A Thai wife who adopted her husband's surname due to the old law requiring it, can also change back to her original surname.[89]

Vietnam

[edit]

In Vietnamese culture, women keep their family names once they marry, whilst the children produced by the couple tend to keep the father's family name.

Use as security question

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One's mother's maiden name has been a common security question in banking since at least the 1980s.[90] It is a security question which can be easily circumvented by hackers.[91]

See also

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References

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Further reading

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[edit]
Revisions and contributorsEdit on WikipediaRead on Wikipedia

Maiden and married names

View on Grokipedia
from Grokipedia
A maiden name is the surname borne by a prior to , typically inherited from her or of origin, while a married name is the surname adopted after , most commonly the husband's in traditions where such changes occur. This distinction arises primarily in patrilineal naming conventions prevalent in many Western societies, where the practice symbolizes familial unity and the transfer of identity upon union, though it varies widely by culture and legal framework. Historically rooted in the English doctrine of , under which a wife's legal identity merged with her husband's upon marriage—effectively rendering her feme covert and subsuming her property and name—the custom spread through colonial influences to Anglophone nations. In , practices diverged, with some regions like historically allowing women to retain maiden names or compound them, while in , such as and , women often preserve their birth s without alteration, reflecting matrilineal or bilateral kinship systems. Exceptions persist, notably in , where law prohibits women from adopting a husband's surname to promote since 1981. Despite critiques framing the as patriarchal relic, empirical data reveal its endurance: approximately 79% of women in U.S. opposite-sex marriages adopt their husband's , with rates slightly lower among college-educated (around 70-75%) or millennial cohorts, though men rarely reciprocate (under 5%). Controversies center on professional repercussions for women—such as disrupted networks or authorship credits—and identity autonomy, yet studies indicate couples sharing surnames exhibit greater perceived closeness, spousal support, and overall marital satisfaction compared to those retaining separate names, suggesting causal links to relational cohesion beyond mere symbolism. Modern options like hyphenation or neutral family names emerge as compromises, but prevails in signaling commitment and child-rearing unity.

Definitions and Historical Context

Terminology and Core Concepts

The term maiden name denotes the surname held by an individual, usually a woman, prior to marriage, particularly when that surname is from her birth family and changes upon assuming a spouse's surname. This usage emphasizes the pre-marital family name, often patrilineal in origin, distinguishing it from any subsequent alterations tied to marital status. In contrast, a married name is the surname adopted following marriage, commonly the spouse's surname, though it may encompass variations depending on jurisdictional or cultural norms. Legally, this change may occur automatically via marriage documentation in certain systems without further proceedings, whereas socially it involves informal adoption without updating official records. Related concepts include the birth name, which refers to the full name—including given names and surname—assigned at birth, with the surname component typically aligning with the maiden name for those who later marry and change surnames. Distinctions arise in legal versus social contexts: a legal married name requires evidentiary updates to documents like passports or deeds for enforceability in contracts and identification, while a social married name permits informal use in personal interactions without such formalities, potentially leading to discrepancies in verification processes.

Origins in Ancient and Medieval Societies

In , women retained their nomen—the family name denoting their of birth—upon marriage, rather than adopting their husband's . This , typically the feminine form of the paternal nomen (e.g., Julia for the Julian ), persisted regardless of , distinguishing women by birth lineage rather than spousal affiliation. However, in legal, , and contexts, married women were often referenced via their husband's or as uxor ( of), reflecting patrilineal priorities where assets and descent traced through males; under cum manu marriages, a transferred to her husband's familia for purposes, though her remained unchanged. During the medieval period in , the emergence of fixed hereditary s by the late —spurred by poll taxes and administrative needs—coincided with women adopting their husband's upon , though never legally mandated. This custom intertwined with the doctrine of , codified in late medieval , which merged a wife's legal and property rights under her husband's authority, symbolizing her subsumption into his identity for feudal purposes. Patrilineal of land estates reinforced this, as name alignment preserved cohesion and prevented fragmentation; absent male (occurring in about 15% of cases), husbands sometimes took the wife's to retain estate nomenclature, prioritizing lineage continuity over . Patrilineal naming extended cross-culturally in early agrarian societies, where traceable male descent stabilized clans amid property accumulation from settled farming. In such systems, surnames and favored sons to consolidate holdings and authority, reducing disputes over paternal assets; ancient Hebrew practices, for instance, passed names patrilineally to maintain tribal integrity. This structural adaptation to agriculture's demands—emphasizing male-mediated transmission—laid causal groundwork for marital naming that subordinated female identity to paternal lines, enhancing group survival in resource-scarce environments.

Evolution Under Common Law and Modern Reforms

Under English , the doctrine of , which originated in medieval feudal structures and solidified by the , subsumed a married woman's separate legal identity into her husband's, rendering her feme covert and implicitly requiring alignment with his name for contractual and property purposes to maintain household unity. This custom, not a statutory mandate but rooted in immemorial usage, became entrenched from the onward as surnames stabilized among and gentry, with women adopting husbands' surnames to reflect the merged legal persona described by in his 1765 Commentaries on the Laws of England: "By marriage, the husband and wife are one person in law." The practice persisted through the 19th century in and its colonies despite gradual erosions of coverture, such as the Married Women's Property Acts of and , which enabled married women to hold property as feme sole but left surname customs untouched, as these reforms focused on economic independence rather than nominal identity. In the United States, inheriting English , states codified similar traditions administratively, though courts affirmed that marriage effected no automatic legal name change absent habitual use, with coverture's remnants reinforcing the husband's as the marital norm until the early . The 1971 Forbush v. Wallace ruling, affirmed by the U.S. Supreme Court in 1972, upheld Alabama's policy requiring married women to use their husband's surname for driver's licenses absent a , deeming it a neutral administrative practice under rather than a violation. This decision, while not imposing nationwide mandates, underscored the customary nature of name adoption and prompted legislative responses; by the mid-1970s, over 40 states enacted statutes permitting retention of birth names without judicial petition, formalizing choice amid post-World War II shifts toward individual autonomy in jurisdictions like the and . These reforms emphasized continuity with tradition—voluntary surname adoption endured as a signal of cohesion, with surveys from the showing 80-90% compliance in the U.S. despite options for retention—reflecting causal persistence of social norms over legal rupture, as economic and administrative frictions favored unity absent strong incentives for change.

Practices Upon Marriage

Adopting the Spouse's Surname

The practice of adopting the spouse's surname entails one partner, conventionally the in heterosexual marriages, fully replacing their birth with the spouse's family name upon . This custom historically intertwined with patrilineal systems, wherein a woman's surname change symbolized her transfer from her father's property lineage to her husband's, reinforcing male control over familial assets and succession under doctrines like English . In contemporary settings, full adoption persists as the dominant naming convention in various societies, notably the United States, where 79% of women in opposite-sex marriages took their husband's surname, per a 2023 Pew Research Center survey of over 1,600 adults. This proportion aligns with earlier estimates around 70-80% and has shown stability through 2025, unaffected by broader cultural shifts toward individualism. Individuals opting for this change frequently attribute it to relational and pragmatic motives, including signaling deep marital commitment (cited by 28% of adopters in the survey), establishing a singular identity (noted by 36% as tradition-driven), and streamlining shared documentation such as passports, school records, and tax filings to match children's names (prioritized by 49%). These factors underscore its role in promoting perceived unity without necessitating legal mandates in jurisdictions allowing choice.

Retaining the Birth Name

In the , retaining one's after requires no formal legal action, as marriage licenses and certificates do not automatically alter a person's ; individuals simply continue using their pre-marital name on official documents unless they for a change through state-specific processes, such as court orders or administrative updates to records like Social Security cards. This option became more straightforward following legal reforms in the mid-20th century, with states increasingly recognizing non-adoption as a default choice by the , coinciding with broader shifts in marital naming norms. The practice gained visibility during the feminist movements of the and , when retention rates for first-time marriages reached approximately 17%, reflecting challenges to traditional expectations of name adoption. Rates dipped to around 14% for marriages in the amid cultural pushback but have since rebounded, particularly among younger cohorts, driven by evolving professional and personal priorities rather than widespread legal mandates. Contemporary data indicate that retention remains a minority choice, with about 20% of married women aged 18 to 49 in opposite-sex marriages keeping their , compared to 80% who adopt their husband's . Overall U.S. estimates place pure retention at 14-20%, excluding hyphenations or other combinations, underscoring its non-dominant status despite incremental growth. Demographic patterns show higher retention among certain groups: women with postgraduate degrees are more likely to keep their names (26% retention rate) than those with bachelor's degrees (13%) or less education (11%), often linked to established career identities. Politically, Democratic-identifying women exhibit greater propensity for retention, with only 66% adopting their husband's name versus 90% among conservative Republicans, suggesting ideological correlations with over traditional unity. Professional factors prominently motivate retention, as women cite the preservation of career branding, publication records, and professional networks built under their birth name, particularly in fields like academia, , and where name continuity aids recognition and advancement. Surveys of "name keepers" consistently rank considerations alongside as primary drivers, outweighing familial cohesion in for this subset.

Hyphenation, Blending, or Other Combinations

Hyphenation of surnames upon combines the premarital name of one with that of the other, typically formatted as "Smith-Jones," to reflect dual family heritages without full relinquishment of either identity. This practice emerged as a middle ground in Western societies during the late , particularly among educated and professional women seeking to balance marital unity with professional continuity. , approximately 5% of women in opposite-sex marriages adopt a hyphenated , according to a 2023 survey of over 10,000 adults, with rates slightly higher among younger cohorts but remaining a minority choice compared to full adoption or retention. Blending involves merging elements of both surnames to form a new one, such as deriving "Smones" from "Smith" and "Jones," offering a novel integration that avoids the length of hyphenation while symbolizing . Legal recognition for blending varies; as of 2019, four U.S. states—, , , and New York—explicitly permit it on marriage licenses, allowing couples to select a portmanteau without , though adoption rates remain low due to limited awareness and procedural hurdles. Other combinations include appending one surname as a , preserving both lineages in official records without altering the primary , a flexible option in jurisdictions like the where double-barreling without hyphenation is culturally accepted among 11% of 18- to 34-year-olds marrying in recent decades. These hybrid methods, while enabling egalitarian expression, introduce practical challenges, including extended name lengths that exceed character limits in administrative , reservations, and electronic forms, often necessitating abbreviations or errors in processing. Generational dilution arises when hyphenated individuals marry, potentially yielding quadruple-barreled names that amplify difficulties and administrative friction, as observed in trends from the "hyphen generation" now partnering. Despite these issues, proponents argue the approaches foster symbolic equity, though empirical uptake suggests they serve niche preferences rather than widespread reform.

Naming Children in Relation to Parental Names

In many societies, particularly those influenced by traditions, children are customarily assigned the father's , reinforcing patrilineal descent and enabling the unbroken transmission of lineage through ancestors. This practice, observed in approximately 97% of first-born children among married couples as of 2002, facilitates genealogical tracing and historical identification of paternal heritage, as surnames originated as markers of paternal groups. Patrilineal assignment aligns with biological paternity certainty in pre-DNA eras, where shared surnames minimized disputes over and affiliation, preserving cohesion over generations. When mothers retain their maiden names, children often still receive the father's surname, creating a naming divergence within the that can introduce practical confusion for offspring in everyday contexts. Schools, healthcare providers, and travel authorities frequently assume uniform parental-child surnames, leading to repeated verifications of relationships and delays in processing; for instance, mismatched names may trigger additional requirements during enrollment or emergencies, potentially heightening children's awareness of familial discrepancies from an early age. Such setups have been linked to subtle identity tensions, as children navigate explanations of why one parent's name differs, though direct causation remains understudied beyond anecdotal reports of administrative friction. Psychological inquiries reveal that children perceive shared surnames as tangible indicators of kinship ties, fostering a stronger subjective sense of family embeddedness and continuity. Qualitative analyses of children's narratives on naming practices demonstrate that uniform or patrilineally aligned surnames enhance feelings of belonging to the immediate family unit, whereas parental name retention without child mirroring may weaken this perceptual bond by visually fragmenting family representation in documents and social interactions. This effect stems from surnames functioning as social signals of alliance, where divergence can inadvertently signal less unified parental lineage to the child, impacting identity formation amid peer and institutional expectations. Children bearing hyphenated surnames, combining both parents' names, encounter amplified administrative burdens that compound into identity-related stressors over time. Systems like databases, academic transcripts, and banking forms often mishandle hyphens or extended lengths, resulting in misspelled records, lost applications, or repeated corrections—issues documented in cases where children face exclusion from group activities due to filing errors or travel denials from mismatched entries. These recurrent hurdles can erode administrative efficiency and, per perspectives, subtly undermine self-perception by associating one's name with perpetual correction rather than seamless belonging, particularly as future generations compound hyphenation into unwieldy multi-part surnames.

Advantages and Disadvantages

Benefits for Family Cohesion and Child Identity

Shared surnames among family members serve as a tangible indicator of kinship ties, promoting a collective group identity that distinguishes the unit in social interactions. This visual and nominal unity reduces relational ambiguity, such as in identifying parent-child connections during emergencies or administrative processes. For children, inheriting a unified parental surname bolsters perceptions of familial stability and belonging, providing cross-generational linkage to heritage and reinforcing emotional bonds with parents. Legal precedents recognize that shared naming eases of parentage and signals children's legitimacy within the family structure, thereby supporting public interests in relational cohesion. Empirical surveys reveal that a majority of women adopting their spouse's surname cite motivations of forming "one unit" and displaying commitment, practices more prevalent in contexts valuing traditional structures over individualistic naming. Children's qualitative accounts further link shared surnames to strengthened perceptions, viewing them as essential family practices that enhance and relational solidarity. Changing one's surname upon marriage can fragment professional continuity, particularly in fields reliant on consistent authorship attribution, such as academia and . For researchers, marital name changes often result in disjointed publication records, complicating the traceability of prior work and diminishing its visibility in databases and search engines, which can lower citation counts and hinder evaluations for grants, promotions, or tenure. A 2021 analysis cited in reports estimates that such changes may reduce overall professional recognition by up to 30%, as digital systems and AI tools struggle to link pre- and post-marriage outputs without manual intervention. Regarding individual identity, surname alteration may foster a perceived erasure of personal history, severing ties to familial lineage and early-life associations that shape self-perception. This can manifest as an emotional adjustment period, where the shift disrupts a sense of continuity with one's pre-marital achievements and heritage. Nonetheless, empirical patterns indicate voluntary persistence: approximately 79% of women in opposite-sex marriages adopt their husband's , with 72% maintaining a unified professional and personal name thereafter, implying limited systemic regret among those who proceed. The drawbacks highlight a asymmetry in naming practices, as only 5% of men in opposite-sex marriages take their spouse's , compared to the majority of women who change, revealing that concerns over identity dilution and disruption are disproportionately borne by women despite equivalent marital commitments. This selective application underscores causal disparities in how name retention preserves male professional histories more routinely than female ones.

Practical and Administrative Trade-offs

Updating personal identification documents after a marital name change incurs both time and financial costs, though these vary by document and jurisdiction. For instance, updating a Social Security card in the United States is free and typically results in a replacement card mailed within 14 business days after submitting proof of marriage. In contrast, amending a U.S. passport requires a DS-5504 form if the passport is less than one year old, with no fee for routine processing, but older passports necessitate renewal fees starting at $130 for an adult book, plus processing times of up to several weeks. Driver's licenses demand state-specific visits to the DMV, often with fees waived for one change per term but requiring waits of 2-6 weeks or more for new issuance, alongside risks of discrepancies if not synchronized across agencies. Retaining one's birth name avoids these entirely, eliminating the need for coordinated updates across federal, state, and private entities like banks or employers. Name changes can introduce security vulnerabilities in authentication systems. Maiden names are frequently used as security questions (e.g., "What is your mother's maiden name?"), but this information is often publicly accessible via records, , or data breaches, rendering it predictable for sters. Adopting a married name may temporarily obscure such details, yet it complicates identity verification in systems relying on historical data, potentially hindering fraud detection or account recoveries. Retaining the preserves consistency but heightens exposure if the maiden name serves as a common verifier. Divorce amplifies these trade-offs for those who initially changed names, as reversion demands repeating the update cycle across documents. This dual process—change post-marriage, then reversal—can extend administrative burdens over years, with each step involving verification of orders or decrees and risks of mismatched during transitions. While exact reversion rates vary, the logistical repetition underscores the inefficiency compared to initial retention, particularly amid the approximately 40-50% U.S. rate for first marriages.

Social and Cultural Debates

Traditional Perspectives on Marital Unity

In traditional perspectives, the adoption of a spouse's surname, particularly by wives, symbolizes the covenantal commitment of marriage as a unified entity, extending beyond legal formalities to embody biological and social kinship signaling that reinforces familial bonds. This practice underscores patrilineal heritage, where surnames historically trace paternal lineage to affirm paternity, inheritance rights, and collective identity, fostering a sense of enduring family continuity that prioritizes group cohesion over individual autonomy. Such naming conventions are viewed as causal mechanisms for marital stability, as shared surnames visibly signal alliance and mutual investment, reducing perceptual barriers to relational investment. Empirical evidence supports correlations between surname adoption and enhanced marital outcomes, with studies indicating that couples surnames report higher levels of closeness, perceived spousal support, and overall satisfaction compared to those retaining distinct names. Among divorcing couples in a representative U.S. sample, marriages in which wives adopted their husbands' surnames endured approximately 60% longer, even after controlling for factors like wife's age at marriage and , suggesting that name change serves as a marker of deeper relational commitment predictive of . This data aligns with observations that unified naming practices contribute to cohesion by minimizing identity fragmentation, particularly in child-rearing contexts where consistent surnames aid in signaling networks and reducing external ambiguities about alliances. Deviations from patrilineal surname adoption, such as retention or hyphenation, are critiqued in these views for eroding heritage without commensurate causal benefits, as they dilute the signaling of unified lineage and may inadvertently weaken the institutional incentives for marital endurance. Proponents argue that such changes prioritize at the expense of empirically observable stability gains, with no robust demonstrating improved outcomes from name retention in terms of relational durability or signaling efficacy. Instead, traditional adherence is posited to sustain patrilineal structures that have evolutionarily supported and within extended kin groups, preserving societal patterns of lower dissolution rates observed in name-conforming unions.

Feminist and Individualist Critiques

Feminist critiques, emerging prominently during the of the , portray the adoption of a husband's by women as a patriarchal relic that reinforces subordination and diminishes female . Activists and scholars argued that this custom, rooted in historical property and inheritance laws treating women as extensions of male lineage, perpetuated inequality by erasing a woman's pre-marital identity in favor of symbolic transfer to her spouse. Such views gained traction amid legal reforms, including court challenges that by addressed denials of women's petitions to retain birth names in multiple U.S. states. Individualist critiques extend this by prioritizing preservation, contending that altering one's undermines and professional branding, regardless of marital intent. Proponents assert that name retention empowers women to maintain continuity in careers, publications, and social networks, avoiding the administrative and psychological costs of reestablishing recognition under a new moniker. These arguments frame voluntary not as neutral choice but as internalized to outdated norms, potentially signaling lesser commitment to . Despite these positions, data reveal high voluntary adoption rates post-1970s reforms, with 79% of U.S. women in opposite-sex marriages taking their husband's as of 2023, even among educated cohorts where retention options are well-known. This persistence indicates preference driven by factors like familial unity over coercion, as legal barriers have largely dissipated. Claims of empowerment via retention overlook these opt-in patterns, while purported career harms appear overstated; peer-reviewed evaluations in academia show women with changed surnames often rated higher in competence and commitment during hiring assessments compared to retainers. Adaptation to new names through updated records is routine, with limited evidence of widespread professional disruption or high regret, as sustained choice rates imply alignment with individual outcomes rather than systemic imposition. In the United States, approximately 79% of women in opposite-sex marriages report adopting their husband's , a figure that has remained relatively stable from surveys conducted between 2020 and 2025, with minor variations by demographics such as political affiliation—reaching 90% among conservative Republicans. This persistence contrasts with earlier decades, where retention rates hovered around 20% for recent marriages, indicating limited shifts despite cultural discussions on individual identity. Empirical analyses of marital outcomes show no causal evidence linking surname adoption to increased divorce risk; however, among divorcing couples, marriages in which women changed their surnames lasted 60% longer on average, controlling for factors like age at marriage. Correlational data suggest hyphenation may associate with higher divorce likelihood, potentially reflecting underlying commitment differences rather than causation. Regarding child adjustment, studies on family identity indicate that shared surnames facilitate stronger parental bonds and ease for children, as mismatched names can complicate relational perceptions during separation or development. Globally, surname retention trends diverge sharply: in Western countries, the practice of keeping maiden names has increased modestly to about 14-20% in recent cohorts, yet adoption of spousal names predominates. In contrast, many Asian societies maintain high retention rates for women, with children typically receiving the father's , showing minimal adoption of Western-style changes and stable family structures without elevated relational disruptions. These patterns challenge assumptions of universal negative outcomes from name changes, as retention-dominant cultures exhibit comparable or lower instability metrics.

Regional Variations

North America

In , practices regarding maiden and married names reflect a mix of traditions favoring optional adoption of spousal surnames and civil law systems prioritizing retention. In the United States and English-speaking provinces of , women may legally assume their husband's surname upon with relative ease, and a historically do so, though retention rates are rising among younger cohorts. and , however, enforce or culturally reinforce the use of birth surnames to maintain familial and individual identity continuity.

United States

In the , no federal or state law requires women to change their surname upon marriage, but the practice remains common, rooted in English traditions where a wife's legal identity merged with her husband's. A 2023 Pew Research Center analysis of opposite-sex marriages found that 79% of women took their husband's last name, 14% kept their maiden name, and 5% hyphenated surnames. This aligns with earlier data indicating 70-80% adoption rates, though surveys show higher retention among women with (up to 30% keeping maiden names) and those marrying later in life. Approximately 79% of women in opposite-sex marriages adopt their husband's , according to a 2023 survey of over 10,000 adults. This practice remains voluntary, with no federal or state law requiring a upon ; historically, it evolved as a social custom rather than a legal mandate, though institutional pressures supporting it began eroding in the 1970s amid shifts in women's legal and economic status. Legally, women can effect the change administratively by presenting a to agencies like the and state departments of motor vehicles, without approval in most states. Upon remarriage, individuals who retained a previous married name can change to the new spouse's surname using the new marriage certificate as proof to update with the Social Security Administration first (free replacement card), followed by other records like driver's license or passport; no court order is typically required in most states, following the same process as initial marriages. The process typically involves presenting a certified to agencies like the for an updated card, followed by state-specific updates to driver's licenses and other IDs, which can vary in administrative burden but are generally straightforward for women. Men, by contrast, typically require a formal petition and judicial order for similar changes, except in about 10 states permitting spousal assumption via . Hyphenation or creation of new combined surnames may necessitate proceedings in restrictive jurisdictions, reflecting patrilineal biases in state statutes. restores maiden names via similar administrative steps, though professional women often retain married names for continuity. State laws differ in procedural ease, particularly for non-traditional changes; for instance, while women can update names via in all states, men seeking to adopt a wife's face court petitions in most jurisdictions, except about 10 states like and New York that permit it directly on the certificate. Hyphenation rates are low overall—under 1% nationally—but higher among professionals, with a 2002 study of one college's female faculty finding 11% using hyphenated names, reflecting career continuity concerns. Cultural attitudes show persistence despite critiques labeling the tradition "outdated" or patriarchal in academic and media discourse; however, empirical indicate sustained adherence, with only 20% of younger women (ages 18-49) keeping their maiden names compared to 9% of older cohorts, and educated women more likely to retain or hyphenate for reasons. This pattern holds amid broader trends, as a 2025 YouGov poll found two-thirds of married women had changed names, underscoring that while individualist preferences grow among demographics prioritizing identity continuity, the majority norm endures without coercive enforcement.

Canada

Canadian practices vary by province, with federal vital statistics deferring to provincial authority, but generally permits optional surname assumption without mandatory change. In provinces like and , individuals may adopt a spouse's by submitting the to for document updates, with no fee if elected within 90 days of ; reversion to birth names post-divorce or separation is similarly straightforward. stands apart, as Article 393 of the prohibits adopting a spouse's name, mandating retention of birth surnames to preserve personal autonomy and avoid coverture-like mergers. In common law provinces such as and , there is no legal obligation for a to change her upon ; she may retain her , assume her spouse's informally without a formal , hyphenate names, or pursue a legal change through provincial vital statistics offices. This flexibility allows for practical assumptions of a spouse's name on documents like driver's licenses or bank accounts via , though official alterations to birth certificates require separate applications. Quebec, operating under civil law, mandates that both spouses retain their birth surnames for exercising civil rights, as stipulated in the Civil Code since reforms in 1981 aimed at preserving individual identity and avoiding automatic adoption of a partner's name. Married women in Quebec may use their spouse's surname socially or professionally with spousal consent, but their legal surname remains the maiden name on official records, reflecting a policy prioritizing personal autonomy over marital assimilation. This distinction introduces bilingual administrative nuances, as federal documents like passports must align with provincial vital records, often requiring dual-language notations for French-English name equivalences. Common-law partners face equivalent options in most provinces, though formal name changes beyond spousal assumption require vital statistics applications and fees. No comprehensive national statistics exist, but cultural norms in parallel U.S. trends, with many women adopting husbands' surnames for family unity, while Indigenous and immigrant communities may prioritize traditional naming. Quebec's policy, upheld since the 1970s , correlates with higher maiden name retention rates, emphasizing egalitarian identity over marital assimilation. Trends in name retention among married women in Canada show a gradual increase, with surveys indicating around 18-20% opting to keep their birth names in recent decades, influenced by professional continuity and egalitarian norms, though the majority—approximately 80% based on early data—still adopt or hyphenate with their spouse's . Among Indigenous communities, naming practices diverge from settler conventions, often emphasizing clan affiliations, spiritual descriptors, or matrilineal lineages rather than patrilineal adoption upon marriage; historical impositions under the assigned European-style surnames, but contemporary reclamation favors traditional systems unbound by marital changes.

Mexico

Mexico's civil law system fixes surnames at birth as compound paternal-maternal pairs, with no legal mechanism for spousal adoption upon ; both partners retain their original apellidos, ensuring patrilineal transmission of the first while preserving maternal lineage. The Family Code (Código Civil Federal) does not contemplate surname changes via matrimony, viewing them as unnecessary for marital bonds, which are formalized through shared civil registry entries rather than name alterations. Informal social use of "de [esposo's apellido]" by married women occurs in some contexts, akin to titles, but lacks official recognition and does not appear on documents like IDs or passports. In Mexico, the prevailing naming system features compound surnames, where an individual's consists of the first from their (apellido paterno) followed by the first from their (apellido materno), a tradition rooted in Spanish colonial heritage that honors bilateral lineages. Upon marriage, women are not required to change their surnames legally; they retain their original dual surnames throughout life, distinguishing Mexican practice from Anglo-American norms where full name adoption by wives is common. This legal stability ensures continuity in official records, such as birth certificates and passports, without the administrative disruptions associated with name alterations. Socially, married women may informally adopt their husband's paternal for or familial reference, sometimes prefixing it with "de" (e.g., María de ), or be known primarily by it in everyday contexts, but this usage holds no legal weight and varies by region and class. Official documents, including voter IDs and property titles, mandate the unchanged maiden name, reinforcing tied to birth family heritage. This retention practice, standardized since the 19th-century consolidation of civil registries, avoids administrative burdens and maintains genealogical clarity, with statistics showing near-universal adherence as name changes require separate judicial processes unrelated to marriage. Cultural pressures occasionally favor paternal dominance in child naming, but women's surnames remain unchanged, contrasting Anglo-North American customs and aligning with broader Latin American norms. In urban centers like and among professional women, contemporary trends favor exclusive retention of the full maiden name in both social and career settings, driven by emphasis on individual achievement and avoidance of perceived subordination. This shift, evident since the amid rising female workforce participation (reaching 45% by 2020 per national labor statistics), contrasts with rural traditions where informal adoption of spousal surnames persists more strongly, reflecting broader modernization influences in a North American context with deep Latin roots.

Europe

In Europe, marital naming practices exhibit significant national variation, with no overarching European Union directive mandating or prohibiting name changes upon marriage; such matters fall under domestic civil codes, often emphasizing retention of birth surnames to preserve legal identity and administrative consistency. Women in many continental countries are legally barred from automatically adopting their spouse's surname, reflecting civil law traditions prioritizing individual nomenclature over familial assimilation, whereas common law jurisdictions like the United Kingdom permit informal adoption without statutory compulsion. These differences stem from historical codifications, such as Napoleonic influences in Romance-language nations, which codified surname immutability to facilitate inheritance and record-keeping.

Selected Western European Practices

In the , women traditionally adopt their husband's surname upon marriage as a social custom rather than a legal requirement, with no automatic change recorded in civil registries; this practice, rooted in 19th-century conventions, persists among approximately 80-90% of brides as of the early , though increasing numbers opt to retain their maiden name or hyphenate for professional continuity. Official documents like passports require separate application for any formal alteration, and dual naming (maiden for professional use, married for personal) is common without legal barrier. France maintains a strict policy where women retain their birth legally post-marriage, as codified in the since 1804 with amendments reinforcing ; socially, the courtesy title "Madame [husband's surname]" may be used informally, but official identification, contracts, and passports remain under the maiden name to avoid administrative disruption. Children typically receive the father's or a combined form if declared, but maternal lineage is preserved through unchanged maternal records. Germany allows spouses to declare a "married name" (Ehename) at the time of , which can be one spouse's , a of both, or retention of originals; as of May 1, 2025, reforms permit compound surnames for spouses and parents, enabling flexible options like hyphenated doubles without prior restrictions on gender-specific . This system, governed by the Civil Status Act, requires mutual agreement and applies uniformly to official documents, with about 70% of women historically choosing the husband's alone prior to recent expansions favoring doubles.

Eastern and Southern European Variations

In Poland, spouses may elect to adopt the other's surname, form a hyphenated compound, or retain originals upon registration, with feminine adaptations (e.g., adding "-owa" or "-ska") applied to Polish surnames for women; this optionality, outlined in the Family and Guardianship Code, results in varied practices, though surveys indicate over 60% of women modify to align with the husband's name for familial cohesion. Legal changes demand civil registry approval, preventing unilateral shifts. Russia requires formal civil registration for any surname alteration post-marriage, with tradition favoring women adopting a feminized version of the husband's surname (e.g., via suffixes like "-ova"); while optional, this occurs in roughly 80% of cases among younger couples, per demographic records, to reflect marital unity, though retention rates rise with age and professional status. Southern Europe generally prohibits automatic surname change for women, prioritizing birth name perpetuity. In Italy, the Civil Code mandates retention of the maiden surname for life, rendering spousal adoption legally infeasible without separate court petition; children inherit the father's surname primarily, but maternal maiden names appear in full legal contexts for traceability. Spain employs a bipartite system where individuals bear two surnames (paternal then maternal) from birth, unchanged by marriage; women thus pass their full compound to children alongside the father's, ensuring bilateral inheritance without assimilation. Greece, via 1983 legislation, explicitly requires women to retain birth surnames indefinitely, a reform aimed at equality that extends to official and social usage, with joint family naming optional for children but non-binding on spouses.

Selected Western European Practices

In , a woman's legal remains her after , with no automatic change required or imposed by law. Spouses may elect to use the other's as a "nom d'usage" for everyday purposes, such as professional or social contexts, but this does not alter official civil records or identity documents. This practice reflects a longstanding emphasis on individual identity retention, with surveys indicating that over 90% of French women continue using their maiden name professionally post-. Similarly, in the , married women retain their birth in all official documents, as Dutch law prohibits automatic adoption of a spouse's name upon . Special permission from a is required for any change, which is granted only in exceptional cases, such as for consistency with international family naming practices. Cultural norms favor name retention or informal combinations, with the vast majority of women—estimated at over 95%—maintaining their maiden names to preserve professional and familial continuity. Germany permits spouses to declare a shared "family name" after , which may be one partner's birth , the other's, or a hyphenated of both, but no automatic change occurs without this explicit declaration. Hyphenation is allowed for adults, though children from the marriage must typically receive a single family name without hyphens unless further specified, limiting complex compounds to avoid administrative burdens. Following the 2025 reform effective , adoption of the spouse's name remains optional, with data showing about 20-30% of women choosing to take their husband's or a joint form, often influenced by regional traditions in southern states. In , women legally retain their maiden surname throughout marriage, as Italian civil code explicitly forbids changing the birth surname upon wedlock, prioritizing immutable in records. Spouses may informally add the partner's surname for courtesy, but this has no legal effect and is not reflected in passports or registries; hyphenation or adoption requires a separate under strict criteria, rarely approved for marital reasons. This system, rooted in post-unification laws, results in near-universal retention, with Italian consulates confirming that even dual nationals must adhere to the maiden name in Italian documentation.

Eastern and Southern European Variations

In , legislation enacted on February 18, 1983, as part of broader reforms promoting following the end of , requires women to retain their birth s as their legal names after marriage, prohibiting automatic adoption of the husband's . This mandatory retention applies to identity documents, , and official records, though spouses may jointly declare to add the partner's for informal or social use. The policy, influenced by feminist advocacy, contrasts with pre-1983 practices where women often adopted modified forms of husbands' names, and allows pre-1983 married women to petition for reversion to maiden names. In , married women legally maintain their maiden surnames throughout life, with no provision for automatic change to the husband's name upon marriage, reflecting civil law traditions emphasizing individual identity over marital unity. Name changes require separate judicial approval for exceptional reasons, such as or , and are rare; children typically inherit the father's surname unless jointly specified otherwise. Among Eastern Orthodox-influenced Slavic nations, practices diverge toward modified adoption of the husband's while preserving elements tied to Orthodox naming customs, where full names comprise , father's name-derived patronymic, and gendered family surname. In , women traditionally adopt a feminine declension of the husband's surname (e.g., becoming Ivanova) upon marriage, a convention rooted in 19th-century but legally optional since Soviet-era reforms allowing retention, hyphenation, or mutual adoption. This gendered adaptation, common in over 80% of cases per cultural surveys, maintains distinct marital signaling without full erasure of maiden identity, unlike Western full replacement. Similar patterns prevail in and , where Orthodox heritage integrates patronymics, and wives often take adapted spousal surnames for family cohesion, though EU-aligned laws since the permit retention or to accommodate professional continuity.

Asia and Middle East

In , naming practices upon marriage diverge significantly by country, reflecting historical, legal, and cultural factors. In , women retain their birth surnames after marriage, as surnames are patrilineally inherited and tied to ancestral lineage; this custom persists legally and socially, with no formal or common practice for spousal surname adoption. In , women similarly keep their family names, which are passed from parents and preserved across generations, while children typically inherit the father's surname; this is mandated by tradition and law, emphasizing familial continuity over marital assimilation. Japan stands as an outlier in the region, where the requires married couples to share a single , resulting in approximately 95% of wives adopting their husband's name, often at professional and personal cost; this policy, unique globally, has prompted ongoing legal challenges and surveys indicating up to 30% of common-law unions cite it as a deterrent to formal . In , particularly , while not legally compulsory, many women informally or formally adopt their husband's post- as a cultural norm symbolizing union, though official changes require notification, affidavits, and updates to documents like passports; retention of maiden names has grown among urban professionals, avoiding bureaucratic hurdles. Southeast Asian customs vary by nation and ethnicity, with no uniform mandate for surname changes. In Thailand, women historically adopted their husband's surname upon marriage, shifting titles from "Miss" to "Mrs.," but recent legal reforms make this optional, allowing retention of maiden names without restoration requirements upon divorce. Indonesia's practices are diverse across its ethnic groups, often lacking fixed surnames altogether; Javanese and other communities typically maintain given names or patronymics without marital alteration, prioritizing personal or familial identifiers over spousal adoption. In the , predominantly Islamic traditions emphasize women preserving their father's post-marriage to uphold lineage and identity, as adopting a husband's name is neither required nor encouraged in ; this holds across countries like , , and the UAE, where legal documents reflect maiden names, though informal Western influences may lead to dual usage in contexts. Exceptions occur in secular or minority communities, but the norm aligns with broader Arab and Muslim rejecting surname assimilation as diluting paternal heritage.

East Asian Traditions

In East Asian societies, surname practices traditionally emphasize patrilineal descent, with children inheriting their father's family name to preserve clan lineage and ancestral ties, while women's naming conventions vary by country but generally reinforce male-centered family structures. In , Article 750 of the , enacted in 1898 during the , mandates that married couples adopt a single shared , making Japan the only country worldwide with this legal requirement. Couples select one surname upon registration, but cultural norms dictate that approximately 95% of wives change to their husband's surname, often leading to professional and identity disruptions for women. This system, upheld by the in 2021 despite challenges on grounds, perpetuates patrilineal rigidity by subsuming the wife's identity into the husband's family line. In contrast, China upholds women's retention of maiden names post-marriage as the legal and cultural standard, a practice codified in the 1950 Marriage Law to promote gender equality by allowing both spouses to maintain their original surnames. Children invariably take the father's surname, reinforcing patrilineal inheritance of family lineage, though informal social address may append the husband's name to a woman's given name. South Korea similarly requires women to retain their birth s after , viewing name changes as incompatible with ancestral heritage tied to paternal clans, a norm enshrined in civil registry practices since the early . Offspring inherit the father's exclusively, underscoring the patrilineal framework where denote unchanging familial origin rather than marital affiliation. This retention avoids the administrative and identity shifts common elsewhere, though it intersects with historical bans on same-clan to prevent lineage dilution.

Southeast Asian and Middle Eastern Customs

In Islamic traditions prevalent across much of the , women retain their maiden surname upon , derived from their father's name to affirm patrilineal descent and familial identity. This practice aligns with rulings that prohibit adopting the husband's , viewing it as severing ties to one's original lineage, though honorifics such as "Umm" (mother of) followed by a child's name may be added informally for respect. Such customs underscore the absence of spousal name assimilation in core Islamic , distinguishing it from Western conventions. In , married women legally maintain their birth without compulsion to change it, reflecting broader Persian-Islamic norms that prioritize paternal heritage. Optional hyphenation to include the husband's occurs infrequently, but documents and identification preserve the maiden name to ensure continuity in legal and social contexts. Southeast Asian customs vary, blending indigenous, colonial, and Islamic influences. In the , shaped by over three centuries of Spanish rule, married women are not legally required to adopt their husband's surname; Article 370 of the grants the option to retain the maiden name or append the spouse's, often resulting in dual surnames like "Maiden-Husband" for formal use. This flexibility allows reversion to the maiden name post-widowhood or without procedural hurdles, prioritizing personal choice over mandatory assimilation. In Thailand, surnames—introduced via the 1913 Surname Act—remain distinct family identifiers, with women since a 2003 Constitutional Court ruling free to retain their maiden surname or voluntarily adopt their husband's upon marriage. While tradition encourages alignment for household unity, retention is common among professionals and those valuing individual identity, supplemented by honorifics like "Nang" (lady) rather than name alteration. These practices highlight regional emphasis on optional adaptation over prescriptive change.

Other Global Regions

Latin America and Africa

In Latin American countries influenced by Spanish naming conventions, women retain their maiden surnames upon marriage, typically comprising the paternal surname followed by the maternal surname inherited from their parents. This , which traces lineage through both family lines, results in children receiving the father's paternal surname as their primary identifier and the mother's paternal surname as secondary, without any alteration to the mother's name. The practice persists as a cultural norm, distinguishing it from Anglo-American traditions where name adoption is more common, and informally, a woman may append "de" followed by her husband's surname in social contexts without legal effect. African naming practices upon marriage exhibit significant diversity across the continent's 54 countries and thousands of ethnic groups, often reflecting patrilineal or matrilineal systems. In , marriage does not automatically change a woman's ; spouses may elect to use a combined, hyphenated, or spousal name, but a September 2025 Constitutional Court ruling overturned prior restrictions, permitting men to adopt their wives' surnames and deeming the traditional expectation of women changing names discriminatory under the equality clause of the constitution. In and , women maintain their birth surnames post-marriage to preserve family bloodlines and avoid risks in lineage tracking. Conversely, in West African nations such as and , women frequently adopt their husband's as a symbol of marital unity and household integration, though this varies by ethnic group and is not universally mandated by law.

Oceania and Indigenous Practices

In and , no legal requirement exists for name changes upon , allowing individuals to retain their birth names, adopt a spouse's , hyphenate, or create a new combined name at personal discretion. Those electing a change must obtain an updated and notify agencies like births, deaths, and marriages registries, offices, and driver's license authorities, with processes varying by state or territory in —such as Victoria requiring evidence for family name updates post-. In , the process incurs fees like NZ$55 for marriage record updates as of June 2025, but no formal application is needed if using the spouse's name informally. Indigenous practices regarding names and marriage diverge markedly from colonial-influenced systems, emphasizing personal, spiritual, or communal identifiers over fixed surnames. Among Native American tribes, naming conventions are highly variable by nation—such as Ojibwe practices involving namesakes and ceremonial conferral—and traditionally lack a "maiden-to-married" shift, with individuals often receiving multiple names over lifetimes tied to achievements or visions rather than spousal affiliation. Australian Aboriginal systems historically relied on moieties, skin names, totems, or geographic references for identity, with colonial-era impositions leading some women to adopt partners' European surnames for administrative purposes, though core traditions prioritize relational and totemic continuity over marital alteration. For Māori in New Zealand, names derive from whakapapa (genealogy) and iwi (tribal) affiliations, where marriage integrates individuals into extended whānau without mandating personal name changes, focusing instead on shared ancestral narratives.

Latin America and Africa

In Latin America, naming conventions derive from Spanish colonial traditions, where individuals typically bear compound surnames consisting of the paternal surname followed by the maternal surname. Women generally retain their full birth surnames upon marriage without alteration, preserving both paternal and maternal lineages. Children inherit the father's first surname as their primary paternal identifier and the mother's first surname as the secondary, ensuring continuity of both family lines across generations. This system contrasts with Anglo-American practices by emphasizing bilateral heritage rather than unilateral adoption of a spouse's name, though informal usage of "de" followed by the husband's surname may appear in social contexts for married women in some countries like Mexico. Across , naming practices exhibit significant diversity tied to ethnic, tribal, and regional customs, with patrilineal structures predominant in many sub-Saharan societies where surnames or clan names trace male ancestry. In patrilineal groups, such as among the Yoruba or Zulu, married women often adopt or prefix their husband's to signify integration into his lineage and family unity, a practice reinforced by colonial-era laws like Roman-Dutch in . However, this convention is not universally indigenous; pre-colonial systems frequently prioritized clan or totemic identifiers over fixed surnames, and women in some communities retained birth names to maintain ties to their natal kin. Tribal variations abound: matrilineal societies like the Akan in emphasize maternal lines, where women may keep their surnames and children inherit from the mother's clan, though spousal name adoption remains optional or rare. In West African contexts, such as , women can choose to take a husband's family name post-marriage but are not required to do so legally or customarily. Recent legal developments, including a 2025 South African Constitutional Court ruling, affirm men's right to adopt their wife's surname, challenging entrenched patrilineal assumptions and highlighting evolving gender norms amid . These patterns underscore how marriage-related name changes often serve to denote affiliation with a spouse's patrilineage, varying by ethnic group and influenced by modernization and colonial legacies.

Oceania and Indigenous Practices

In Australia, there is no legal obligation for a woman to adopt her husband's surname upon marriage; she may retain her birth name, hyphenate it with her spouse's, or take his surname as a matter of personal choice, with the marriage certificate serving as sufficient evidence for administrative updates without additional fees in most states. New Zealand follows a comparable framework under common law traditions, where name changes post-marriage require no formal application for surname adoption or combination; individuals can simply begin using the new name, supported by the marriage certificate, though statutory declarations may be needed for first or middle name alterations or novel surnames. Among in , traditional naming predating European emphasized personal or event-based names without fixed hereditary surnames, and women historically retained their names upon rather than adopting a partner's, reflecting (extended family) communal identity over individualistic patrilineal shifts. introduced surname conventions, often patrilineal, but contemporary practices allow flexibility, with many women continuing to keep pre-marriage names to preserve cultural continuity. Indigenous Australian Aboriginal naming diverges markedly from Western maiden-married dichotomies, as names are fluid and context-dependent, changing across life stages such as , , or , without stable surnames; partnerships may prompt new epithets tied to roles or totems rather than spousal assimilation. systems, varying by group, often employ "skin names" for moiety classification, passed matrilineally or patrilineally, where marital unions adhere to rules but do not entail name changes mirroring European customs. In Pacific Island societies of , matrilineal descent predominates in select groups, such as certain Melanesian communities in the , , and [Marshall Islands](/page/Marshall Islands), where membership, land rights, and naming follow maternal lines, enabling women to transmit identifiers to offspring independently of marital partnerships and contrasting patrilineal Western norms. Proto-Oceanic ancestral societies exhibited , influencing modern practices where women's names and lineages hold primacy in and , though colonial and impacts have hybridized some customs toward bilateral or patrilineal forms.

Name Change Processes and Requirements

In jurisdictions where name changes upon marriage are permitted without mandatory court intervention, the process typically involves obtaining a certified as primary evidence of the legal union and desired name adoption, followed by notifications to relevant government agencies for document updates. This approach is common in systems, allowing individuals—predominantly women adopting a spouse's —to effect the change administratively rather than judicially, though requirements vary by country and may include residency proofs or affidavits confirming no fraudulent intent. In the United States, name changes upon operate without a federal mandate, deferring to state laws that universally allow adoption of a spouse's via the alone, obviating the need for a in this context. The initial step requires filing the intended name on the application prior to the ceremony, after which the certified certificate serves to update key identifiers: the (SSA) processes changes free of charge within 10-14 business days upon submission of the certificate and ID; driver's licenses follow via state (DMV) with fees ranging from $10 to $50 and processing times of 2-6 weeks; and passports incur a $30 execution fee plus renewal costs if applicable, with updates possible via Form DS-5504 for recent marriages. Delays can extend to 6-8 weeks overall if updates are sequential, and while no publication of the change is required for marriage-based shifts, costs for ancillary updates like bank accounts or are minimal but institution-specific. In the United Kingdom, no legal obligation exists to alter one's name post-marriage, but adoption of a spouse's surname proceeds informally using the marriage certificate to notify entities like the Passport Office, Driver and Vehicle Licensing Agency (DVLA), or HM Revenue and Customs, with changes effective upon acceptance without a deed poll unless deviating from standard spousal adoption. The certificate, obtainable for £11-£35 depending on copies needed, suffices for most updates, though passports require the original document and may take 3-6 weeks; driving licenses cost £20-£75 with 3-week processing; and no court fees apply absent complications, though international certificates may necessitate apostille certification under the Hague Convention for recognition abroad. Internationally, processes diverge: civil law countries like or often mandate joint spousal declarations or notarial acts at registration for compounding or adoption, with automatic effects but potential court appeals within one month, incurring notary fees of €50-€200 and delays of 1-3 months. In contrast, some Asian jurisdictions, such as , prohibit spousal changes post- unless via separate petition, requiring household registry updates and fees up to ¥50,000 with 1-6 month timelines. For international involving dual citizenship, discrepancies arise if a is recognized in the but not the citizen's home country, necessitating carriage of bridging documents like marriage certificates or apostilles for , , or visa processing to resolve mismatches—U.S. Customs and Border Protection, for instance, advises dual nationals to present name progression proofs to avoid entry denials. Such cases amplify administrative burdens, with non-recognition potentially blocking alignments or triggering secondary screenings, though no universal treaty standardizes reciprocity.

Implications for Security, Identification, and Divorce

Maiden names, frequently employed as answers to security questions such as "What is your mother's maiden name?", pose significant risks due to their accessibility through , profiles, and data breaches, enabling social engineering attacks that bypass authentication mechanisms. These questions are inherently weaker than robust passwords because the information is often publicly inferable or obtainable via targeted inquiries, with studies indicating that adversaries can exploit such details in over 90% of tested cases through online reconnaissance alone. Recent data breaches, such as those exposing billions of records since 2013, have further amplified this vulnerability by commoditizing personal identifiers like maiden names for and account takeovers. Name changes upon marriage introduce identification mismatches across documents like passports, driver's licenses, and financial records, heightening susceptibility to identity fraud if updates are delayed or incomplete. In the United States, for instance, the Social Security Administration processes over 1 million name changes annually, primarily from marriages, yet discrepancies persist in systems like credit bureaus, leading to denied services or fraudulent exploitation of gaps. Fraudsters capitalize on this transitional period, with reports documenting increased scams targeting newlyweds overwhelmed by bureaucratic updates, resulting in unauthorized account openings under mismatched identities. Upon divorce, legal frameworks in jurisdictions like the and permit straightforward reversion to a maiden name via court decree, often without additional fees or hearings if requested in the dissolution petition. However, empirical patterns show that only a minority of women revert, with surveys indicating that approximately 20-30% opt to retain their married name for professional continuity or child-related reasons, despite the procedural ease. For children, surnames typically remain unchanged post- to preserve familial stability and avoid emotional disruption, as courts require petitioners to demonstrate that alterations serve the child's , such as stronger ties to a custodial parent, which is rarely granted absent compelling evidence. This continuity minimizes administrative burdens and supports psychological adjustment, with legal precedents emphasizing that name changes for minors demand parental consensus or judicial override only in exceptional cases like abandonment.

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