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Parrots
Temporal range: Eocene–Holocene 50–0 Ma
A montage of six different types of parrot. Clockwise from top to bottom, these are two images of a large, squat, dull-green parrot; a skinny black parrot similar to a crow; a blue-black parrot with red cheeks and a large, hooked bill; a blue and yellow parrot with a hooked black beak and a white face; and a small, bright green parrot with a yellow collar and a black face.KākāpōAustralian ringneckBlue-and-yellow macawKeaLesser vasa parrotPalm cockatoo
Clockwise top to bottom: the Kākāpō and the Kea, both found in New Zealand, the Lesser vasa parrot endemic to Madagascar, the Palm cockatoo, the South American blue-and-yellow macaw, and the Australian ringneck.
Scientific classification Edit this classification
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Chordata
Class: Aves
Clade: Psittacopasseres
Order: Psittaciformes
Wagler, 1830
Superfamilies
Range of parrots, all species (red)

Parrots (Psittaciformes), also known as psittacines (/ˈsɪtəsaɪnz/),[1][2] are birds with a strong curved beak, upright stance, and clawed feet.[a] They are classified in four families that contain roughly 410 species in 101 genera, found mostly in tropical and subtropical regions. The four families are the Psittaculidae (Old World parrots), Psittacidae (African and New World parrots), Cacatuidae (cockatoos), and Strigopidae (New Zealand parrots). One-third of all parrot species are threatened by extinction, with a higher aggregate extinction risk (IUCN Red List Index) than any other comparable bird group.[3] Parrots have a generally pantropical distribution with several species inhabiting temperate regions as well. The greatest diversity of parrots is in South America[4] and Australasia.[5]

Parrots—along with ravens, crows, jays, and magpies—are among the most intelligent birds, and the ability of some species to imitate human speech enhances their popularity as pets. They form the most variably sized bird order in terms of length; many are vividly coloured and some, multi-coloured. Most parrots exhibit little or no sexual dimorphism in the visual spectrum.

The most important components of most parrots' diets are seeds, nuts, fruit, buds, and other plant material. A few species sometimes eat animals and carrion, while the lories and lorikeets are specialised for feeding on floral nectar and soft fruits. Almost all parrots nest in tree hollows (or nest boxes in captivity), and lay white eggs from which hatch altricial (helpless) young.

Trapping wild parrots for the pet trade, as well as hunting, habitat loss, and competition from invasive species, has diminished wild populations, with parrots being subjected to more exploitation than any other group of wild birds. As of 2021, about 50 million parrots (half of all parrots) live in captivity, with the vast majority of these living as pets in people's homes.[6] Measures taken to conserve the habitats of some high-profile charismatic species have also protected many of the less charismatic species living in the same ecosystems.

Parrots are the only creatures that display true tripedalism, using their necks and beaks as limbs with propulsive forces equal to or greater than those forces generated by the forelimbs of primates when climbing vertical surfaces. They can travel with cyclical tripedal gaits when climbing.[7]

Taxonomy

[edit]

Origins and evolution

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Fossil dentary specimen UCMP 143274 restored as a parrot (left) or an oviraptorosaur

Psittaciform diversity in South America and Australasia suggests that the order may have evolved in Gondwana, centred in Australasia.[8] The scarcity of parrots in the fossil record, however, presents difficulties in confirming the hypothesis. There is currently a higher number of fossil remains from the northern hemisphere in the early Cenozoic.[9] Molecular studies suggest that parrots evolved approximately 59 million years ago (Mya) (range 66–51 Mya) in Gondwana. The Neotropical parrots are monophyletic, and the three major clades originated about 50 Mya (range 57–41 Mya).[10]

A single 15 mm (0.6 in) fragment from a large lower bill (UCMP 143274), found in deposits from the Lance Creek Formation in Niobrara County, Wyoming, had been thought to be the oldest parrot fossil and is presumed to have originated from the Late Cretaceous period, which makes it about 70 million years old.[11] However, other studies suggest that this fossil is not from a bird, but from a caenagnathid oviraptorosaur (a non-avian dinosaur with a birdlike beak), as several details of the fossil used to support its identity as a parrot are not actually exclusive to parrots, and it is dissimilar to the earliest-known unequivocal parrot fossils.[12][13]

It is generally assumed that the Psittaciformes were present during the Cretaceous–Paleogene extinction event (K-Pg extinction), 66 mya. They were probably generalised arboreal birds, and did not have the specialised crushing bills of modern species.[9][14] Genomic analysis provides strong evidence that parrots are the sister group of passerines, forming the clade Psittacopasserae, which is the sister group of the falcons.[15]

The first uncontroversial parrot fossils date to tropical Eocene Europe around 50 mya. Initially, a neoavian named Mopsitta tanta, uncovered in Denmark's Early Eocene Fur Formation and dated to 54 mya, was assigned to the Psittaciformes. However, the rather nondescript bone is not unequivocally psittaciform, and it may rather belong to the ibis genus Rhynchaeites, whose fossil legs were found in the same deposits.[16]

Several fairly complete skeletons of parrot-like birds have been found in England and Germany.[17] These are probably not transitional fossils between ancestral and modern parrots, but rather lineages that evolved parallel to true parrots and cockatoos:[18]

Cyrilavis colburnorum, from the Eocene Green River Formation in Wyoming

The earliest records of modern parrots date to around 23–20 mya.[20] The fossil record—mainly from Europe—consists of bones clearly recognisable as belonging to anatomically modern parrots.[21] The Southern Hemisphere contains no known parrot-like remains earlier than the Early Miocene around 20 mya.[20]

Etymology

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The name 'Psittaciformes' comes from the ancient Greek for parrot, ψιττακός ('Psittacus'), whose origin is unclear. Ctesias (5th century BCE) recorded the name Psittacus after the Indian name for a bird, most likely a parakeet (now placed in the genus Psittacula). Pliny the Elder (23/24–79 CE) in his Natural History (book 10, chapter 58) noted that the Indians called the bird "siptaces"; however, no matching Indian name has been traced.[22][23] Popinjay is an older term for parrots, first used in English in the 1500s.[24]

Phylogeny

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Molecular phylogenetic studies have shown that Psittaciformes form a monophyletic clade that is sister to the Passeriformes:[25][26] The time calibrated phylogeny indicates that the Australaves diverged around 65 Ma (million years ago) and the Psittaciformes diverged from the Passeriformes around 62 Ma.[26]

Australaves

Cariamiformes – seriemas

Falconiformes – falcons

Passeriformes – songbirds

Psittaciformes – parrots

Most taxonomists now divide Psittaciformes into four families: Strigopidae (New Zealand parrots), Cacatuidae (Cockatoos), Psittacidae (African and New World parrots) and Psittaculidae (Old World parrots).[27] In 2012, Leo Joseph and collaborators proposed that the parrots should be divided into six families. The New Zealand parrots in the genus Nestor were placed in a separate family Nestoridae and the two basal genera in the family Psittaculidae (Psittrichas and Coracopsis) were placed in a separate family Psittrichasidae.[28] The two additional families have not been recognised by taxonomists involved in curating lists of world birds and instead only four families are recognised.[27][29][30][31]

The following cladogram shows the phylogenetic relationships between the four families. The species numbers are taken from the list maintained by Frank Gill, Pamela Rasmussen and David Donsker on behalf of the International Ornithological Committee (IOC), now the International Ornithologists' Union.[27][32]

Psittaciformes

Strigopidae – New Zealand parrots (4 species)

Cacatuidae – Cockatoos (22 species)

Psittacidae – African and New World parrots (179 species)

Psittaculidae – Old World parrots (203 species)

The Psittaciformes comprise three main lineages: Strigopoidea, Psittacoidea and Cacatuoidea.[28] The Strigopoidea were considered part of the Psittacoidea, but the former is now placed at the base of the parrot tree next to the remaining members of the Psittacoidea, as well as all members of the Cacatuoidea.[8][33][34] The Cacatuoidea are quite distinct, having a movable head crest, a different arrangement of the carotid arteries, a gall bladder, differences in the skull bones, and lack the Dyck texture feathers that—in the Psittacidae—scatter light to produce the vibrant colours of many parrots. Colourful feathers with high levels of psittacofulvin resist the feather-degrading bacterium Bacillus licheniformis better than white ones.[35] Lorikeets were previously regarded as a third family, Loriidae,[36]: 45  but are now considered a tribe (Loriini) within the subfamily Loriinae, family Psittaculidae. The two other tribes in the subfamily are the closely related fig parrots (two genera in the tribe Cyclopsittini) and budgerigar (tribe Melopsittacini).[8][33][34]

Psittaciformes
Phylogenetic relations between parrots[8]

Systematics

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Main article: List of parrots

The order Psittaciformes consists of four families containing roughly 410 species belonging to 101 genera.[27][28][37]

Superfamily Strigopoidea: New Zealand parrots

Superfamily Cacatuoidea: cockatoos

Superfamily Psittacoidea: true parrots

Morphology

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Skeletons
Kākāpō (critically endangered)
Paradise parrot (extinct)
Glaucous macaw (extinct)

Living species range in size from the buff-faced pygmy parrot, at under 10 g (0.4 oz) in weight and 8 cm (3.1 in) in length,[36]: 149  to the hyacinth macaw, at 1 m (3.3 ft) in length,[38] and the kākāpō, at 4.0 kg (8.8 lb) in weight.[39] Among the superfamilies, the three extant Strigopoidea species are all large parrots, and the cockatoos tend to be large birds, as well. The Psittacoidea parrots are far more variable, ranging the full spectrum of sizes shown by the family.[39]

Hyacinth macaw cracking a palm nut

The most obvious physical characteristic is the strong, curved, broad bill. The upper mandible is prominent, curves downward, and comes to a point. It is not fused to the skull, which allows it to move independently, and contributes to the tremendous biting pressure the birds are able to exert. A large macaw, for example, has a bite force of 35 kg/cm2 (500 lb/sq in), close to that of a large dog.[40] The lower mandible is shorter, with a sharp, upward-facing cutting edge, which moves against the flat part of the upper mandible in an anvil-like fashion. Touch receptors occur along the inner edges of the keratinised bill, which are collectively known as the "bill tip organ", allowing for highly dexterous manipulations. Seed-eating parrots have a strong tongue (containing similar touch receptors to those in the bill tip organ), which helps to manipulate seeds or position nuts in the bill so that the mandibles can apply an appropriate cracking force. The head is large, with eyes positioned high and laterally in the skull, so the visual field of parrots is unlike any other birds. Without turning its head, a parrot can see from just below its bill tip, all above its head, and quite far behind its head. Parrots also have quite a wide frontal binocular field for a bird, although this is nowhere near as large as primate binocular visual fields.[41] Unlike humans, the vision of parrots is also sensitive to ultraviolet light.[42]

Scarlet macaw displaying its zygodactyl feet.

Parrots have strong zygodactyl feet (two toes facing forward and two back) with sharp, elongated claws, which are used for climbing and swinging. Most species are capable of using their feet to manipulate food and other objects with a high degree of dexterity, in a similar manner to a human using their hands. A study conducted with Australian parrots has demonstrated that they exhibit "handedness", a distinct preference with regards to the foot used to pick up food, with adult parrots being almost exclusively "left-footed" or "right-footed", and with the prevalence of each preference within the population varying by species.[43]

Eclectus parrots, male left and female right

Cockatoo species have a mobile crest of feathers on the top of their heads, which they can raise for display, and retract.[44] No other parrots can do so, but the Pacific lorikeets in the genera Vini and Phigys can ruffle the feathers of the crown and nape, and the red-fan parrot (or hawk-headed parrot) has a prominent feather neck frill that it can raise and lower at will. The predominant colour of plumage in parrots is green, though most species have some red or another colour in small quantities. Cockatoos, however, are predominately black or white with some red, pink, or yellow.[45]

Strong sexual dimorphism in plumage is not typical among parrots, with some notable exceptions, the most striking being the eclectus parrot.[36]: 202–207  However, it has been shown that some parrot species exhibit sexually dimorphic plumage in the ultraviolet spectrum, normally invisible to humans.[46][47]

Distribution and habitat

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See also: List of Psittaciformes by population
Most parrot species are tropical, but a few species, like this austral parakeet, range deeply into temperate zones.

Parrots are found on all tropical and subtropical continents and regions including Australia and Oceania,[5] South Asia, Southeast Asia, Central America, South America,[4] and Africa.[48] Some Caribbean and Pacific islands are home to endemic species.[49] By far the greatest number of parrot species come from Australasia and South America.[50] The lories and lorikeets range from Sulawesi and the Philippines in the north to Australia and across the Pacific as far as French Polynesia, with the greatest diversity being found in and around New Guinea.[49] The subfamily Arinae encompasses all the neotropical parrots, including the amazons, macaws, and conures, and ranges from northern Mexico and the Bahamas to Tierra del Fuego in the southern tip of South America.[51] The pygmy parrots, tribe Micropsittini, form a small genus restricted to New Guinea and the Solomon Islands.[52] The superfamily Strigopoidea contains three living species of aberrant parrots from New Zealand.[53] The broad-tailed parrots, subfamily Platycercinae, are restricted to Australia, New Zealand, and the Pacific islands as far eastwards as Fiji.[54] The true parrot superfamily, Psittacoidea, includes a range of species from Australia and New Guinea to South Asia and Africa.[49] The centre of cockatoo biodiversity is Australia and New Guinea, although some species reach the Solomon Islands (and one formerly occurred in New Caledonia),[55] Wallacea and the Philippines.[56]

The kea is the only alpine parrot.

Several parrots inhabit the cool, temperate regions of South America and New Zealand. Three species—the thick-billed parrot, the green parakeet, and the now-extinct Carolina parakeet—have lived as far north as the southern United States. Many parrots, especially monk parakeets, have been introduced to areas with temperate climates, and have established stable populations in parts of the United States (including New York City),[57] the United Kingdom,[58] Belgium,[59] Spain,[60][61] and Greece.[62] These birds can be quite successful in introduced areas, such as the non-native population of red-crowned amazons in the U.S. which may rival that of their native Mexico.[63] The only parrot to inhabit alpine climates is the kea, which is endemic to the Southern Alps mountain range on New Zealand's South Island.[64]

Few parrots are wholly sedentary or fully migratory. Most fall somewhere between the two extremes, making poorly understood regional movements, with some adopting an entirely nomadic lifestyle.[65] Only three species, all Australian, are migratory – the orange-bellied, blue-winged and swift parrots.[66]

Behaviour

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Black-cheeked lovebird with pin feathers
Rainbow lorikeet feeding on Aloe nectar

Numerous challenges are found in studying wild parrots, as they are difficult to catch and once caught, they are difficult to mark. Most wild bird studies rely on banding or wing tagging, but parrots chew off such attachments.[65] Parrots also tend to range widely, and consequently many gaps occur in knowledge of their behaviour. Some parrots have a strong, direct flight. Most species spend much of their time perched or climbing in tree canopies. They often use their bills for climbing by gripping or hooking on branches and other supports. Researchers at the New York Institute of Technology published findings that showed parrots used their beaks as a "third limb" to propel themselves.[67] On the ground, parrots often walk with a rolling gait.[41]

Diet

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A yellow-tailed black cockatoo using its strong bill to search for grubs

The diet of parrots consists of seeds, fruit, nectar, pollen, buds, and sometimes arthropods and other animal prey. The most important of these for most true parrots and cockatoos are seeds; the large and powerful bill has evolved to open and consume tough seeds. All true parrots, except the Pesquet's parrot, employ the same method to obtain the seed from the husk; the seed is held between the mandibles and the lower mandible crushes the husk, whereupon the seed is rotated in the bill and the remaining husk is removed.[65] They may use their foot sometimes to hold large seeds in place. Parrots are granivores rather than seed dispersers, and in many cases where they are seen consuming fruit, they are only eating the fruit to get at the seed. As seeds often have poisons that protect them, parrots carefully remove seed coats and other chemically defended fruit parts prior to ingestion. Many species in the Americas, Africa, and Papua New Guinea consume clay, which releases minerals and absorbs toxic compounds from the gut.[68]

Blue-and-yellow macaws, scarlet macaws, chestnut-fronted macaws, mealy amazons, blue-headed parrots and an orange-cheeked parrot at a clay lick at Tambopata National Reserve, Peru.

Geographical range and body size predominantly explains the diet composition of Neotropical parrots rather than phylogeny.[69]

Lories, lorikeets, hanging parrots, and swift parrots are primarily nectar and pollen consumers, and have tongues with brush tips to collect it, as well as some specialised gut adaptations. Many other species also consume nectar when it becomes available.[70][71]

Some parrot species prey on animals, especially invertebrate larvae. Golden-winged parakeets prey on water snails,[72] the New Zealand kea can, though uncommonly, hunt adult sheep,[73] and the Antipodes parakeet, another New Zealand parrot, enters the burrows of nesting grey-backed storm petrels and kills the incubating adults.[74] Some cockatoos and the New Zealand kākā excavate branches and wood to feed on grubs; the bulk of the yellow-tailed black cockatoo's diet is made up of insects.[75]

Some extinct parrot-like birds had carnivorous diets. Pseudasturids were probably cuckoo- or puffbird-like insectivores, while messelasturids were raptor-like carnivores.[19]

Breeding

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With few exceptions, parrots are monogamous breeders who nest in cavities and hold no territories other than their nesting sites.[65][76] The pair bonds of the parrots and cockatoos are strong and a pair remains close during the nonbreeding season, even if they join larger flocks. As with many birds, pair bond formation is preceded by courtship displays; these are relatively simple in the case of cockatoos. In Psittacidae parrots' common breeding displays, usually undertaken by the male, include slow, deliberate steps known as a "parade" or "stately walk" and the "eye-blaze", where the pupil of the eye constricts to reveal the edge of the iris.[65] Allopreening is used by the pair to help maintain the bond. Cooperative breeding, where birds other than the breeding pair help raise the young and is common in some bird families, is extremely rare in parrots, and has only unambiguously been demonstrated in the El Oro parakeet and the golden parakeet (which may also exhibit polygamous, or group breeding, behaviour with multiple females contributing to the clutch).[77]

The vast majority of parrots are, like this rose-ringed parakeet, cavity nesters.

Only the monk parakeet and five species of lovebirds build nests in trees,[78] and three Australian and New Zealand ground parrots nest on the ground. All other parrots and cockatoos nest in cavities, either tree hollows or cavities dug into cliffs, banks, or the ground. The use of holes in cliffs is more common in the Americas. Many species use termite nests, possibly to reduce the conspicuousness of the nesting site or to create a favourable microclimate.[79] In most cases, both parents participate in nest excavation. The length of the burrow varies with species, but is usually between 0.5 and 2 m (1.6 and 6.6 ft) in length. The nests of cockatoos are often lined with sticks, wood chips, and other plant material. In the larger species of parrots and cockatoos, the availability of nesting hollows may be limited, leading to intense competition for them both within the species and between species, as well as with other bird families. The intensity of this competition can limit breeding success in some cases.[80][81] Hollows created artificially by arborists have proven successful in boosting breeding rates in these areas.[82] Some species are colonial, with the burrowing parrot nesting in colonies up to 70,000 strong.[83] Coloniality is not as common in parrots as might be expected, possibly because most species adopt old cavities rather than excavate their own.[84]

The eggs of parrots are white. In most species, the female undertakes all the incubation, although incubation is shared in cockatoos, the blue lorikeet, and the vernal hanging parrot. The female remains in the nest for almost all of the incubation period and is fed both by the male and during short breaks. Incubation varies from 17 to 35 days, with larger species having longer incubation periods. The newly born young are altricial, either lacking feathers or with sparse white down. The young spend three weeks to four months in the nest, depending on species, and may receive parental care for several months thereafter.[85]

As typical of K-selected species, the macaws and other larger parrot species have low reproductive rates. They require several years to reach maturity, produce one or very few young per year, and do not necessarily breed every year.[86]: 125 

Intelligence and learning

[edit]
Sun conure demonstrating parrots' puzzle-solving skills
See also: Bird intelligence

Some grey parrots have shown an ability to associate words with their meanings and form simple sentences. Along with crows, ravens, and jays (family Corvidae), parrots are considered the most intelligent of birds. The brain-to-body size ratio of psittacines and corvines is comparable to that of higher primates.[87] Instead of using the cerebral cortex like mammals, birds use the mediorostral HVC for cognition.[88][failed verification] Not only have parrots demonstrated intelligence through scientific testing of their language-using ability, but also some species of parrots, such as the kea, are also highly skilled at using tools and solving puzzles.[89]

Learning in early life is apparently important to all parrots, and much of that learning is social learning. Social interactions are often practised with siblings, and in several species, crèches are formed with several broods. Foraging behaviour is generally learnt from parents, and can be a very protracted affair. Generalists and specialists generally become independent of their parents much quicker than partly specialised species who may have to learn skills over long periods as various resources become seasonally available. Play forms a large part of learning in parrots; play can be solitary or social. Species may engage in play fights or wild flights to practice predator evasion. An absence of stimuli can delay the development of young birds, as demonstrated by a group of vasa parrots kept in tiny cages with domesticated chickens from the age of three months; at nine months, these birds still behaved in the same way as three-month-olds, but had adopted some chicken behaviour.[65] In a similar fashion, captive birds in zoo collections or pets can, if deprived of stimuli, develop stereotyped and harmful behaviours like self-plucking. Aviculturists working with parrots have identified the need for environmental enrichment to keep parrots stimulated.[90]

Sound imitation and speech

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Main article: Talking bird
See also: Animal language
Video of an orange-winged amazon saying "hello" having been prompted by some humans

Many parrots can imitate human speech or other sounds. A study by scientist Irene Pepperberg suggested a high learning ability in a grey parrot named Alex. Alex was trained to use words to identify objects, describe them, count them, and even answer complex questions such as "How many red squares?" with over 80% accuracy.[91] N'kisi, another grey parrot, has been shown to have a vocabulary of around a thousand words, and has displayed an ability to invent and use words in context in correct tenses.[92]

Parrots do not have vocal cords, so sound is accomplished by expelling air across the mouth of the trachea in the organ called the syrinx. Different sounds are produced by changing the depth and shape of the trachea.[93] Grey parrots are known for their superior ability to imitate sounds and human speech, which has made them popular pets since ancient times.[94]

Although most parrot species are able to imitate, some of the amazon parrots are generally regarded as the next-best imitators and speakers of the parrot world. The question of why birds imitate remains open, but those that do often score very high on tests designed to measure problem-solving ability. Wild grey parrots have been observed imitating other birds.[95]

Besides imitation, it is possible that parrots could be trained to use simple communication tools, e.g., to request food or a favourite activity by pushing a button.[96]

Song

[edit]

Parrots are unusual among birds due to their learned vocalizations, a trait they share with only hummingbirds and songbirds.[97] The syrinx (vocal organ) of parrots, which aids in their ability to produce song, is located at the base of the trachea and consists of two complex syringeal muscles that allow for the production of sound vibrations, and a pair of lateral tympaniform membranes that control sound frequency.[98] The position of the syrinx in birds allows for directed air flow into the interclavicular air sacs according to air sac pressure, which in turn creates a higher and louder tone in birds' singing.[97]

Cooperation

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A 2011 study stated that some African grey parrots preferred to work alone, while others like to work together.[99] With two parrots, they know the order of tasks or when they should do something together at once, but they have trouble exchanging roles. With three parrots, one parrot usually prefers to cooperate with one of the other two, but all of them are cooperating to solve the task.[100]

Longevity

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The heightened longevity of parrots appears to involve increased expression of several genomic features including genes employed in cell division, cell cycle regulation, RNA binding/processing, repair of DNA damage and oxidative stress response pathways.[101]

Relationship with humans

[edit]

Pets

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Further information: Companion parrot
Pet Cuban amazons in Cuba

Parrots may not make good pets for most people because of their natural wild instincts such as screaming and chewing. Although parrots can be very affectionate and cute when immature, they often become aggressive when mature (partly due to mishandling and poor training) and may bite, causing serious injury.[102] For this reason, parrot rescue groups estimate that most parrots are surrendered and rehomed through at least five homes before reaching their permanent destinations or before dying prematurely from unintentional or intentional neglect and abuse. The parrots' ability to mimic human words and their bright colours and beauty prompt impulse buying from unsuspecting consumers. The domesticated budgerigar, a small parrot, is the most popular of all pet bird species.[103] In 1992, the newspaper USA Today published that 11 million pet birds were in the United States alone,[104] many of them parrots. Europeans kept birds matching the description of the rose-ringed parakeet (or called the ring-necked parrot), documented particularly in a first-century account by Pliny the Elder.[105] As they have been prized for thousands of years for their beauty and ability to talk, they have also often been misunderstood. For example, author Wolfgang de Grahl says in his 1987 book The Grey Parrot that some importers had parrots drink only coffee while they were shipped by boat, believing that pure water was detrimental and that their actions would increase survival rates during shipping.[106] Nowadays, it is commonly accepted that the caffeine in coffee is toxic to birds.[107]

Pet parrots may be kept in a cage or aviary; though generally, tame parrots should be allowed out regularly on a stand or gym. Depending on locality, parrots may be either wild-caught or be captive-bred, though in most areas without native parrots, pet parrots are captive-bred. Parrot species that are commonly kept as pets include conures, macaws, amazon parrots, cockatoos, greys, lovebirds, cockatiels, budgerigars, caiques, parakeets, and Eclectus, Pionus, and Poicephalus species. Temperaments and personalities vary even within a species, just as with dog breeds. Grey parrots are thought to be excellent talkers, but not all grey parrots want to talk, though they have the capability to do so. Noise level, talking ability, cuddliness with people, and care needs can sometimes depend on how the bird is cared for and the attention he/she regularly receives.[108]

Scarlet macaw riding a tricycle at a show in Spain

Parrots invariably require an enormous amount of attention, care, and intellectual stimulation to thrive, akin to that required by a three-year-old child, which many people find themselves unable to provide in the long term.[109] Parrots that are bred for pets may be hand-fed or otherwise accustomed to interacting with people from a young age to help ensure they become tame and trusting. However, even when hand fed, parrots revert to biting and aggression during hormonal surges and if mishandled or neglected.[110] Parrots are not low-maintenance pets; they require feeding, grooming, veterinary care, training, and environmental enrichment through the provision of toys, exercise, and social interaction (with other parrots or humans) for good health.[111]

Some large parrot species, including large cockatoos, amazons, and macaws, have very long lifespans, with 80 years being reported,[112] and record ages of over 100.[113] Small parrots, such as lovebirds, hanging parrots, and budgies, have shorter lifespans up to 15–20 years.[114] Some parrot species can be quite loud, and many of the larger parrots can be destructive and require a very large cage, and a regular supply of new toys, branches, or other items to chew up.[108] The intelligence of parrots means they are quick to learn tricks and other behaviours—both good and bad—that get them what they want, such as attention or treats.[111]

The popularity, longevity, and intelligence of many of the larger kinds of pet parrots and their wild traits such as screaming, has led to many birds needing to be rehomed during the course of their long lifespans. A common problem is that large parrots that are cuddly and gentle as juveniles mature into intelligent, complex, often demanding adults who can outlive their owners, and can also become aggressive or even dangerous. Due to an increasing number of homeless parrots, they are being euthanised like dogs and cats, and parrot adoption centres and sanctuaries are becoming more common.[86]: 77–78  Parrots do not often do well in captivity, causing some parrots to go insane and develop repetitive behaviours, such as swaying and screaming, or they become riddled with intense fear. Feather destruction and self-mutilation, although not commonly seen in the wild, occur often in captivity.[115][116]

Some owners have offered their pet parrots mobile apps for entertainment.[117] Scientists Rébecca Kleinberger of Northeastern University and Ilyena Hirskyj-Douglas of the University of Glasgow performed a pilot study to tailor apps to parrots' preferences. The birds tended to use rapid tongue movements to interact with screens, possibly mimicking movements used to manipulate seeds.[117] To motivate parrots participating in the pilot study, researchers used treats such as peanut butter, yoghurt and pine nuts; one bird responded better to "cheering and praise".[117]

Trade

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Hyacinth macaws were taken from the wild for the pet trade in the 1980s.[118] As a result, Brazil now has only a very small number of breeding pairs left in the wild.[119]
Main article: International parrot trade

The popularity of parrots as pets has led to a thriving—and often illegal—trade in the birds, and some species are now threatened with extinction. A combination of trapping of wild birds and damage to parrot habitats makes survival difficult or even impossible for some species of parrot. Importation of wild-caught parrots into the US and Europe is illegal after the Wild Bird Population Act was passed in 1992.[120]

The scale of the problem can be seen in the Tony Silva case of 1996, in which a parrot expert and former director at Tenerife's Loro Parque (Europe's largest parrot park) was jailed in the United States for 82 months and fined $100,000 for smuggling hyacinth macaws (such birds command a very high price.)[121]

Different nations have different methods of handling internal and international trade. Australia has banned the export of its native birds since 1960.[122] In July 2007, following years of campaigning by NGOs and outbreaks of avian flu, the European Union (EU) halted the importation of all wild birds with a permanent ban on their import.[123] Prior to an earlier temporary ban started in late October 2005, the EU was importing about two million live birds a year, about 90% of the international market: hundreds of thousands of these were parrots.[124] No national laws protect feral parrot populations in the U.S.[125]

Mexico has a licensing system for capturing and selling native birds.[126] According to a 2007 report, 65,000 to 78,500 parrots are captured annually, but the mortality rate before reaching a buyer is over 75%, meaning around 50,000 to 60,000 will die.[127]

Culture

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Moche parrot, 200 CE Larco Museum Collection Lima, Peru

Parrots have featured in human writings, story, art, humor, religion, and music for thousands of years, such as Aesop's fable "The parrot and the cat",[128] the mention "The parrot can speak, and yet is nothing more than a bird" in The Book of Rites of Ancient China,[129] the Masnavi by Rumi of Persia in 1250 "The Merchant and the Parrot".[130] Recent books about parrots in human culture include Parrot Culture.[131]

In ancient times and current, parrot feathers have been used in ceremonies and for decoration.[132] They also have a long history as pets, stretching back thousands of years, and were often kept as a symbol of royalty or wealth.[133]

Parrots are used as symbols of nations and nationalism. A parrot is found on the flag of Dominica and two parrots on their coat of arms.[134] The St. Vincent parrot is the national bird of St. Vincent and the Grenadines, a Caribbean nation.[135]

Sayings about parrots colour the modern English language. The verb "parrot" in the dictionary means "to repeat by rote". Also clichés such as the British expression "sick as a parrot" are given; although this refers to extreme disappointment rather than illness, it may originate from the disease of psittacosis, which can be passed to humans.[136][137] The first occurrence of a related expression is in Aphra Behn's 1681 play The False Count.[138] Fans of Jimmy Buffett are known as parrotheads.[139] Parrots feature in many media. Magazines are devoted to parrots as pets, and to the conservation of parrots.[140] Fictional media include Monty Python's "Dead Parrot sketch",[141] Home Alone 3[142] and Rio;[143] and documentaries include The Wild Parrots of Telegraph Hill.[144]

Parrots have been a food source to several groups. Australian settlers made parrot pies,[145] while the Maori hunted kakapos for their meat and feathers.

Every year on 31 May, World Parrot Day is celebrated around the world.[146]

Mythology

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As early as the ancient Chinese Shang dynasty (c. 1600 BCE – 1045 BCE), jade artifacts are found crafted in the shape of parrots and were subjected to burning over wood along with other jade objects and livestock, likely as a part of ritual sacrifices known as 'Liao' sacrifices (燎祭), generating smoke offerings to the heavens, gods and ancestors. This ritual is believed to have been inherited from previous worship practices and continued into the Zhou dynasty. A jade parrot, among other artifacts, recovered from the tomb of Fu Hao at Yinxu provides significant evidence of this practice.[147]

In Polynesian legend as current in the Marquesas Islands, the hero Laka/Aka is mentioned as having undertaken a long and dangerous voyage to Aotona in what are now the Cook Islands, to obtain the highly prized feathers of a red parrot as gifts for his son and daughter. On the voyage, 100 of his 140 rowers died of hunger on their way, but the survivors reached Aotona and captured enough parrots to fill 140 bags with their feathers.[148][149]

Parrots have also been considered sacred. The Moche people of ancient Peru worshipped birds and often depicted parrots in their art.[150] Parrots are popular in Buddhist scripture and many writings about them exist. For example, Amitābha once changed himself into a parrot to aid in converting people. Another old story tells how after a forest caught fire, the parrot was so concerned, it carried water to try to put out the flames. The ruler of heaven was so moved upon seeing the parrot's act, he sent rain to put out the fire.[151] In Chinese Buddhist iconography, a parrot is sometimes depicted hovering on the upper right side Guan Yin clasping a pearl or prayer beads in its beak.[152]

In Hindu mythology, the parrot is the mount of the god of love, Kamadeva.[153] The bird is also associated with the goddess Meenakshi and the poet-saint Andal.[154]

Feral populations

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Feral red-masked parakeets in San Francisco
Main article: Feral parrot

Escaped parrots of several species have become established in the wild outside their natural ranges and in some cases outside the natural range of parrots. Among the earliest instances were pet red shining-parrots from Fiji, which established a population on the islands of southern Tonga. These introductions were prehistoric and red-shining parrots were recorded in Tonga by Captain Cook in the 1770s.[55] Escapees first began breeding in cities in California, Texas, and Florida in the 1950s (with unproven earlier claims dating to the 1920s in Texas and Florida).[60] They have proved surprisingly hardy in adapting to conditions in Europe and North America. They sometimes even multiply to the point of becoming a nuisance or pest, and a threat to local ecosystems, and control measures have been used on some feral populations.[155]

Feral parrot flocks can be formed after mass escapes of newly imported, wild-caught parrots from airports or quarantine facilities. Large groups of escapees have the protection of a flock and possess the skills to survive and breed in the wild.[156] Some feral parakeets may have descended from escaped zoo birds. Escaped or released pets rarely contribute to establishing feral populations, as they usually result in only a few escapees, and most captive-born birds do not possess the necessary survival skills to find food or avoid predators and often do not survive long without human caretakers. However, in areas where there are existing feral parrot populations, escaped pets may sometimes successfully join these flocks.[156][60] The most common years that feral parrots were released to non-native environments was from the 1890s to the 1940s, during the wild-caught parrot era.[60] In the "parrot fever" panic of 1930, a city health commissioner urged everyone who owned a parrot to put them down, but some owners abandoned their parrots on the streets.[157]

Threats and conservation

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The Norfolk kākā went extinct in the mid-1800s due to overhunting and habitat loss.[158]

The principal threats of parrots are habitat loss and degradation, hunting, and, for certain species, the wild-bird trade.[3] Parrots are persecuted because, in some areas, they are (or have been) hunted for food and feathers, and as agricultural pests. For a time, Argentina offered a bounty on monk parakeets for that reason, resulting in hundreds of thousands of birds being killed, though apparently this did not greatly affect the overall population.[159]

Parrots, being cavity nesters, are vulnerable to the loss of nesting sites and to competition with introduced species for those sites. The loss of old trees is a particular problem in some areas, particularly in Australia, where suitable nesting trees must be centuries old. Many parrots occur only on islands and are vulnerable to introduced species such as rats and feral cat, as they lack the appropriate antipredator behaviours needed to deal with predators.[160] Island species, such as the Puerto Rican amazon, which have small populations in restricted habitats, are also vulnerable to natural events, such as hurricanes.[161] Due to deforestation, the Puerto Rican amazon is one of the world's rarest birds despite conservation efforts.[162]

A mounted specimen of the Carolina parakeet, which was hunted to extinction
Senegal parrot in conservatory

One of the largest parrot conservation groups is the World Parrot Trust,[163] an international organisation. The group gives assistance to worthwhile projects, as well as producing a magazine (PsittaScene)[164] and raising funds through donations and memberships, often from pet parrot owners. On a smaller scale, local parrot clubs raise money to donate to a conservation cause. Zoo and wildlife centres usually provide public education, to change habits that cause damage to wild populations. Conservation measures to conserve the habitats of some of the high-profile charismatic parrot species has also protected many of the less charismatic species living in the ecosystem.[165]: 12  A popular attraction that many zoos employ is a feeding station for lories and lorikeets, where visitors feed them with cups of liquid food. This is usually done in association with educational signs and lectures.[166] Birdwatching-based ecotourism can be beneficial to economies.[167]

Several projects aimed specifically at parrot conservation have met with success. Translocation of vulnerable kākāpō, followed by intensive management and supplementary feeding, has increased the population from 50 individuals to 123 in 2010[168] and 247 in 2024.[169] In New Caledonia, the Ouvea parakeet was threatened by trapping for the pet trade and loss of habitat. Community-based conservation, which eliminated the threat of poaching, has allowed the population to increase from around 600 birds in 1993 to over 2,000 birds in 2009.[170]

As of 2009, the IUCN recognises 19 species of parrot as extinct since 1500 (the date used to denote modern extinctions).[171] This does not include species like the New Caledonian lorikeet, which has not been officially seen for 100 years, yet is still listed as critically endangered.[172]

Trade, export, and import of all wild-caught parrots is regulated and only permitted under special licensed circumstances in countries party to the Convention on the International Trade in Endangered Species (CITES) which came into force in 1975 to regulate the international trade of all endangered, wild-caught animal and plant species. In 1975, 24 parrot species were included in Appendix I, thus prohibiting commercial international trade in these birds. Since that initial listing, continuing threats from international trade led it to add an additional 32 parrot varieties to Appendix I.[173] All other parrot species, aside from the rosy-faced lovebird, budgerigar, cockatiel and rose-ringed parakeet (which are not included in the appendices) are protected on Appendix II of CITES.[174][175] In addition, individual countries may have laws to regulate trade in certain species; for example, the EU has banned parrot trade,[124] whereas Mexico has a licensing system for capturing parrots.[126]

See also

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References

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Cited sources

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Revisions and contributorsEdit on WikipediaRead on Wikipedia

Parrot

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Parrots are birds belonging to the order Psittaciformes, comprising approximately 400 extant species characterized by a strong, curved, hooked bill adapted for cracking seeds and nuts, zygodactyl feet with two toes directed forward and two backward for climbing and grasping, and often vibrant, iridescent plumage. These birds exhibit an upright stance and short necks, with sizes ranging from the diminutive pygmy parrots at about 8 cm in length to large macaws exceeding 100 cm. Predominantly inhabiting tropical and subtropical forests, woodlands, and savannas across South America, Australasia, Africa, and parts of Asia, parrots demonstrate remarkable cognitive abilities, including tool use, puzzle-solving, and vocal mimicry that can replicate human speech with contextual understanding in species like the African grey parrot. Their evolutionary lineage traces back to the Paleogene, with fossil evidence indicating origins potentially in the Northern Hemisphere before diversification into southern continents, though parrot fossils remain scarce and debated. Conservation challenges are acute, as habitat destruction from deforestation and agriculture, combined with illegal capture for the pet trade, have rendered about 28% of species threatened with extinction according to assessments, including 18 critically endangered taxa.

Taxonomy and Phylogeny

Evolutionary Origins and Fossil Record

Molecular phylogenetic analyses estimate the origin of crown-group Psittaciformes (modern parrots) in the , between 59 and 82 million years ago, likely within following the separation of from the India-Madagascar block. These estimates align with biogeographic patterns, as parrot diversity centers in and , suggesting an ancestral Gondwanan radiation. The divergence of cockatoos (Cacatuidae) from other parrots () is dated to approximately 40.7 million years ago during the Eocene. The fossil record of Psittaciformes is sparse and lags behind molecular dates, a pattern attributed to potential undersampling or "ghost lineages" in the . A purported parrot from the has been reported but remains disputed, with most experts rejecting a origin for the order based on morphology. Unequivocal stem-group representatives (Pan-Psittaciformes), exhibiting zygodactyl feet and other parrot-like traits, appear in the Early Eocene around 54 million years ago. Examples include specimens from the Mo Clay of assigned to Pseudasturidae and other indeterminate forms. Early Eocene fossils from and further document stem parrots, such as Messelastur gratulator from the Messel Pit in (circa 48 million years ago) and halcyornithids like Cyrilavis olsoni and Cyrilavis colburnorum from the Green River Formation in the United States (approximately 50 million years ago). These taxa display convergent parrot-like cranial features but are positioned outside the crown group in phylogenetic analyses. Crown-group Psittaciformes are not confidently identified until the Oligocene- boundary, around 25 million years ago, with diversification accelerating in the . Notable Miocene fossils include the giant Heracles inexpectatus from (16-19 million years ago), estimated at 7 kg, and a tarsometatarsus from representing the earliest Asian record of crown parrots.

Etymology

The English word parrot first appears in records around 1525, denoting the tropical bird noted for its vocal . It derives from perrot (or perroquet), with the latter term also yielding the English "" via forms. The precise origin of perrot remains uncertain, but leading hypotheses include its formation as a of the personal name (equivalent to Peter), potentially alluding to pet parrots trained to utter "Piers" or similar phrases, or as an abbreviation of perroquet itself. An alternative derivation proposes influence from Spanish pajarote, a term for "large bird" attested from 1576–77, combining pájaro ("bird," from Latin passer, "sparrow") with an augmentative suffix. By the 1590s, "parrot" extended to the verb form meaning "to repeat mechanically or uncomprehendingly," directly inspired by the bird's ability to imitate human speech without semantic grasp, as observed in early European encounters with imported specimens from the Americas and Asia. The scientific nomenclature for parrots, the order Psittaciformes, stems from ψιττακός (psittakós), a term employed by the 5th-century BCE writer to describe the bird, though its etymological roots—possibly onomatopoeic or borrowed from non-Greek languages—remain unresolved.

Phylogenetic Relationships

Psittaciformes forms a monophyletic sister to Passeriformes within the group, part of the broader radiation among . This positioning, supported by nuclear and analyses, reflects a shared evolutionary history diverging from other avian lineages around 60–70 million years ago, consistent with genomic-scale phylogenies resolving deep avian relationships. The order encompasses approximately 398 extant species across three families: Cacatuidae (cockatoos, 21 species), Strigopidae ( parrots, including the kea, kakapo, and kaka, 3 species), and the species-rich (true parrots, ~374 species). Multilocus molecular phylogenies indicate that Cacatuidae represents the earliest diverging lineage, separating from the ancestor of Psittacoidea (Strigopidae + ) during the , approximately 74 million years ago. Strigopidae then split from around 52–60 million years ago in the early , with undergoing rapid diversification thereafter, yielding major subclades such as the Neotropical Arini (macaws and allies), Australasian Platycercini and Psittaculini (broad-tailed parrots and Old World parrots), and Loriinae (lorikeets). Within Psittacidae, molecular data reveal both monophyletic groups like Arini and Loriinae, alongside polyphyletic assemblages such as traditional Psittaculini and , necessitating taxonomic revisions based on mitochondrial and nuclear markers. Biogeographic patterns suggest an initial Gondwanan radiation, with subsequent dispersals accounting for Neotropical and Afro-Asian distributions, though some internal nodes show topological discordance due to incomplete lineage sorting or hybridization signals in phylogenomic datasets. Recent syntheses incorporating mitogenomes and nuclear loci affirm these relationships while refining divergence estimates to post-Cretaceous–Paleogene boundary timings for crown-group diversification.

Current Classification and Recent Revisions

The order Psittaciformes encompasses approximately 400 extant species distributed across roughly 100 genera, traditionally classified into three families: Strigopidae (New Zealand parrots, including the , kaka, and kakapo), Cacatuidae (cockatoos), and (true parrots, encompassing New World, African, and Australasian lineages). Within Psittacidae, numerous subfamilies such as Arinae (Neotropical parrots) and (Old World parrots) reflect phylogenetic groupings supported by molecular data. A comprehensive phylogenomic study published on June 28, 2024, analyzed genome-wide data from 323 parrot species (96% of the order's diversity) using maximum likelihood and species-tree methods to infer evolutionary relationships, revealing deep divergences dating to the Oligocene (approximately 30 million years ago for Psittacoidea). This work addressed paraphyly in prior classifications by proposing splits in polyphyletic genera, such as dividing Cacatua (cockatoos) into Cacatua and Licmetis, and Psephotus into Psephotellus and Clarkona; reinstating genera like Gymnopsittacus for Aratinga weddellii and Cardeos for the cardinal lory; and reconfiguring Trichoglossus lorikeets into 10 species across multiple genera. Additional changes include elevating Probosciger to subfamily Microglossinae, restricting tribe Touitini to Touit, and introducing new tribes such as Brotogerini, Neophemini, and Bolbopsittacini to better align taxonomy with monophyletic clades supported by synapomorphies and divergence estimates (e.g., Pyrrhura radiation at 7.1 million years ago). These revisions prioritize genomic evidence over historical morphology-based groupings, resolving issues like incomplete lineage sorting and rapid radiations while maintaining diagnosable morphological traits; for instance, they retain separate species status for Pionites leucogaster and P. melanocephalus despite close relation, and elevate Philippine populations of Tanygnathus sumatranus to T. everetti. Earlier proposals, such as those from the South American Classification Committee in 2023, have similarly advocated splitting Psittacidae into additional families like for certain Old World lineages, though broader adoption awaits further consensus. Ongoing refinements continue to incorporate networks and fossil-calibrated timetrees to refine genus-level boundaries.

Anatomy and Physiology

External Morphology

Parrots exhibit a distinctive characterized by an upright stance, a robust and compact build, and adaptations suited for arboreal life. Their bodies are covered in feathers except for the legs, feet, cere, and bare skin around the eyes, with no sweat glands present to regulate temperature. The head is rounded with a short neck, and the wings are typically short and rounded, enabling agile flight in forested environments. Tail length varies widely among , from short in pygmy parrots to long and pointed in some psittacines like the , where it can exceed half the body length. The , or bill, is a defining feature, consisting of a strong, curved upper (rhinotheca) that is hooked and highly mobile, overlaying a shorter, sharper lower (gnathotheca). This structure, covered in keratinized rhamphotheca, features a prominent cere at the base where nostrils open, and is specialized for cracking seeds, nuts, and manipulating objects. The upper mandible's flexibility, supported by a movable , allows precise control, distinguishing parrots from other birds. Parrots possess zygodactyl feet, with digits II and III directed forward and digits I and IV backward, providing a strong grip for climbing, perching, and handling food. The legs are short and stout, with a thick , and the claws are sharp and curved for traction on branches. This arrangement enhances dexterity, allowing parrots to use their feet almost like hands. Plumage in parrots is often vibrant, with many species displaying predominant tones accented by , , , or white patches, though some like the kakapo are more subdued. Feathers are iridescent in certain species due to , and in is rare, with most differences subtle or absent.

Internal Anatomy and Sensory Capabilities

Parrots possess a adapted for processing seeds, fruits, and nuts, featuring a for temporary food storage, followed by the proventriculus, a glandular that secretes , and the ventriculus, a muscular lined with koilin for grinding ingested material. The proventriculus in psittacine birds is positioned left dorsal and ventral relative to the ventriculus, facilitating efficient breakdown of tough, fibrous foods through mechanical and chemical means. Waste is expelled via the , which combines urinary, digestive, and reproductive outputs, with occasional formation of urate-based cloacoliths observed in species like macaws and Amazon parrots. The employs unidirectional airflow, with small, non-expandable lungs supplemented by nine that act as bellows for continuous ventilation and in parabronchi, enhancing oxygen efficiency during flight and vocalization. The , situated at the trachea's bifurcation near the thoracic inlet in parrots, serves as the primary vocal organ, comprising modified tracheal rings, syringeal muscles, and membranes that enable independent control of sound production from both bronchi, supporting and complex calls. Sensory capabilities emphasize vision and audition over olfaction. Parrots exhibit acute with forward-facing eyes providing binocular , alongside tetrachromatic that includes sensitivity for detecting ripe fruits and plumage signals. Hearing is refined, with a typical frequency range of approximately 100 Hz to 8-10 kHz across species, and peak sensitivity in the 1-6 kHz range that overlaps with human speech frequencies but features a narrower upper limit than humans (up to 20 kHz). Parrots do not perceive ultrasonic sounds (>20 kHz) or infrasound (<20 Hz). Their high auditory sensitivity enables precise sound localization through asymmetric structures and neural processing that discerns direction and distance, as well as complex vocal mimicry and reactions to conspecific calls, environmental noises, and sudden loud stimuli. In contrast, olfactory bulbs are reduced in size relative to optic lobes, indicating limited smell detection suited to seed-based diets rather than foraging by scent. The brain features enlarged cerebral hemispheres and , correlating with advanced cognitive processing, though taste and touch senses are less specialized, with concentrated in the upper mouth for basic food assessment.

Plumage, Coloration, and Sexual Dimorphism

Parrot plumage consists of feathers characterized by unique microstructures, including spongy medullary layers in the barbs that contribute to iridescent and structural coloration. These feathers incorporate both pigmentary and structural elements, with psittacofulvins—novel linear polyene pigments synthesized via a polyketide synthase enzyme—responsible for yellow, orange, and red hues. Psittacofulvins, unlike carotenoids in other birds, provide enhanced resistance to bacterial degradation, potentially aiding feather maintenance in humid tropical environments. Melanin granules produce black, gray, and brown tones, often underlying or combining with psittacofulvins and structural effects. Blue and green colors arise primarily from structural interference via light scattering in the feather's keratin matrix and air-filled spongy structures, sometimes overlaid on yellow psittacofulvins to yield green. The variation in coloration is modulated by enzymatic processes; for instance, (ALDH) oxidizes psittacofulvins, shifting hues from (carboxylic acid form) to red (aldehyde form), as identified in studies of Amazon parrots. Spectral tuning occurs through differential deposition of pigments in feather barbs and barbules, with psittacofulvins concentrated in both, enhancing vibrancy. This dual mechanism—pigmentary for warm tones and structural for cool tones—enables parrots to achieve a broad of colors, though avian overall spans only 26-30% of perceivable hues. Sexual dimorphism in parrot plumage is generally subtle or absent, with most species exhibiting monomorphic coloration where males and females appear similar. Exceptions include the Eclectus parrot (Eclectus roratus), which displays extreme dimorphism: males are predominantly bright green with orange beaks, while females are red-headed with blue underparts and black beaks, a trait so stark that early observers classified them as separate species. This dimorphism relies on psittacofulvin deposition differences, with females producing more red forms. Subtle variations occur in species like the Monk Parakeet (Myiopsitta monachus), where females show marginally duller crown, nape, and wing plumage via . In Australasian parrots, dichromatism correlates more strongly with structural colors than psittacofulvin- or melanin-based ones, suggesting evolutionary pressures favor in pigment-heavy species.

Distribution and Habitat

Global Range and Biogeography

Parrots (Psittaciformes) are native to tropical and subtropical regions across the and equatorial zones, spanning Central and , (including ), and , ( and ), and Pacific islands extending to . The order is absent from native populations in , temperate north of , and . This distribution reflects adaptations to warm climates, with approximately 398 species documented globally, concentrated in forested and habitats. Species richness peaks in the Neotropics, particularly the , which hosts the highest diversity, followed by southeastern and the mountainous regions of . The Neotropics alone support over 150 species, representing a major center of , while Australasia harbors basal lineages such as the New Zealand parrots (Strigopidae). Afro-Malagasy and Indo-Malayan regions contribute fewer species but include unique radiations, like the vasa parrots of . These hotspots correlate with stable tropical environments that facilitated diversification. Biogeographically, parrots exhibit Gondwanan origins, with the earliest diverging lineages in Australasian remnants of the , dating to divergences around 50-60 million years ago. Subsequent dispersals and radiations occurred post-Gondwana breakup, with New World clades arising via vicariance or overwater colonization, and African-Asian groups reflecting connections. Phylogenetic analyses support an Australasian cradle, followed by expansion into and limited northward incursions limited by Pleistocene glaciations. Introduced populations, now established in over 120 countries beyond native ranges, alter local distributions but stem from pet trade escapes rather than natural biogeographic processes.

Habitat Types and Adaptations

Parrots primarily inhabit tropical and subtropical regions, with the majority of species occupying forested environments such as rainforests, dry forests, and woodland mosaics, though some exploit savannas, mangroves, and montane zones. In the Amazon basin, species show preferences for specific forest strata: large parrots like Ara macaws favor upland and high-ground forests, mid-sized species prefer transitional areas, and small Brotogeris parakeets utilize floodplain transitional forests while avoiding uplands. Dry tropical forests in inter-Andean valleys of Bolivia, spanning altitudes from 900 to 3500 meters, support diverse parrot assemblages amid thorn scrub, cacti, and scattered trees. Savanna habitats, such as the Beni region of Bolivia, host up to 23 parrot species in fragmented forest islands, while African species like the brown-necked parrot (Poicephalus fuscicollis) occur in moist savanna woodlands and riverine forests. Montane adaptations are evident in species like the thick-billed parrot (Rhynchopsitta pachyrhyncha) in highland pine forests of Mexico's Sierra Madre and the kea (Nestor notabilis) in New Zealand's alpine Southern Alps. Key morphological adaptations include zygodactyl feet, with two toes forward and two backward, facilitating secure gripping of branches and manipulation of food in arboreal settings like canopies. The strong, hooked enables cracking hard and fruits, climbing, and even tripedal locomotion by using the beak as a third limb for propulsion in trees. In dense habitats, parrots exhibit flocking behaviors, typically in small groups of 1-4 individuals correlating inversely with body size, enhancing foraging efficiency and predator detection during dawn and post-midday activity peaks. Dietary generalism allows exploitation of over 100 plant species across growth forms, including trees, shrubs, vines, and cacti, supporting survival in seasonally variable dry s. Behavioral plasticity, such as geophagy at clay licks in Amazonian habitats, aids detoxification of dietary alkaloids from unripe fruits and , a critical for frugivorous species in toxin-rich tropical ecosystems. In montane and alpine zones, species like the demonstrate resilience to cold through behavioral innovations, though genomic studies suggest historical colonization rather than specialized physiological cold adaptations in some cases. These adaptations underscore parrots' role as ecosystem multilinkers, influencing plant regeneration via seed dispersal and predation while enabling occupancy of heterogeneous landscapes from lowland tropics to high-altitude scrub. Urban and grassland expansions by invasive species further highlight opportunistic behavioral flexibility, allowing exploitation of human-modified environments through generalist foraging. Nearly 30% of the approximately 400 parrot (Psittaciformes) are classified as threatened with extinction under criteria, reflecting widespread population declines driven primarily by from and agricultural expansion, compounded by illegal capture for the international pet . Global abundance estimates for individual vary widely, with common species like the potentially numbering in the millions in , while many Neotropical and African taxa have populations below mature individuals; precise totals remain elusive due to the challenges of dense tropical forests and elusive behaviors. Trends indicate ongoing declines for most native populations, with over half of all bird species globally decreasing, parrots disproportionately affected in biodiversity hotspots like the Amazon and where and accelerate habitat loss. For example, the African grey parrot (Psittacus erithacus) has experienced 50–79% population reductions over recent decades due to poaching and habitat degradation, leading to its Endangered status. Similarly, many Amazonian macaws and parakeets have seen uplistings to Vulnerable or higher in recent assessments, with predation by invasives and bauxite exacerbating threats in regions like . In contrast, certain non-native populations are expanding rapidly as invasives, such as rose-ringed parakeets (Psittacula krameri) in and , where numbers have grown from introductions in the to millions, outcompeting local cavity-nesters and altering urban ecosystems without facing native pressures. Conservation efforts, including Appendix I listings for over 100 species since the , have slowed some declines but failed to reverse trends for heavily traded taxa, as enforcement remains weak in source countries amid poverty and demand from affluent markets. Recent 2023–2024 IUCN updates show several taxa, including cockatoos, shifting to declining trends, underscoring the need for habitat protection integrated with measures.

Behavior and Ecology

Diet and Foraging Strategies

Parrots in the order Psittaciformes exhibit diverse diets centered on plant materials, including seeds, nuts, fruits, buds, flowers, , and bark, with many species classified as granivores or frugivores. Some incorporate animal matter such as and small , rendering them omnivorous, particularly certain cockatoos. Species like lories and lorikeets specialize in and , aided by brush-tipped tongues for efficient extraction from flowers. Foraging strategies leverage parrots' zygodactyl feet for manipulation and powerful, hooked bills for cracking hard-shelled foods like nuts and seeds. Birds often climb or hang upside down to access resources, with some ground-foraging species like ground parrots targeting seeds in soil. Optimal foraging principles guide selection of abundant, high-nutrient items; for instance, military macaws (Ara militaris) concentrate on nutrient-rich seeds of Hymenaea polyandra during dry seasons to maximize efficiency. Wild parrots spend extensive time searching, procuring, and processing food, promoting dietary variety that supports health. Geophagy, the consumption of clay at mineral licks, is a notable strategy among many species, particularly in Amazonian regions like Peru's . This behavior peaks when plant-based foods are scarce or toxin-laden, with clay hypothesized to bind alkaloids from unripe fruits and seeds, neutralizing poisons via adsorption and providing a lining for protection. Alternative explanations include mineral supplementation, especially sodium, from clay rich in such elements. Aggregations at licks facilitate mixed-species interactions but expose birds to predation risks.

Reproduction and Parental Care

Parrots in the family typically form socially monogamous pairs that maintain long-term bonds, often for life, which supports coordinated biparental care essential for survival given the altricial nature of . involves mutual allopreening, aerial displays, and food-sharing, with pairs defending nesting territories vigorously. Breeding seasons vary by species, latitude, and environmental cues like rainfall, which triggers food availability; in tropical regions such as southeastern , nesting spans June to April, with smaller species starting earlier than larger ones. In equatorial Africa, gray parrots (Psittacus erithacus) lay eggs primarily from late April to late May. Pairs select nest sites in natural cavities such as tree hollows, cliffs, or arboreal termite mounds, though species like the monk parakeet (Myiopsitta monachus) build communal stick nests that persist across seasons. Females lay clutches of 1 to 9 eggs, most commonly 2 to 5, which are glossy white and elliptical; for example, yellow-crowned parrots (Amazona ochrocephala) produce 2 to 4 eggs per season, while ring-necked parakeets ( krameri) average 3 to 4 from clutches of 2 to 6. Eggs are laid every 1 to 3 days, with incubation commencing after the clutch is complete or partially, lasting 18 to 31 days and handled almost exclusively by the , who leaves the nest briefly for while the provisions her. Hatchlings emerge blind, naked, and helpless, with asynchronous in many producing size hierarchies that can influence . Both parents feed chicks via regurgitation—a nutrient-rich —initially every few hours, transitioning to solid foods like fruits and seeds as nestlings develop feathers and motor skills over 3 to 6 weeks. Fledging periods scale with body size, ranging from 4 to 6 weeks in small parakeets to 10 to 12 weeks in large macaws; in the red-tailed parrot (Amazona brasiliensis), chicks achieve first flight at 55 to 57 days and full independence at 87 to 96 days post-. Post-fledging care persists for weeks to months, involving tuition and predator avoidance training, with family units often cohesive until the next breeding cycle; this extended investment correlates with high juvenile mortality rates from or predation if pairs separate prematurely. In some species, such as cooperative breeders like the eclectus parrot (Eclectus roratus), older offspring may assist in feeding siblings, enhancing .

Social Organization and Communication

Parrots in the order Psittaciformes exhibit highly social behaviors, typically forming flocks that provide safety through collective vigilance against predators and facilitate cooperative foraging. Flock dynamics often involve fission-fusion structures, where groups temporarily disperse into smaller units, such as monogamous pairs, for activities like feeding before reassembling. Unlike mammalian societies, wild parrot flocks lack rigid dominance hierarchies; interactions prioritize peaceful resource access over aggressive competition. Many parrot species form lifelong monogamous pair bonds, which persist within larger flock contexts and are supported by both social and genetic fidelity in species like the burrowing parrot (Cyanoliseus patagonus). These pairs engage in parallel activities such as synchronized and , reinforcing flock cohesion without strict leadership structures. Variations exist; for instance, Quaker parrots (Myiopsitta monachus) demonstrate aggression informed by social knowledge in fission-fusion flocks. Overall, flock living enhances learning, emotional well-being, and predator avoidance through sentinel behaviors. Communication among parrots relies on a of vocalizations and to convey needs, emotions, and social signals. Vocal repertoire includes contact calls for maintaining flock proximity, alarm squawks for threats, and chirp-reply patterns to reassure group members. encompasses eye (dilating pupils indicating excitement or focus), beak grinding for contentment, raised wings or postures for displays, and tail fanning to signal or . These multimodal signals enable precise flock coordination, such as during or evasion, with visual cues complementing acoustics in dense habitats. In pair bonds, subtle gestures and vocal duets further strengthen monogamous ties.

Intelligence, Cognition, and Vocalization

Parrots demonstrate cognitive abilities that surpass many avian species, with enlarged forebrain regions such as the nidopallium caudolaterale (NCL) and medial mesopallium (MM) facilitating complex processing akin to primate association areas. These structures are densely packed with neurons, exceeding those in some primates relative to body size, which correlates with observed problem-solving and learning capacities. Parrots also possess expanded pontine nuclei and a specialized "information superhighway" via the medial spiriform nucleus (SpM), two to five times larger than in other birds, enhancing integration between sensory and motor areas. Such neural adaptations underpin behaviors like object permanence recognition and causal reasoning, positioning parrots cognitively above most birds and comparable to apes in select tasks. Studies on species like the African grey parrot (Psittacus erithacus) reveal performance in cognitive tests rivaling that of human children aged 5 years, including category labeling and same-different discrimination. Long-term research by with subject demonstrated comprehension of abstract concepts such as "shape," "color," and "material," alongside basic arithmetic like up to six items. Vocalization integrates with , as parrots process auditory signals through specialized pathways enabling learned beyond innate calls.

Mimicry and Vocal Learning

Parrots belong to the minority of animals exhibiting lifelong vocal learning, allowing of environmental sounds including human speech, alarms, and conspecific calls. This capability stems from with songbirds and humans, involving nuclei for motor control of the (vocal organ) and precise modulation. African grey parrots excel, acquiring vocabularies exceeding 100 words with contextual usage, as evidenced by identifying objects absent from training and requesting novel items by name. serves social functions, such as flock coordination or deception, though wild repertoires vary by species; for instance, some imitate predators to deter threats. Recent experiments confirm rhythmic in species like the , linking vocal flexibility to beat perception and entrainment.

Tool Use and Problem-Solving

Certain parrot species innovate tools and solve novel puzzles, indicating causal understanding and flexibility absent in most birds. Goffin's cockatoos (Cacatua goffinii) manufacture stick tools from wood to extract food from tubes, adapting designs for efficiency in lab settings. Kea (Nestor notabilis) employ sticks as rakes or levers, succeeding in 40% of trials for inaccessible rewards despite no natural precedent. Macaws (Ara spp.) demonstrate borderline tool use, such as bending wires to retrieve nuts, with success rates improving via observation. Experiments reveal comprehension of cause-effect, as parrots abandon ineffective string-pulling upon perceiving alternative access, outperforming non-tool-using birds. Self-maintenance tools, like using objects for scratching or dipping, occur across genera, though innovation is rarer in captivity without enrichment. These abilities correlate with enlarged hyperpallia, supporting executive function.

Mimicry and Vocal Learning

Parrots exhibit vocal production learning, the ability to acquire and modify vocalizations through of heard sounds, a trait shared only with songbirds, hummingbirds, and humans among vertebrates. This capacity enables many species to environmental noises, conspecific calls, and human speech, with proficiency varying by taxon; African grey parrots (Psittacus erithacus) demonstrate particularly advanced , imitating words, phrases, and even improvising by rearranging them in contextually appropriate ways. In a 2022 survey of 103 companion parrots across 15 species, 91% produced mimicked human speech, often combining it with original elements like whistles or altered tones. Vocal learning in parrots involves the , a dual-oscillator vocal organ at the trachea-fork, allowing independent sound production from each , combined with lingual articulation to filter and shape output for precise , including human-like formants. Unlike innate calls, learned vocalizations develop through sensory-motor phases: auditory exposure, memorization, and practice via feedback loops, often during fledging but extending lifelong in open-ended learners like parrots. Wild parrots use for social signaling, such as imitating predators to deter threats or flockmates for coordination, while captives frequently replicate household sounds or speech for attention. Notable empirical evidence comes from Irene Pepperberg's 30-year study of , an African grey parrot trained from 1976 to 2007, who acquired over 100 object labels, identified colors, shapes, and materials, counted to six, distinguished "same" and "different," and grasped zero as absence—skills tested via novel combinations without rote prompting. Alex's performance exceeded simple , showing combinatorial use (e.g., requesting "" unprompted), though debates persist on whether this reflects conceptual understanding or advanced association. Neural substrates include the anterior pathway, distinct from songbirds' posterior pathway, supporting flexible, signature-bearing vocalizations; lesions here disrupt learned but spare innate calls in budgerigars. Interspecific variation ties to socio-ecological factors, with flock-living species showing greater learning depth. While aids bonding or , it rarely conveys propositional meaning absent training, underscoring limits in wild contexts.

Tool Use and Problem-Solving

Parrots exhibit tool use primarily in captive settings, with rarer but increasing observations in , often involving manipulation of objects to access or perform self-maintenance. Goffin's cockatoos (Cacatua goffiniana) demonstrate flexible tool selection and sequential use, as shown in 2023 experiments where individuals accessed rewards by first employing a short tool to manipulate a box and then a longer tool to extract , succeeding in 128 of 150 trials by adapting to task-specific geometries. These birds also innovate composite tools, combining materials to extend reach or apply leverage in novel foraging scenarios. Kea parrots (Nestor notabilis) display spontaneous and habitual tool use, including the first documented wild innovation of extractive tools in , where free-living individuals manipulated objects to probe for food—a absent in prior field records but inducible in captivity. In a 2021 case, a disabled with damage used pebbles as tools to groom inaccessible feathers, persisting in the without prior training and demonstrating deliberate adaptation to physical limitations. Phylogenetic analyses estimate that 11–17% of parrot possess latent tool-using potential, based on shared traits like encephalization and manipulative dexterity. Problem-solving capacities extend to causal reasoning and puzzle manipulation, as evidenced by string-pulling tasks solved spontaneously by Greater Vasa parrots (Coracopsis vasa), with retention after a seven-year interval. Multiple parrot species, including and New Caledonian crows' avian analogs, flexibly inhibit ineffective actions in contingency-shift experiments, indicating comprehension of cause-effect relations rather than . African grey parrots (Psittacus erithacus) manipulate tools in controlled setups, such as raking objects or solving mechanical puzzles, correlating with their enlarged nidopallial brain regions akin to those in . Such abilities, while not universal across the order, underscore parrots' , potentially linked to vocal learning circuits that facilitate innovation.

Lifespan, Health, and Predation

Parrots exhibit lifespans that vary markedly by species size and environmental conditions, with captive individuals generally outliving wild counterparts due to protection from predation, access to veterinary care, and controlled nutrition. Smaller species, such as budgerigars and cockatiels, typically live 5–18 years and 10–15 years in captivity, respectively, while larger species like African grey parrots reach 40–60+ years and 30–50+ years. In the wild, these averages are often reduced by approximately half, as seen in (up to 50 years captive versus ~25 years wild), primarily owing to threats like predation, food scarcity, and untreated injuries or illnesses. Exceptional longevity occurs in captivity; for instance, a blue-and-gold macaw named Charlie reportedly lived to 114 years. Health challenges differ between wild and captive parrots, influenced by habitat, diet, and human intervention. Captive birds frequently suffer nutritional deficiencies, such as shortages causing upper respiratory infections in Amazon parrots fed seed-only diets, alongside obesity from high-fat foods and stress-induced behaviors like due to insufficient mental stimulation or space. Infectious diseases like proventricular dilatation disease (PDD), (parrot fever), and Pacheco's disease— a fatal herpesvirus —also affect captives, often exacerbated by poor or overcrowding. In the wild, parrots contend with higher parasite burdens, environmental toxins, and trauma from territorial fights, though bacterial and fungal infections may be less prevalent than in confined settings. (PBFD), induced by a , impacts both populations with prevalences of 7–10% in sampled groups, leading to feather loss, beak deformities, and immunosuppression since its detection in the . Predation constitutes a primary mortality factor for wild parrots, substantially curtailing lifespans and breeding success compared to captivity. Common predators include diurnal raptors (hawks, eagles), nocturnal owls, arboreal snakes, mammals such as monkeys, wild cats, and invasive species like sugar gliders, as well as opportunistic bats targeting roosts. Nest-site selection, favoring deep tree cavities or cliffs, serves as a key anti-predator adaptation to deter access, particularly for species like macaws in predator-dense habitats. Documented impacts are severe; for example, in Tasmanian swift parrots, invasive sugar gliders killed 50.9% of incubating females in studied nests, driving population declines. Similarly, predation by rats, mongooses, and cats limits productivity in endangered Puerto Rican parrots, where even minimal losses threaten viability, underscoring predation's role alongside habitat loss in wild population dynamics.

Human-Parrot Interactions

As Companion Animals

Numerous parrot species are maintained as companion animals due to their cognitive abilities, vocal mimicry, and capacity for social bonding with humans. Popular choices include budgerigars (Melopsittacus undulatus), cockatiels (Nymphicus hollandicus), green-cheeked conures (Pyrrhura molinae), lovebirds (Agapornis spp.), African grey parrots (Psittacus erithacus), and macaws (Ara spp.), selected for varying sizes, temperaments, and interaction levels. In the United States, birds constitute a significant portion of pet ownership, with approximately 20.6 million pet birds reported in households as of 2017, though parrots specifically rank as the third most popular pet type while exhibiting the highest rehoming rates, estimated at 85% within 1-2 years of acquisition. Parrot ownership demands extensive daily interaction, environmental enrichment, and specialized care to prevent behavioral issues such as , aggression, or self-mutilation arising from boredom, inadequate stimulation, or social isolation. Parrots are highly social animals adapted to flock or pair living in the wild, and single individuals in captivity, including rehomed birds in sanctuaries, suffer from isolation leading to stereotypies, depression, and worsened aggression; species such as sulphur-crested cockatoos (Cacatua galerita), Moluccan cockatoos (Cacatua moluccensis), Goffin's cockatoos (Cacatua goffiniana), galah cockatoos (Eolophus roseicapilla), blue-and-yellow macaws (Ara ararauna), scarlet macaws (Ara macao), hyacinth macaws (Anodorhynchus hyacinthinus), and sun conures (Aratinga solstitialis) are especially vulnerable due to their gregarious nature and emotional dependence, with human enrichment insufficient to fully promote natural behaviors or optimal welfare. Larger like macaws and cockatoos can live 50-80 years, imposing long-term commitments that often exceed owners' initial expectations, contributing to elevated abandonment figures. Veterinary care requires avian specialists, as common health problems include deficiencies from seed-heavy diets leading to respiratory infections, , and zoonotic risks like (), which can transmit to humans via inhalation of contaminated dust. Proper husbandry involves spacious cages (minimum 24x24x36 inches for small , larger for macaws), varied diets of pellets supplemented with fresh fruits, , and nuts, daily out-of-cage exercise, and toys for and manipulation to mimic wild behaviors. Benefits of parrot companionship encompass mutual cognitive engagement, with owners reporting enhanced and routine structure from the birds' needs, alongside entertainment from vocalizations and problem-solving displays. However, challenges include substantial noise from squawking, which can reach 100-120 decibels, mess from food dispersal and droppings, and potential for strong bites causing , particularly during hormonal phases in sexually mature birds. Additionally, parrots' acute hearing makes them sensitive to human environmental sounds (e.g., household appliances, loud noises, or specific frequencies), which can cause stress or behavioral changes. Understanding these auditory sensitivities helps in creating suitable captive environments to minimize negative impacts. Financial costs average hundreds annually for , toys, and vet visits, excluding initial purchases ranging from $20 for budgerigars to over $2,000 for rare macaws. Ownership of many parrot species is governed by the , with Appendix I listings for species like African greys prohibiting commercial trade since 2017, necessitating documentation such as DNA certificates or breeder records for legal possession of pre-ban birds. Captive-bred individuals from reputable sources are recommended over wild-caught to mitigate depletion of natural populations and reduce mortality rates, historically exceeding 90% for imported small parrots prior to stricter regulations.

Benefits and Challenges of Pet Ownership

Owning parrots as companion animals offers benefits including emotional support and companionship, with owners reporting love and reduced depression from interactions. Time spent with pet birds fosters reciprocal bonds that build trust and transmit positive health attachments to humans. Parrots' enables problem-solving and trick-learning, enhancing owner-pet bonding. Their vocal and song provide entertainment, making them suitable for space-limited households or those with allergies to furred pets. Challenges include the extended lifespan of many species, ranging from 20 to over 100 years in captivity, necessitating decades-long commitment and outliving multiple owners in some cases. Common behavioral issues encompass excessive vocalizations (), aggression such as biting, feather plucking, and destructive tendencies, often stemming from boredom, inadequate socialization including lack of conspecific interaction, or stress. These problems contribute to high relinquishment rates, as untreated behaviors like and intensify over time. Parrots demand specialized care, including enriched environments, balanced diets, and avian veterinary attention, while posing zoonotic risks from germs that can sicken humans. , messiness, and potential territoriality further complicate suitability for all households. Welfare concerns arise from mismatched owner expectations, with parrots' complex social needs often unmet in .

Wildlife and Pet Trade

Parrots face significant pressures from the global pet trade, which drives poaching in their native habitats across tropical regions, particularly in the Neotropics, , and . Of approximately 400 parrot species, over 100 are threatened with , with illegal capture for the pet market cited as a primary driver alongside habitat loss. In countries like and , thousands of parrots are poached annually from wild nests and flocks, funneled through urban markets despite legal prohibitions. This extraction disrupts breeding populations and increases mortality during capture and transport, where survival rates can drop below 20% due to stress, injury, and poor handling. Legal international trade in parrots is regulated by the , which lists most psittaciform in Appendices I or II. From 1975 to 2016, CITES documented the import of 16,738,512 live parrots across 321 , averaging roughly 400,000 individuals per year, predominantly for the industry. Appendix I , such as the African grey parrot (Psittacus erithacus), face a commercial trade ban enacted in 2017 following evidence of unsustainable wild harvests exceeding 1 million birds over prior decades; however, Appendix II continue to be traded under quotas with export permits verifying sustainable sourcing or captive origins. Captive breeding has emerged as a key legal supply mechanism, with permitting trade in specimens coded as "C" (captive-bred) from registered facilities, reducing reliance on wild stocks for popular species like budgerigars and cockatiels. Yet, illegal trade circumvents these controls, with poachers targeting high-demand species in source countries like and , where domestic markets absorb smuggled birds before potential export. Enforcement gaps, including corruption and limited resources, sustain this shadow economy, estimated to involve millions of parrots annually beyond reported figures, exacerbating declines in vulnerable taxa. The pet trade's economic incentives amplify , as wild-caught parrots fetch premium prices—up to thousands of dollars per individual for rare macaws—fueling organized networks that prioritize visually striking species. In contrast, captive-bred alternatives lower costs but struggle to meet demand in regions with weak regulatory oversight, perpetuating wild harvesting. Conservation efforts, including DNA databases for tracking and stricter border controls, aim to differentiate legal from illicit specimens, though persistent demand underscores the need for reduced consumer incentives in pet markets.

Legal Trade, Captive Breeding, and Economic Impacts

The international trade in parrots is primarily regulated by the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES), which lists most parrot species in Appendices I or II to ensure that commercial trade does not threaten their survival in the wild. Appendix I species, such as the hyacinth macaw (Anodorhynchus hyacinthinus), prohibit commercial trade, while Appendix II species, including many macaws and Amazon parrots, allow export with permits and quotas set by range countries to maintain sustainable offtake levels. From 1975 to 2017, over 16 million live CITES-listed parrots from 321 species were recorded in international trade, with shifts toward increased captive-bred specimens in later decades reducing reliance on wild-sourced birds. Export quotas, established by countries like Cameroon for species such as grey parrots (Psittacus erithacus), allocate specific numbers to licensed traders to prevent overexploitation, though enforcement varies and quotas are periodically reviewed based on population data. Captive breeding has expanded as a legal supply mechanism, with commercial operations in countries like and the producing hundreds of thousands of parrots annually for the pet market, intended to alleviate pressure on wild populations. Success rates in breeding programs differ by species; for instance, conservation-oriented efforts for the Puerto Rican parrot (Amazona vittata) achieved hatching rates around 36-44% in initial clutches, but first-year post-release survival for captive-reared birds hovered at 41% due to challenges in reacquiring wild behaviors. Commercial breeding often prioritizes high-demand species like cockatoos and conures, yet it faces criticism for potentially stimulating overall demand rather than curbing wild harvests, as bred birds may not fully substitute for the appeal of wild-caught specimens in consumer markets. Economically, the legal parrot trade contributes to global exotic pet markets valued at approximately USD 1.65 billion in 2024, with parrots forming a significant portion due to their popularity as companions, generating revenue through breeding facilities, exports, and associated veterinary and feed industries. In exporting nations, quota-based systems provide income for licensed operators and support rural economies; for example, trade in African grey parrots has historically yielded millions in export fees, though declining wild populations have prompted quota reductions. However, even legal trade can indirectly impact wild stocks if quotas exceed sustainable yields, as observed in southern African species like the ( krameri), where regulated exports correlate with population declines and heightened incentives. Overall, while the trade fosters jobs in —estimated in the tens of thousands globally—it underscores tensions between short-term economic gains and long-term costs, with studies indicating persistent threats to despite regulatory frameworks.

Illegal Trade and Enforcement Issues

The illegal trade in parrots persists despite international regulations under the , which lists over 180 parrot in its appendices prohibiting or restricting commercial trade to protect declining populations. Estimates indicate that hundreds of thousands of parrots are poached annually from the wild for the , with neotropical like macaws and Amazon parrots comprising a significant portion; for instance, in the 1980s, smuggling from alone involved 50,000 to 150,000 individuals yearly before stricter controls. Recent data from 2020 onward highlight ongoing volumes, including over 260 detections of African grey parrots in online illegal sales monitored across platforms, underscoring the trade's adaptability to digital channels. Poaching typically targets nestlings for higher survival in transport and market value, involving techniques such as tree felling or glue traps that cause high incidental mortality and disruption. routes span porous borders in source regions like , , and , with birds concealed in luggage, vehicle compartments, or shipments; a 2024 case in involved four men indicted for attempting to import hundreds of from the . Mortality rates during transit exceed 50% in some documented routes, as evidenced by a 2025 incident where 113 smuggled parrots drowned after handlers discarded them to evade detection. Consumer demand in markets like the and fuels this, often laundered as captive-bred stock despite documentation fraud. Enforcement faces systemic hurdles, including inadequate monitoring in source countries, among officials, and resource shortages for inspections; a global expert survey identified poor oversight as the primary barrier to curbing bird trade illegality. CITES implementation varies, with consumer nations like the imposing import bans since 2007 that reduced reported legal inflows but shifted volumes underground, while platforms complicate traceability due to anonymous transactions and jurisdictional gaps. Domestic markets exacerbate issues, as seen in and the where wild-caught parrots evade export bans through internal sales, prompting calls for enhanced local patrols and breeding verification. Coordinated operations yield seizures, such as a 2025 U.S. bust of Amazon parrots, but prosecutions remain infrequent relative to trade scale, with experts noting that half of smuggled birds perish en route, underscoring enforcement's reactive nature.

Cultural and Symbolic Roles

In , parrots function as the , or mount, of , the god of love and desire, with their vivid green plumage and red beaks evoking symbols of fertility and romantic affection. This association stems from the bird's abilities, interpreted as echoing human speech in matters of the heart, a motif reinforced in Indian folklore where parrots imitate lovers' words to convey longing. Among Mesoamerican and Andean cultures, parrots, particularly macaws, held sacred status as intermediaries between humans and deities, their bright feathers used in rituals to invoke healing and ; the Pueblo peoples viewed macaws specifically as embodiments of the sun, linking their colors to celestial renewal and vitality. In Chinese tradition, parrots symbolized moral virtue and eloquence in Tang-era texts, appearing in poetry as emblems of wise counsel due to their vocal imitation, though often contrasted with themes of transience in folktales. European symbolism from antiquity emphasized parrots' exotic rarity, positioning them as status markers after imports via routes like those established by in the 4th century BCE; by the , they denoted fidelity—owing to many species' monogamous pairing—and the soul's immortality in Christian iconography, frequently paired with the Virgin Mary to signify purity and divine speech. In paintings from the , parrots disrupted static compositions with their lively presence, symbolizing untamed amid domestic scenes rather than mere decoration. Across broader , parrots' speech universally evoked themes of and , as in ancient views of them as messengers to gods, a role amplified by their scarcity in non-tropical regions until colonial expansions. In modern media and literature, this persists as comedic tropes of verbosity, from in Shakespeare's (1603) representing deceitful echo to sidekicks in films like Disney's (1992), underscoring human fascination with their cognitive over deeper .

In Mythology, Religion, and Folklore

In , parrots serve as the (vehicle) of , the deity of erotic love, desire, and , with their vibrant and evoking themes of romance and sensuality. This association underscores the bird's mimicry abilities, interpreted as a for echoing human emotions and words, positioning parrots as sacred messengers and storytellers in ancient Indian texts dating back millennia. In Buddhist narratives, parrots appear as symbolic messengers, such as in tales where they convey royal decrees or illustrate concepts like presumed causality, while 's counterpart, Mara—the tempter opposing enlightenment—retains the parrot's link to worldly attachments. Among Native American peoples, particularly the , Zuni, and tribes, parrots and macaws functioned as directional guardians aligned with the , embodying fertility, summertime renewal, and prestige through pre-Columbian networks extending to Mexico's Gulf by at least 1000–1450 CE. Archaeological evidence, including remains and feathers in ritual contexts like kiva murals and deliberate burials, indicates their integration into religious ceremonies for spiritual communication and status signaling, with live birds kept and possibly bred in the American Southwest. In Christian from medieval , parrots symbolized —white cockatoos for , green for , and red for charity—often depicted alongside the Virgin Mary due to linguistic ties between "parrot" and "Ave Maria," representing and divine eloquence. Greco-Roman mosaics from the onward portrayed parrots in Dionysian scenes as emblems of earthly bliss, luxury, and prophetic visions, reflecting their exotic import from and association with revelry and abundance. African folklore, such as Tanzanian , casts parrots as guardians of secrets and communal wisdom, with their speech mimicry highlighting themes of discretion and social harmony in oral traditions. These representations across cultures emphasize parrots' empirical traits—vivid coloration, vocal imitation, and rarity—as causal drivers for symbolic roles in conveying messages between realms, rather than arbitrary attributions.

Representations in , , and Media

Parrots have appeared in visual art since antiquity, often symbolizing exotic wealth and global trade connections established through early explorations and conquests. In ancient Roman mosaics and frescoes from Pompeii, dated to the CE, parrots are depicted as prized imports from and , reflecting their status as luxury items transported via maritime routes. By the , artists like incorporated parrots into works such as his 1504 engraving Adam and Eve, where the bird represents temptation or the parrot's reputed ability to mimic human speech, drawing from biblical and motifs. In Northern European art, particularly Dutch Golden Age paintings from the 17th century, parrots signified affluence and conspicuous consumption, frequently placed in domestic still lifes or alongside women to evoke the era's burgeoning spice trade with Asia and the Americas. Religious iconography also featured parrots, as in 15th-century Italian panels associating them with the Virgin Mary due to their perceived chaste nature and vibrant plumage, interpreted as a "miracle of nature" in medieval bestiaries. Later, 18th- and 19th-century portraits depicted pet parrots as fashionable accessories among the British elite, such as in depictions of Colonel O'Kelly's renowned bird, underscoring their role in illustrating social status amid expanding colonial pet trade. In literature, parrots often embody themes of mimicry, exoticism, and human folly. Ancient Greek playwright referenced parrot-like birds in The Birds (414 BCE), but European literary mentions surged with accounts of discoveries; described parrots in his 1493 letters, likening their colors to jewels and noting their speech imitation as evidence of divine wonder. In 19th-century fiction, Gustave Flaubert's A Simple Heart (1877) centers on Loulou, a stuffed parrot venerated by a servant as the Holy Ghost, satirizing religious delusion and the sentimental attachment to pets. Chinese classical texts, such as poetry, portray parrots as eloquent messengers or courtiers, like the "Prime Minister Parrot" in folklore, symbolizing wit and imperial favor. Modern literature continues this tradition, with parrots representing environmental loss or companionship; Ted Chiang's 2016 speculative essay "The Great Silence" uses a Puerto Rican parrot narrator to critique human-centric SETI searches, highlighting avian intelligence amid habitat destruction. In film and television, parrots frequently serve as comic sidekicks or symbols of adventure, amplifying their mimicry for humor or plot. Disney's Aladdin (1992) features Iago, a scarlet macaw voiced as a scheming antagonist, drawing on pirate tropes while exaggerating vocal talents for slapstick. Animated features like Rio (2011) anthropomorphize blue macaws as protagonists in tales of conservation and romance, reflecting real threats to species like Ara macao but prioritizing entertainment over ecological accuracy. Documentaries such as The Wild Parrots of Telegraph Hill (2003) portray feral cherry-headed conures in San Francisco realistically, emphasizing their social bonds and urban adaptation based on direct observation. These depictions, while popularizing parrots, often idealize their trainability, diverging from empirical evidence of their complex, non-domesticated behaviors.

Feral and Introduced Populations

Feral parrot populations primarily originate from escaped or deliberately released pet birds, which have established self-sustaining breeding groups outside their native ranges, often in urban and suburban environments with mild climates. At least 60 of approximately 380 parrot species worldwide now maintain breeding populations in non-native countries, facilitated by the global pet trade. In the United States, introductions began in the mid-20th century, with notable establishments in the 1950s and 1960s; for instance, monk parakeets (Myiopsitta monachus), imported in tens of thousands from South America, formed breeding populations by 1968 across at least 10 states, including New York, Connecticut, Illinois, Florida, Texas, Louisiana, and Oregon. Today, feral parrots are naturalized in 23 U.S. states, with monk parakeets, red-crowned Amazons (Amazona viridigenalis), and nanday parakeets (Aratinga nenday) comprising over 60% of sightings; Los Angeles County alone hosts around 15 species, such as lilac-crowned and red-crowned Amazons. In , the (Psittacula krameri), native to and , exemplifies successful introductions, with populations emerging in the mid-to-late 20th century following escapes and releases. A 2015 continent-wide survey recorded 85,220 individuals across 10 countries, supported by at least 90 breeding populations; between 1984 and 2007, over 146,000 were legally imported before an ban on wild bird trade. Concentrations occur in suburban and southeast , with rapid growth noted in recent censuses, such as from 1,200 to 6,300 individuals in select areas between earlier counts and 2022. Smaller feral groups of other species, including monk parakeets, persist but remain less widespread. Ecological effects of these introductions vary, with severe negative impacts rare and typically localized rather than systemic. Introduced parrots may compete with native cavity-nesting birds for resources, damage crops through herbivory, and disrupt electrical infrastructure via nest-building, as seen with monk parakeets' bulky communal nests. In Europe, rose-ringed parakeets have been linked to agricultural losses and biodiversity threats, earning designation as one of the top 100 worst alien species, though evidence for broad native displacement remains limited. Positive interactions include seed dispersal of native plants and occasional provision of nest sites for other species, with nine bird species observed using abandoned monk parakeet nests in some U.S. studies. Management responses include culling programs in agricultural zones, but many populations are tolerated in urban settings due to low verifiable harm and public affinity for the birds.

Establishments and Ecological Effects

Feral parrot populations have established in multiple regions through escapes and intentional releases from the pet trade, with over 60 parrot species now breeding outside their native ranges globally. In , the monk parakeet (Myiopsitta monachus), native to , first established viable populations in the United States during the 1960s in following pet releases, expanding to at least 13 states by the 2010s with urban flocks numbering in the thousands. In , the (Psittacula krameri), originating from and , formed self-sustaining colonies in the starting around 1969 from escaped cage birds, growing to an estimated 12,000–47,000 individuals by 2019, primarily in urban parks and suburbs. These establishments often occur in human-modified landscapes where parrots exploit artificial food sources, nesting sites on structures, and milder climates, facilitating rapid via high reproductive rates—monk parakeets, for instance, can produce 5–12 eggs per annually. Ecologically, introduced parrots exhibit mixed effects, with competition for nesting cavities and food resources documented but often limited to urban zones where diversity is already low. Monk parakeets in the act as engineers by constructing large, communal stick nests that alter structure, potentially influencing communities and providing shelter for other , though they displace some native birds like house wrens via aggressive nest takeover. Rose-ringed parakeets in Europe compete with cavity-nesting natives such as and woodpeckers for tree holes, leading to local displacement in areas like Seville, , where they also evict vulnerable bat species from roosts; however, broader surveys in the UK report no widespread declines in native populations after over 50 years of establishment, suggesting niche separation through dietary specialization on exotic fruits. Some studies indicate neutral or beneficial roles, such as of native plants via parrot digestion, though invasive parrots more frequently exacerbate agricultural losses by raiding orchards—estimated at significant but variable costs in . Overall, while potential for severe impacts exists, shows effects are context-dependent, with urban adaptation reducing overlap with rural native ecosystems. Introduced parrots can indirectly affect ecosystems through infrastructure interactions, as monk parakeet nests on utility poles have caused over 198 power outages in one US study spanning five years, prompting localized culling without resolving establishment. In Australia, where most parrots are native, sporadic feral groups of non-indigenous species like peach-faced lovebirds (Agapornis roseicollis) have appeared but failed to establish broadly, exerting negligible ecological pressure compared to mammalian invasives. Monitoring indicates that propagule pressure from ongoing pet escapes—over 1,200 parrots reported lost in one European dataset—sustains invasion risk, but climate mismatches and predation limit many attempts. Causal assessments emphasize that while parrots alter local dynamics, systemic threats like habitat loss overshadow their contributions to biodiversity decline in most invaded areas.

Conservation Status and Threats

Approximately 398 extant parrot species are recognized, of which 111 (28%) are classified as threatened (Vulnerable, Endangered, or Critically Endangered) under criteria, reflecting high extinction risk driven primarily by human activities. One-third of species fall into threatened categories as of 2024 assessments by the IUCN Species Survival Commission Wild Parrot Specialist Group. Parrots exhibit disproportionate vulnerability among bird orders, with 27% threatened compared to the avian average of 13%, attributable to factors like large body size, slow reproductive rates, and specialized habitat needs that amplify susceptibility to perturbations. Habitat loss from , , and agricultural conversion constitutes the predominant threat, impacting over 55% of assessed populations in regions like the Neotropics and , where primary forest clearance disrupts nesting and foraging sites essential for cavity-nesting species. Illegal capture for the international pet trade exacerbates declines, with targeting colorful, long-lived macaws and , leading to nest raids and population crashes; for instance, species like the African grey parrot (Psittacus erithacus) have been depleted by millions removed from the wild since the 1980s despite Appendix I protections. Hunting for food or feathers, invasive predators, and emerging pressures like climate-induced droughts further compound risks, particularly for island endemics such as the kakapo (Strigops habroptilus), classified as Critically Endangered with fewer than 250 individuals remaining due to predation and habitat alteration. Notable examples include the (Anodorhynchus hyacinthinus), Vulnerable due to palm habitat destruction for cattle ranching in ; the (Ara macao), Endangered from trade and deforestation across ; and the Philippine (Cacatua haematuropygia), Critically Endangered from habitat loss and poaching on . Conservation efforts, including protected areas and breeding programs, have stabilized some populations, such as the Puerto Rican parrot (Amazona vittata), but ongoing enforcement gaps in trade regulation and land-use policies limit broader success.

Anthropogenic vs. Natural Threats

Anthropogenic threats pose the predominant risk to parrot populations, vastly outweighing natural factors in driving declines and extinctions. through , agricultural expansion, and has affected 139 parrot , reducing nesting sites and food availability for cavity-nesting that depend on mature forests. Illegal capture for the pet trade impacts 201 , with removing breeding adults and juveniles from wild populations, particularly in the Neotropics where high extraction rates threaten . for food or feathers, introduced by human activity, and further compound these pressures, with nearly one-third of the 410 parrot classified as threatened by the IUCN due to such cumulative human-induced factors. In contrast, natural threats such as predation by native raptors, mammals, or snakes, diseases, and events like storms have historically been balanced by parrot reproductive strategies, including large sizes and colonial nesting in some species. Predation rates on nests remain a factor but do not independently cause widespread declines without increasing vulnerability. Epizootics and competition from native species occur endemically, yet parrot populations coevolved with these pressures; human-facilitated disease transmission via and reduced from small populations amplify their impact beyond baselines. Overall, empirical assessments indicate that while natural threats persist, anthropogenic alterations to ecosystems—evidenced by global trends in loss correlating with parrot range contractions—represent the causal primary drivers of conservation crises.

Major Species at Risk

The (Cyanopsitta spixii), native to Brazil's , was declared by the IUCN in 2019 following the death of the last known individual in 2000, with primary causes including from and intense for the pet trade. programs have produced over 200 individuals by 2025, enabling initial reintroductions; in January 2025, a group arrived in for acclimation in protected aviaries, marking a milestone in restoration efforts despite ongoing disease risks like . The (Strigops habroptilus), a flightless, nocturnal parrot endemic to , persists at critically low numbers with a total population of 237 individuals as of 2025, all subject to intensive management on predator-free islands due to historic declines from introduced mammals like rats and stoats following Polynesian and European . Low reproductive rates, exacerbated by biennial mast fruiting cycles that fail to align with predator control, have necessitated genetic supplementation and parasite management, yet the species remains vulnerable to stochastic events and . The Philippine cockatoo (Cacatua haematuropygia), once widespread across the Philippines' mangroves and forests, is critically endangered with an estimated 430–750 mature individuals confined mostly to Palawan island, driven by rampant illegal trapping for domestic and international pet markets alongside deforestation for logging and conversion to agriculture. Community patrols and habitat protection have stabilized local subpopulations, but enforcement gaps and poaching persistence—facilitated by high black-market demand—threaten further collapse, with an 80% range reduction documented over the past four decades. Other critically endangered parrots include the (Anodorhynchus glaucus), last reliably sighted in the 1990s across South American riverine forests and possibly extinct due to habitat loss and trade, though unconfirmed reports persist; the Philippine eagle's prey base indirectly affects it via overlapping pressures. The yellow-eared parrot (Ognorhynchus icterotis) of Colombia's highland forests numbers fewer than 1,000 individuals, imperiled by wax palm harvesting for religious traditions and , with captive releases aiding recovery but limited by ongoing guerrilla conflicts disrupting monitoring. These cases underscore pet trade and land-use change as dominant anthropogenic drivers, outpacing natural factors like predation in unmodified habitats.

Strategies, Policies, and Debates

International policies for parrot conservation primarily revolve around the , which lists most parrot in Appendix I, prohibiting commercial in wild specimens, or Appendix II, allowing regulated with export quotas to prevent overexploitation. implementation varies by country; for instance, the enforces restrictions via the Wild Bird Conservation Act of 1992, which bans imports of most wild-caught parrots except under specific non-commercial permits, while aligns imports with requirements. National laws in range states, such as Peru's former allowances for limited exports until recent restrictions, highlight disparities where only and currently permit capture and of native parrots domestically. Conservation strategies emphasize habitat protection through expanded protected areas, though analyses indicate these cover only about 10% of parrot geographic ranges, insufficient without complementary measures like patrols and community-based monitoring. Captive breeding programs are promoted as alternatives to wild harvesting, with viewing them as advantageous for reducing pressure on populations, yet empirical reviews question their scalability and risk of laundering illegally captured birds as "captive-bred." Reintroduction efforts and sustainable harvest plans, such as those for African grey parrots under management guidelines, incorporate population assessments and quotas to balance utilization with recovery. Debates center on trade bans versus regulated sustainable use, with critics arguing that Appendix I listings and import prohibitions inadvertently fuel illegal markets by eliminating legal outlets, potentially increasing incentives without curbing demand. Proponents of bans, including some conservation NGOs, contend that unregulated harvest lacks reliable data for , citing persistent declines in traded despite quotas. On , contention arises over its role in conservation; while it supplies markets, studies reveal high failure rates in commercial operations and ethical concerns about welfare, leading to calls for stricter verification to prevent wild-sourced substitutions. These discussions underscore the need for evidence-based policies integrating capacity, as weak implementation in source countries undermines global frameworks.

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