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Sambucus
Sambucus
Sambucus
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Sambucus
Sambucus ebulus berries (elderberries)
Scientific classification Edit this classification
Kingdom: Plantae
Clade: Tracheophytes
Clade: Angiosperms
Clade: Eudicots
Clade: Asterids
Order: Dipsacales
Family: Adoxaceae
Genus: Sambucus
L.[1]
Species

See text

Sambucus is a genus of between 20 and 30 species of flowering plants in the family Adoxaceae. The various species are commonly referred to as elder, with the flowers as elderflower, and the fruit as elderberry.

Description

[edit]

Elders are mostly fast-growing shrubs or small trees 3–10 m (9.8–32.8 ft) (rarely to 14 m (46 ft)) tall, with a few species being herbaceous plants 1–2 m (3 ft 3 in – 6 ft 7 in) tall. The oppositely arranged leaves are pinnate with 5–9 leaflets (or, rarely, 3 or 11). Each leaf is 5–30 centimetres (2–12 in) long, and the leaflets have serrated margins. They bear large clusters of small white or cream-coloured flowers in late spring or early summer; these are followed by clusters of small berries that are green when immature, ripening black, blue-black, or red (rarely yellow or white).

Taxonomy

[edit]

The genus name comes from the Ancient Greek word σαμβύκη (sambū́kē), an ancient wind instrument, relating to the removal of pith from the twigs to make whistles.[2]

The taxonomy of the genus Sambucus L., originally described by Carl Linnaeus and hence its botanical authority, has been complicated by its wide geographical distribution and morphological diversity. This has led to overdescription of the species and infraspecific taxa (subspecies, varieties or forms).[3]

The genus was formerly placed in the honeysuckle family Caprifoliaceae, but was reclassified in the moschatel family Adoxaceae due to genetic and morphological comparisons to plants in the genus Adoxa.[4]

Species currently accepted by Plants of the World Online in this genus are:[5]

Some other authors have differed in the species they accept:[6][4]

Distribution and habitat

[edit]

The genus occurs in temperate to subtropical regions of the world. More widespread in the Northern Hemisphere, its Southern Hemisphere occurrence is restricted to parts of Australasia and South America. Many species are widely cultivated for their ornamental leaves, flowers, and fruit.[7]

Elder commonly grows near farms and homesteads. It is a nitrogen-tolerant plant and thus is often found near places of organic waste disposal. Elders are often grown as a hedgerow plant in Britain since they take very fast, can be bent into shape easily, and grow quite profusely, thus having gained the reputation[according to whom?] of being an "instant hedge". It is not generally affected by soil type or pH level and will grow virtually anywhere sufficient sunlight is available.[citation needed]

Ecology

[edit]

The berries are consumed by birds and mammals.[8] In Northern California, elderberries are eaten by migrating band-tailed pigeons. Elders are used as food plants by the larvae of some Lepidoptera species including brown-tail, buff ermine, dot moth, emperor moth, engrailed moth, swallow-tailed moth and the V-pug. The crushed foliage and immature fruit have a strong fetid smell. Valley elderberry longhorn beetles in California are very often found around red or blue elderberry bushes. Females lay their eggs on the bark.[9] Strong-scented flowers in wild populations of European elder (S. nigra) attract numerous, minute flower thrips which may contribute to the transfer of pollen between inflorescences.[10]

Cultivation

[edit]
Cultivation in Austria

Traditional uses of Sambucus involved berries, seeds, leaves, and flowers or component extracts.[11] Ornamental varieties of Sambucus are grown in gardens for their showy flowers, fruits and lacy foliage which support habitat for wildlife.[12] Of the many native species, three are used as ornamentals: S. canadensis, S. nigra, and S. racemosa.[13]

Toxicity

[edit]

Some species of the Sambucus genus produce toxic berries, leaves, roots, and stems.[14][8] Leaves, twigs, branches, seeds, roots, flowers, and berries of some Sambucus plants produce cyanogenic glycosides, which have toxic properties.[14] Ingesting a sufficient quantity of cyanogenic glycosides from berry juice, flower tea, or beverages made from fresh leaves, branches, and fruit has been shown to cause illness, including nausea, vomiting, abdominal cramps, diarrhea, and weakness.[15][14][16] In August 1983, a group of 25 people in Monterey County, California, became ill after ingesting elderberry juice pressed from fresh, uncooked S. mexicana berries, leaves, and stems.[16] The concentration of cyanogenic glycosides is higher in tea made from flowers (or leaves) than from the berries.[14][17]

The berries and leaves of the species Sambucus nigra, spp. canadensis have been shown to lack cyanogenic glycosides. In a 2021 scientific analysis, commercial elderberry juice made from Sambucus nigra, spp. canadensis in Illinois, USA, had no trace of cyanogenic glycosides.[18] The authors also point out that the 1983 "poisoning" event in California which coincided with consumption of Sambucus cerulea, rather than Sambucus mexicana, was not caused by cyanide.

The seeds of Sambucus racemosa are reported to be poisonous and may cause vomiting or diarrhea.[8]

Elderberries, raw
Sambucus spp.
Nutritional value per 100 g (3.5 oz)
Energy305 kJ (73 kcal)
18.4 g
Dietary fibre7 g
0.5 g
0.66 g
Vitamins and minerals
VitaminsQuantity
%DV†
Vitamin A equiv.
3%
30 μg
Thiamine (B1)
6%
0.07 mg
Riboflavin (B2)
5%
0.06 mg
Niacin (B3)
3%
0.5 mg
Pantothenic acid (B5)
3%
0.14 mg
Vitamin B6
14%
0.23 mg
Folate (B9)
2%
6 μg
Vitamin C
40%
36 mg
MineralsQuantity
%DV†
Calcium
3%
38 mg
Iron
9%
1.6 mg
Magnesium
1%
5 mg
Phosphorus
3%
39 mg
Potassium
9%
280 mg
Zinc
1%
0.11 mg
Other constituentsQuantity
Water79.80 g
Link to USDA Database entry
†Percentages estimated using US recommendations for adults,[19] except for potassium, which is estimated based on expert recommendation from the National Academies.[20]

Uses

[edit]

The cooked berries (pulp and skin) of most species of Sambucus are edible.[15][21]

Nutrition

[edit]

Raw elderberries are 80% water, 18% carbohydrates, and less than 1% each of protein and fat. In a 100-gram (3+1⁄2 oz) amount, elderberries supply 305 kilojoules (73 kcal) of food energy and are a rich source of vitamin C, providing 43% of the Daily Value (DV). Elderberries also have moderate contents of vitamin B6 (18% DV) and iron (12% DV), with no other nutrients in significant content.

Chemistry

[edit]
Structure of anthocyanins, the blue pigments in elderberries[22]

Sambucus fruit is rich in anthocyanidins[23] that combine to give elderberry juice an intense blue-purple colour that turns reddish on dilution with water.[24]

Dietary supplement

[edit]

Elderberry fruit or flowers are used as dietary supplements to prevent or provide relief from minor diseases, such as flu, colds, constipation, seasonal allergies, inflammation, gut biome improvement,[25] weight loss, and other conditions, served as a tea, extract or in a capsule.[15] The use of elderberry supplements increased early in the COVID-19 pandemic.[26] There is insufficient research to establish its effectiveness for such uses, or its safety profile.[15] The raw or unripe fruit of S. nigra or its extracts may contain a cyanogenic glycoside that is potentially toxic.[26]

Traditional medicine

[edit]
Dried elderberries ready for steeping

Although practitioners of traditional medicine have used elderberries over centuries,[12] there are no large scale studies that such practices provide benefits. However, there are some smaller studies showing antiviral effects. In one placebo-controlled study of air travellers, Elderberry Extract did not reduce the instance of developing the common cold, but did reduce the duration and intensity of symptoms significantly in the Elderberry group compared to the placebo group.[27][15][28] Further, Elderberry flavonoids bind to H1N1 flu virons, preventing them infecting host cells.[29] Therefore, the historical use in traditional medicine is moderately supported by present science for some viral infections. It has been shown to inhibit replication of SARS-COV-2 (COVID-19) in Vitro.[30]

Pigments

[edit]

The pigments are used as colourants in various products,[23] and "elderberry juice color" is listed by the US Food and Drug Administration as allowable in certified organic food products.[23] In Japan, elderberry juice is listed as an approved "natural colour additive" under the Food and Sanitation Law.[31] Fibres can be dyed with elderberry juice (using alum as a mordant) to give a "muted purple" shade.[32][33]

Other

[edit]

The berry of S. racemosa can be made into wine.[8] The flowers of S. nigra are used to produce elderflower cordial. St-Germain, a French liqueur, is made from elderflowers. Hallands Fläder, a Swedish akvavit, is flavoured with elderflowers.

Hollowed elderberry twigs have traditionally been used as spiles to tap maple trees for syrup.[34] Additionally, they have been hollowed out and used as flutes, blowguns, and syringes.[35] In addition, the elderberry twigs and fruit are employed in creating dyes for basketry. These stems are dyed a very deep black by soaking them in a wash made from the berry stems of the elderberry.[12]

The pith of elder has been used by watchmakers for cleaning tools before intricate work.[36]

In culture

[edit]

Folklore related to elder trees is extensive and can vary according to region.[37] In some traditions, the elder tree is thought to ward off evil and give protection from witches, while other beliefs say that witches often congregate under the plant, especially when it is full of fruit.[38] If an elder tree was cut down, a spirit known as the Elder Mother would be released and take her revenge.[39] The tree could only safely be cut while chanting a rhyme to the Elder Mother.[40] Romani people believe burning elder wood brings bad luck.[41]

A wand made from the branch of an elder tree plays a pivotal role in the final book of the Harry Potter series, which was almost named Harry Potter and the Elder Wand.[42][43]

Explanatory notes

[edit]

Citations

[edit]
  1. ^ "Sambucus L". Germplasm Resource Information Network. United States Department of Agriculture. 2005-10-13. Archived from the original on 2009-05-07. Retrieved 2009-07-23.
  2. ^ Niering, William A.; Olmstead, Nancy C. (1985) [1979]. The Audubon Society Field Guide to North American Wildflowers, Eastern Region. Knopf. p. 448. ISBN 0-394-50432-1.
  3. ^ Applequist 2015.
  4. ^ a b Eriksson & Donoghue 1997.
  5. ^ "Plants of the World Online". Plants of the World Online. 2020-07-17. Retrieved 2025-02-15.
  6. ^ TPL 2013.
  7. ^ RHS A-Z encyclopedia of garden plants. United Kingdom: Dorling Kindersley. 2008. p. 1136. ISBN 978-1-4053-3296-5.
  8. ^ a b c d Whitney, Stephen (1985). Western Forests (The Audubon Society Nature Guides). New York: Knopf. p. 423. ISBN 0-394-73127-1.
  9. ^ "Asian Long-Horned Beetle Life Cycle, Development & Life Stages". Orkin.com. 2018-04-11. Retrieved 2020-12-25.
  10. ^ Scott-Brown, A.S.; Arnold, S.E.J.; Kite, G.C.; Farrell, I.F.; Farman, D.I.; Collins, D.W.; Stevenson, P.C. (2019). "Mechanisms in mutualisms: A chemically mediated thrips pollination strategy in common elder". Planta. 250 (1): 367–379. Bibcode:2019Plant.250..367S. doi:10.1007/s00425-019-03176-5. PMID 31069523. S2CID 253886497.
  11. ^ Gayle Engels; Josef Brinckmann (2013). "European elder, Sambucus nigra, L." HerbalGram, American Botanical Council. Retrieved 21 October 2019.
  12. ^ a b c Stevens M (2001). "Guide for common elderberry (Sambucus nigra L. ssp. Canadensis (L.)" (PDF). National Resources Conservation Service, US Department of Agriculture. Retrieved 21 October 2019.
  13. ^ Boland 2012.
  14. ^ a b c d Senica, M; Stampar, F; Veberic, R; Mikulic-Petkovsek, M (2016). "The higher the better? Differences in phenolics and cyanogenic glycosides in Sambucus nigra leaves, flowers and berries from different altitudes". Journal of the Science of Food and Agriculture. 97 (8): 2623–2632. doi:10.1002/jsfa.8085. PMID 27734518.
  15. ^ a b c d e "European elder". National Center for Complementary and Integrative Health, US National Institutes of Health. September 2016. Retrieved 8 November 2016.
  16. ^ a b Centers for Disease Control (CDC) (April 6, 1984). "Poisoning from Elderberry Juice—California". Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report. 33 (13): 173–174. PMID 6422238. Retrieved December 15, 2012.
  17. ^ Viapiana, A; Wesolowski, M (2017). "The Phenolic Contents and Antioxidant Activities of Infusions of Sambucus nigra L". Plant Foods for Human Nutrition. 72 (1): 82–87. Bibcode:2017PFHN...72...82V. doi:10.1007/s11130-016-0594-x. PMC 5325840. PMID 28084608.
  18. ^ Appenteng, Michael (4 March 2021). "Cyanogenic Glycoside Analysis in American Elderberry". Molecules (Basel, Switzerland). 26 (5): 1384. doi:10.3390/molecules26051384. PMC 7961730. PMID 33806603.
  19. ^ United States Food and Drug Administration (2024). "Daily Value on the Nutrition and Supplement Facts Labels". FDA. Archived from the original on 2024-03-27. Retrieved 2024-03-28.
  20. ^ "TABLE 4-7 Comparison of Potassium Adequate Intakes Established in This Report to Potassium Adequate Intakes Established in the 2005 DRI Report". p. 120. In: Stallings, Virginia A.; Harrison, Meghan; Oria, Maria, eds. (2019). "Potassium: Dietary Reference Intakes for Adequacy". Dietary Reference Intakes for Sodium and Potassium. pp. 101–124. doi:10.17226/25353. ISBN 978-0-309-48834-1. PMID 30844154. NCBI NBK545428.
  21. ^ McVicar, Jekka (2007). "Jekka's Complete Herb Book" p. 214–215. Raincoast Books, Vancouver. ISBN 1-55192-882-5
  22. ^ Johnson, M. C; Thomas, A. L; Greenlief, C. M (2015). "Impact of Frozen Storage on the Anthocyanin and Polyphenol Content of American Elderberry Fruit Juice". Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry. 63 (23): 5653–5659. Bibcode:2015JAFC...63.5653J. doi:10.1021/acs.jafc.5b01702. PMC 4472577. PMID 26028422.
  23. ^ a b c Colors Derived from Agricultural Products, USDA
  24. ^ "National Organic Program (NOP)-Proposed Amendments to the National List of Allowed and Prohibited Substances (Processing)". Federal Register. May 15, 2007.
  25. ^ Teets, Christy (20 October 2024). "A One-Week Elderberry Juice Intervention Augments the Fecal Microbiota and Suggests Improvement in Glucose Tolerance and Fat Oxidation in a Randomized Controlled Trial". Nutrients. 16 (20): 3555. doi:10.3390/nu16203555. PMC 11510622. PMID 39458549.
  26. ^ a b "Dietary Supplements in the Time of COVID-19: Fact Sheet for Health Professionals". National Institutes of Health, Office of Dietary Supplements. 5 October 2021. Retrieved 16 December 2021.
  27. ^ Barak, V.; Halperin, T.; Kalickman, I. (2001). "The effect of Sambucol, a black elderberry-based, natural product, on the production of human cytokines: I. Inflammatory cytokines". European Cytokine Network. 12 (2): 290–296. PMID 11399518.
  28. ^ Tiralongo, E.; Wee, S. S.; Lea, R. A. (2016). "Elderberry Supplementation Reduces Cold Duration and Symptoms in Air-Travellers: A Randomized, Double-Blind Placebo-Controlled Clinical Trial". Nutrients. 8 (4): 182. doi:10.3390/nu8040182. PMC 4848651. PMID 27023596.
  29. ^ Roschek Jr, B.; Fink, R. C.; McMichael, M. D.; Li, D.; Alberte, R. S. (2009). "Elderberry flavonoids bind to and prevent H1N1 infection in vitro". Phytochemistry. 70 (10): 1255–1261. Bibcode:2009PChem..70.1255R. doi:10.1016/j.phytochem.2009.06.003. PMID 19682714.
  30. ^ Christian, Setz; Maria, Fröba; Maximilian, Große; Pia, Rauch; Janina, Auth; Alexander, Steinkasserer; Stephan, Plattner; Ulrich, Schubert (March 2023). "European Black Elderberry Fruit Extract Inhibits Replication of SARS-CoV-2 in Vitro". Nutraceuticals. 3 (1).
  31. ^ Processing Fruits: Science and Technology (Second ed.). CRC Press. 2004. pp. 322–324. ISBN 9781420040074. Retrieved 20 August 2018.
  32. ^ Burgess, Rebecca (2011). Harvesting Color: How to Find Plants and Make Natural Dyes. Artisan Books. pp. 74–75. ISBN 9781579654252. Retrieved 20 August 2018.
  33. ^ Hall, Alicia (2020). "Elderberries". Seasonal Plant Dyes Creating Year Round Colour from Plants, Beautiful Textile Projects. Barnsley, England: Pen & Sword Books. ISBN 9781526747242.
  34. ^ Medve, Richard J. et al. Edible Wild Plants of Pennsylvania and Neighboring States Penn State Press, 1990, ISBN 978-0-271-00690-1, p. 161
  35. ^ Lyle, Katie Letcher (2010) [2004]. The Complete Guide to Edible Wild Plants, Mushrooms, Fruits, and Nuts: How to Find, Identify, and Cook Them (2nd ed.). Guilford, CN: FalconGuides. p. 92. ISBN 978-1-59921-887-8. OCLC 560560606.
  36. ^ Britten, Frederick James (1896). The Watch & Clock Makers' Handbook, Dictionary and Guide. Spon & Chamberlain. p. 281. Archived from the original on 23 October 2004.
  37. ^ Diacono, Mark (15 June 2013). "In praise of the elderflower". The Telegraph. Archived from the original on 2022-01-12. Retrieved 10 September 2017.
  38. ^ Jen Munson (25 October 2016). "Consider warding off witches, monsters with these spooktacular herbs this Halloween". The News-Herald, Digital First Media, Denver, CO. Archived from the original on 16 August 2018. Retrieved 10 September 2017.
  39. ^ Scott-Brown, A; Walker, K. "Elder power". Read & watch. Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew. Retrieved 9 February 2023.
  40. ^ Howard, Michael. Traditional Folk Remedies (Century, 1987); pp. 134–5
  41. ^ Aurora (8 October 2023). Magical Herb Compendium: Correspondences, Spells, and Meditations. Llewellyn Worldwide. ISBN 9780738775104.
  42. ^ Groves, Beatrice (2017). Literary Allusion in Harry Potter. Taylor & Francis. p. 50. ISBN 9781351978736. Retrieved 3 November 2017.
  43. ^ Brown, Jen (30 July 2007). "Confused by Potter? Author sets record straight". Today. Retrieved 3 November 2017.

General and cited references

[edit]

Further reading

[edit]
[edit]
Revisions and contributorsEdit on WikipediaRead on Wikipedia

Sambucus

View on Grokipedia
from Grokipedia
Sambucus is a of approximately 23 of shrubs and small trees in the family , commonly referred to as elders or elderberries. These plants are characterized by their pinnately compound leaves with serrate margins, terminal panicles of small flowers arranged in flat-topped cymes, and berry-like drupes that turn dark , black, or red when ripe. Native primarily to temperate and subtropical regions of the , with some extending to the , the is distributed worldwide except in extreme cold or desert areas. The name Sambucus derives from the Greek sambuke, referring to an ancient stringed traditionally made from the wood of elder plants. Taxonomically, the genus has undergone revisions, with a 1994 by Bolli recognizing five main , some treated as subspecies of S. nigra, though contemporary classifications accept around 23 distinct based on morphological and genetic analyses addressing hybridization and intraspecific variation. Key include S. nigra (European black elder), native to , western Asia, and , and S. canadensis (American elderberry), widespread across . Morphologically, Sambucus species typically grow 2–10 meters tall, with opposite, odd-pinnate leaves consisting of 5–11 leaflets that emit a musky or unpleasant odor when crushed. Flowers are bisexual, small (about 5 mm wide), with 4–5 petals and sepals, blooming in spring or summer, and are attractive to pollinators. The fruits are drupes containing 3–5 seeds, with spongy pith in the stems that historically made the wood suitable for crafting flutes or arrows. While parts of the plant, such as raw berries, leaves, and stems, contain cyanogenic glycosides and are toxic, cooked berries are edible and have been used for jams, wines, and syrups. Ecologically, Sambucus species thrive in moist, disturbed habitats like streambanks, forest edges, and wetlands, providing and cover for , including birds that disperse the seeds via their fruits. Cultivated varieties are popular in for their ornamental flowers, foliage, and fruits, with selections like S. nigra '' prized for cut-leaf forms. Traditionally, elders have cultural significance in and , with flowers and berries employed in remedies for colds, , and as antioxidants, supported by modern studies on their bioactive compounds such as and anthocyanins.

Biological Characteristics

Morphology

Sambucus are shrubs or small trees, typically reaching heights of 2 to 10 meters, with a multi-stemmed, often arching growth form that can develop into broad, rounded crowns. The stems are and soft when young, featuring a solid, white and grayish twigs with prominent lenticels, transitioning to hard, woody branches with deeply furrowed, brownish-gray bark as the plant matures. The leaves are opposite and pinnately compound, usually consisting of 5 to 7 leaflets (ranging up to 11 in some species), each elliptic to lanceolate, 4 to 15 cm long, and 1.5 to 3.5 cm wide, with sharply serrated margins and a dark green upper surface that is glabrous or sparingly hairy on the veins below. The overall leaf length, including the petiole, measures 5 to 30 cm, and they emit a disagreeable odor when bruised. Flowers form in terminal, flat-topped cymes or compound umbels, 5 to 30 cm in diameter, comprising numerous small, creamy-white to yellowish-white, hermaphroditic blooms, each 4 to 6 mm wide with a rotate corolla and 5 lobes, blooming from late spring to early summer. Fruits are berry-like drupes, 3 to 6 mm in diameter (up to 8 mm in some), globose, and containing 3 to 5 compressed seeds; their color varies by species, ripening to black, purple-black, red, or blue with a waxy bloom. Morphological variations occur across key species; for instance, exhibits a larger stature, often reaching 6 to 10 m with broader inflorescences of 10 to 20 cm, while displays more suckering growth, forming dense thickets with leaflets up to 15 cm long. These plants are fast-growing, readily propagating via root suckers to create thicket-like stands.

Reproduction

Sambucus primarily reproduce through sexual means via insect-pollinated flowers arranged in large, flat-topped inflorescences that bloom from spring to early summer, depending on the and . The flowers are typically small, to cream-colored, and exhibit dichogamy, with many being protogynous or homogamous to favor cross-, although some parthenocarpic development can occur without . is mainly entomophilous, with primary visitors including honeybees, flies, beetles, and occasionally , while wind plays only a minor role due to the sticky and lack of adaptations for anemophily. Many , such as , are self-incompatible, showing very low self-compatibility rates around 1-2%, which necessitates cross- from compatible individuals for effective seed set. Following , fruits develop as small drupes that ripen from late summer through autumn, turning black, red, or blue depending on the , with each containing 3-5 hard-shelled . Seed viability persists for 2-5 years under suitable storage conditions, such as cool, dry environments, allowing for delayed opportunities. Dispersal is predominantly zoocorous, achieved through endozoochory where birds like thrushes (Turdus spp.), blackbirds (Turdus merula), and waxwings consume the ripe fruits and excrete viable seeds away from the parent , facilitating of new areas; in riparian , hydrochory via water currents provides a secondary dispersal mechanism, though it is less significant overall. Vegetative reproduction is common in woody Sambucus species, occurring via root suckers that emerge from adventitious buds on underground rhizomes or shallow roots, enabling clonal colony formation and rapid spread in disturbed habitats; softwood or hardwood cuttings also root readily, rooting in 9-25 days under moist conditions. The life cycle is that of a perennial shrub or small tree, with plants reaching reproductive maturity in 3-4 years and exhibiting annual flowering cycles thereafter, potentially living up to 40-50 years; seed germination requires breaking physiological dormancy through cold stratification at 0-5°C for 30-90 days, after which rates can reach 12-60% under optimal moist, aerobic conditions, often taking several months to complete. In contrast, Sambucus ebulus (dwarf elder), a more herbaceous , reproduces primarily through and rhizomatous growth from an , forming dense clumps of unbranched shoots without the extensive root suckering seen in woody congeners, though it can spread vegetatively via division of the .

Taxonomy and Systematics

Etymology and History

The genus name Sambucus originates from the Latin sambūcus, which is believed to derive from the sambýkē, referring to a stringed constructed from the plant's wood, facilitated by the soft in its twigs that could be easily hollowed out for or whistles. Alternative interpretations link the name to the plant's early medicinal applications, though the instrumental etymology remains the most substantiated in classical sources. References to Sambucus appear in ancient Greco-Roman texts for its therapeutic properties, with documenting its use in Naturalis Historia (c. 77 AD) as a hedgerow plant valued for remedies against ailments like and as a . Dioscorides, in (c. 50–70 AD), similarly prescribed elder root wine for snakebites and other toxins, establishing its role in early across the Mediterranean. formalized the genus in his (1753), providing the that standardized its botanical identity. Nineteenth- and twentieth-century debates centered on boundaries, particularly the dwarf elder (S. ebulus), which some botanists argued warranted separation from the main group due to its herbaceous habit and rhizomatous growth, contrasting with the woody S. nigra. Molecular phylogenetic analyses in the early , culminating in the II system (2003), prompted the transfer of Sambucus from to the newly recognized family in 2004, reflecting closer affinities with genera like . In medieval Europe, Sambucus cultivation records date to the (c. 800–1050 CE) in , expanding southward for practical uses such as fast-growing hedges that provided windbreaks and livestock fodder. Berries yielded blue and purple dyes for textiles, while leaves produced yellow and green hues, integrating the plant into agrarian economies by the . Post-2020 taxonomic stability persists, with no significant revisions to the ; molecular studies employing nuclear ribosomal DNA (nrDNA ITS) sequences have reinforced Sambucus , supporting its current circumscription amid ongoing assessments of infrageneric clades.

Classification and Species

Sambucus is a within the family , known as the muskroot family, although it was historically classified in ; this reassignment was supported by molecular phylogenetic analyses using nuclear ribosomal (ITS) regions and chloroplast rbcL gene sequences, which placed it firmly in alongside genera like Adoxa and . The genus comprises approximately 23-30 accepted species based on recent morphological and molecular analyses, though the exact count varies due to ongoing debates over species delimitation; earlier comprehensive revisions recognized 5-10 primary species, but contemporary classifications accept more, resolving previous uncertainties. Hybrids are common, such as × S. racemosa, which exhibit intermediate morphological traits and have been documented in natural and cultivated settings. Key species include Sambucus nigra (European black elder), a deciduous shrub or small tree with pinnate leaves up to 30 cm long and black drupes in flat cymes; S. canadensis (American elder), similar but with slightly smaller leaves and black fruits, native to (often treated as S. nigra subsp. canadensis in some classifications); S. racemosa (red elder), distinguished by bright red drupes and more compact inflorescences; S. ebulus (dwarf elder), an herbaceous with smaller leaves (10-20 cm) and black berries, lacking woody stems; S. cerulea (blue elder), featuring powdery blue drupes and larger leaflets (frequently classified as S. nigra subsp. cerulea); and S. javanica (Asian elder), a woody with yellowish fruits and adaptation to subtropical conditions. Subspecies and varieties add further complexity within species complexes, such as in the S. nigra group, where the European form (S. nigra subsp. nigra, with darker stems) contrasts with the American form (often S. canadensis or subsp. canadensis, with lighter bark) and the blue-fruited western North American variant (often S. cerulea or subsp. cerulea); cultivated cultivars like 'Black Beauty' of S. nigra are selected for ornamental dark purple foliage and abundant black fruits. Phylogenetic studies from 2010-2020, including genome sequencing, confirm Sambucus as monophyletic, with basal clades originating in (e.g., S. javanica as an early diverging lineage) and subsequent diversification in temperate zones of , , and , driven by climatic shifts during the period. Recent analyses as of 2023 further support this structure. Infrageneric divisions are informal and based on and morphology, with encompassing woody shrubs and trees (e.g., S. nigra, S. racemosa), while includes herbaceous perennials (e.g., S. ebulus), as supported by combined morphological and molecular data.

Distribution and Habitat

Geographic Range

The genus Sambucus is native to temperate and subtropical regions of both the Northern and Southern Hemispheres, including , , North and South America, , and , with certain species extending into subtropical zones of and parts of . For instance, S. javanica occurs in the and broader eastern , from and through to and the . Similarly, S. cerulea (blue elderberry) is distributed across and the . Specific species exhibit distinct ranges within this framework: S. nigra spans much of and western , reaching latitudes up to approximately 55°E in the east. S. canadensis (American elderberry) is confined to eastern , from south to and west to the Dakotas and . S. racemosa (red elderberry) occupies northern temperate zones across , temperate , and , extending from to the . S. ebulus (dwarf elder) ranges from the Mediterranean Basin through central and into , reaching the . In the , S. australis is found in temperate eastern , while S. australasica occurs in eastern and . Several Sambucus species have been introduced outside their native ranges and are now widely naturalized, particularly in , , and parts of , often spread through ornamental plantings and bird dispersal. Biogeographically, Sambucus species show a strong temperate preference, with distributions shaped by post-glacial recolonization in following the , leading to current ranges constrained by dispersal limitations. They occur from to montane elevations, with altitudinal limits reaching up to 3,000 m in the western U.S. and up to 2,200 m in the . Regarding conservation, most Sambucus species are assessed as Least Concern by the IUCN due to their wide distributions and stable populations, such as S. nigra and S. javanica. However, some insular taxa face higher risks; for example, S. lanceolata is Vulnerable in the Macaronesian islands owing to habitat loss and limited range.

Environmental Preferences

Sambucus species thrive in temperate to subtropical climates, generally favoring mild winters and cool summers across USDA hardiness zones 3 to 9, with notable tolerance that allows survival in regions experiencing cold snaps down to -40°C in zone 3. These plants exhibit moderate but show sensitivity to prolonged extreme dry conditions, preferring environments with consistent moisture to support vigorous growth and fruit production. They prefer moist, fertile loamy soils with a neutral to slightly alkaline ranging from 6.0 to 7.5, which provide optimal nutrient availability and drainage. Sambucus tolerates clay soils to some extent but performs poorly in waterlogged conditions that lead to , and it avoids very sandy substrates that limit water retention. In natural settings, Sambucus is commonly associated with edges, riverbanks, hedgerows, , and disturbed sites, where it benefits from partial to full sunlight while demonstrating during early growth stages. These heliophilous shrubs often colonize transitional zones that offer both light exposure for and protection from harsh winds. Several exhibit adaptations to high demands, functioning as riparian specialists in wetland-adjacent habitats that maintain elevated levels essential for establishment and reproduction. For instance, Sambucus nigra subsp. cerulea persists in semi-arid southwestern U.S. regions through access to irrigation or seasonal water sources near , despite broader resilience. Sambucus ebulus, by contrast, favors soils rich in lime, enabling it to occupy base-rich, rocky outcrops in Mediterranean and temperate . Under projected scenarios, may experience northward range shifts in , driven by warming temperatures and altered precipitation patterns, potentially increasing its abundance in northern disturbed habitats.

Ecology

Biotic Interactions

Sambucus species engage in diverse biotic interactions that include , herbivory, , and mutualisms, influencing their across native and introduced ranges. The flat-topped clusters of small, white flowers attract a range of pollinators, serving as an early-season source. Primary visitors include bees such as honeybees (Apis mellifera) and native species like little carpenter bees ( spp.) and halictid bees, as well as syrphid flies (hoverflies) and , which facilitate cross- essential for fruit set. Herbivory exerts significant pressure on Sambucus, with browsing by large mammals like deer (Odocoileus spp.) and rabbits (Sylvilagus spp.) targeting leaves, twigs, and young shoots, often limiting growth in open habitats. Insect herbivores are also prominent; leaves commonly host the elder aphid (Aphis sambuci), which forms dense colonies that distort foliage and produce honeydew, attracting secondary pests like sooty mold fungi. Shoots are vulnerable to borers, including the elder shoot borer moth (Achatodes zeae), whose larvae tunnel into stems, causing dieback and reduced vigor. Pathogenic interactions further challenge Sambucus health. The fungus Puccinia sambuci causes elder rust, a heteroecious disease alternating between Sambucus and sedges (Carex spp.), manifesting as orange powdery spores on leaves and stems that reduce photosynthesis and fruit production. Verticillium wilt, induced by soil-borne Verticillium dahliae, leads to vascular discoloration, wilting, and branch dieback in infected plants. Powdery mildew from Erysiphe sambuci appears as white fungal growth on leaves and flowers, impairing gas exchange. Viral pathogens, such as elderberry latent virus, can cause mosaic symptoms and stunted growth, though often asymptomatic. Mutualistic relationships bolster Sambucus persistence and spread. Fruits, ripening in clusters of small berries, are primarily dispersed by frugivorous birds—over 50 species documented, including warblers (Parulidae), thrushes (Turdidae), and cedar waxwings (Bombycilla cedrorum)—which consume the pulp and deposit viable seeds via endozoochory, aiding colonization of new sites. Mycorrhizal associations, particularly arbuscular types with fungi like those in Glomeromycota, enhance and nutrient uptake in Sambucus , improving establishment in nutrient-limited soils. In introduced ranges, Sambucus exhibits antagonistic interactions with native , contributing to invasiveness through rapid vegetative growth that shades competitors and allelopathic effects from cyanogenic glycosides like sambunigrin, which release to inhibit and growth of nearby plants. This is evident in regions like parts of where non-native S. nigra forms dense thickets. Species-specific variations occur in biotic associations; S. nigra in its native European range supports greater insect diversity, with 19 phytophagous species utilizing it for feeding or hosting, compared to S. canadensis in , reflecting differences in co-evolved fauna.

Ecosystem Role

Sambucus species play a significant role in providing within , particularly through the formation of dense thickets that offer nesting sites for birds such as wrens and sparrows, as well as cover and shelter for small mammals like deer and . These are early successional pioneers, readily colonizing disturbed areas such as floodplains, clearcuts, and roadsides, where they facilitate the transition to more mature vegetation by stabilizing bare ground and reducing excessive sunlight exposure. The root systems of Sambucus contribute to , particularly along riverbanks and slopes, where they help prevent by binding particles and trapping during high-water events. Additionally, the of their nutrient-rich litter enhances by increasing available , , and mineralizable , supporting subsequent plant growth in these dynamic environments. As a key component of and edges, Sambucus acts as a biodiversity supporter, serving as a host for over 150 , including attracted to its extrafloral nectaries and flowers, thereby enhancing pollinator corridors and overall connectivity. It functions as a moderate carbon sequestrator through its fast-growing , accumulating that contributes to long-term storage in riparian and successional habitats. Sambucus serves as an indicator species for nutrient-rich, moist conditions, thriving in sites with good drainage and ample , where its presence signals productive soils. Declines in its populations often reflect degradation, such as from prolonged or riparian loss. In non-native regions like , where Sambucus nigra has become invasive, it alters composition by outcompeting native , leading to reduced diversity in disturbed and roadsides.

Cultivation

Propagation

Sambucus can be propagated through both sexual and asexual methods, with asexual techniques preferred for maintaining desirable traits in cultivars due to variability in seed-grown plants. Sexual propagation involves seeds extracted from ripe drupes, while asexual methods include cuttings, layering, division, and . Seed propagation begins with collecting ripe drupes in late summer or early fall, followed by maceration in water to extract seeds, which are then cleaned by screening and flotation to remove non-viable ones. Seeds require stratification to break : a common approach is 60 days of warm stratification at 24°C followed by 90 days of cold stratification at 4°C, or alternatively, brief (10 minutes) combined with 60 days of cold stratification. Sowing occurs in spring in well-aerated, moist media such as coir-based mixes under conditions with and supplemental lighting, achieving rates of 18-19% in controlled trials, though rates can vary with pretreatment efficacy. Asexual propagation via cuttings is highly effective and widely used, particularly for like and S. nigra. Hardwood cuttings, taken in late winter from dormant canes (10-15 cm long with 2-3 nodes), are dipped in 0.1-0.8% (IBA) and planted 5-8 cm deep in moist, well-drained sand or soil mixes, rooting in 4-6 weeks with success rates up to 80-90% under mist or high humidity. cuttings, collected in from new growth (8-15 cm long), require similar hormone treatment and sterile media like peat-sand, but demand more precise moisture control and yield slightly lower rooting success due to sensitivity. Sambucus naturally spreads vegetatively through suckers, which supports the efficacy of these methods. Layering is suitable for suckering species such as S. canadensis, where low branches or tips are bent to the ground and buried 5-10 cm deep in moist or sand-soil mixes during the growing season. Roots typically form at the buried nodes in 4-6 weeks, after which the new plant can be severed and transplanted; this method leverages the plant's natural rhizomatous growth for reliable establishment. Division involves separating established clumps or rhizomatous suckers during the dormant season (late fall to early winter), cutting healthy sections with roots and buds, and replanting immediately in prepared soil. This technique is straightforward for clonally spreading species and yields vigorous plants with minimal risk of variation. Tissue culture, or micropropagation, uses shoot tips or nodal explants cultured on Murashige-Skoog (MS) medium supplemented with cytokinins like benzyladenine (1-2 mg/L) and auxins such as naphthaleneacetic acid for multiplication and rooting, producing virus-free stock since developments in the 2010s. This method enables rapid clonal propagation of elite varieties, with multiplication rates of 1.6 to 2.0 shoots per explant in optimized conditions, though it requires sterile lab facilities. Challenges in Sambucus propagation include low seed viability and sterility in hybrid crosses, which limits sexual reproduction for cultivar preservation, making asexual methods essential for consistent results. Timing and environmental control are critical to avoid poor rooting in cuttings or contamination in tissue culture.

Growing Conditions

Sambucus species, commonly known as elderberries, thrive in sites with full sun to partial shade exposure, which promotes optimal growth and fruit production. Well-drained, fertile soils rich in are essential, with a preferred range of 5.5 to 7.0 to support healthy root development and nutrient uptake. Plants are typically spaced 1.2 to 1.5 meters apart within rows, with rows 3 to 3.7 meters apart, to allow adequate air circulation and access for maintenance. Watering requirements emphasize consistent moisture, particularly during the first year after planting, at a rate of 1 to 2 inches per week to establish strong roots. Once established, plants become relatively drought-tolerant but benefit from supplemental during dry periods to maintain vigor. Fertilization should involve a balanced NPK formula, such as 10-10-10, applied in early spring to provide essential nutrients without promoting excessive vegetative growth. Excess must be avoided, as it can lead to weak, leggy stems susceptible to breakage. Pruning is conducted annually after fruiting or during , focusing on the removal of old, unproductive canes to stimulate new growth and maintain plant health. , or cutting back to ground level every few years, can enhance yields by encouraging vigorous basal shoots. Common pests include and borers, which can be monitored through regular inspections; organic sprays such as insecticidal soaps are effective for control. Selecting resistant cultivars, like 'York' for , helps mitigate disease pressures such as powdery mildew. Harvest timing varies by region but typically involves picking flowers in June to July for culinary uses and ripe fruits in August to September when they turn dark purple. Commercial yields can reach 5 to 10 kg per mature under optimal conditions. Popular varieties for cultivation include ornamental selections like 'Black Lace' for its lacy foliage and compact form, fruiting types such as 'Adams' for high production, and native selections of for regional adaptability.

Toxicity

Toxic Compounds

The primary toxic compounds in Sambucus species are cyanogenic glycosides, particularly sambunigrin and , which are present in the leaves, stems, seeds, and unripe fruits. These glycosides are non-toxic in their intact form but hydrolyze upon tissue damage or ingestion, releasing (HCN) through enzymatic action involving . Concentrations of sambunigrin are highest in leaves, ranging from 27.68 to 209.61 µg/g fresh weight, while fruits exhibit lower levels equivalent to approximately 3 mg HCN potential per 100 g. Other notable toxic compounds include , such as nigrin f in raw berries and nigrin b in bark, which exhibit ribosome-inactivating properties and can induce gastrointestinal distress like upon consumption. These bind to cell surfaces and inhibit protein synthesis, though their toxicity is significantly lower than that of related proteins like . Toxicity varies across species; S. ebulus (dwarf elder) contains higher overall levels of cyanogenic glycosides and is considered more hazardous, with raw berries deemed poisonous due to elevated HCN release potential compared to S. nigra. In contrast, fruits of S. racemosa (red elderberry) are mildly toxic when raw, primarily from cyanogenic glycosides in the seeds and skins, but pose lower risk than those of S. ebulus. These toxins are unstable and degrade under processing conditions: drying reduces cyanogenic glycoside content by disrupting enzymatic activity, while cooking—such as for 10-15 minutes—effectively hydrolyzes and volatilizes HCN, rendering fruits safe; similarly lowers levels through microbial breakdown. Detection of these compounds typically involves enzymatic assays that measure HCN potential by incubating plant material with and quantifying released via or . No novel toxic compounds beyond cyanogenic glycosides and have been identified in Sambucus species from 2020 to 2025, based on recent phytochemical analyses.

Health Risks and Precautions

Consumption of raw or unripe Sambucus berries, stems, leaves, or other plant parts can lead to acute due to cyanogenic glycosides that release (HCN) upon digestion. Symptoms typically include , , , abdominal cramps, weakness, , and numbness, with severe cases potentially progressing to convulsions, , or . The of HCN is approximately 0.5–3.5 mg/kg body weight in humans. Ripe berries contain about 3 mg of per 100 grams, representing a small fraction of the estimated fatal dose for adults but still posing risks, especially in larger quantities. Chronic exposure or sensitivity may result in allergic reactions, particularly to Sambucus pollen, which can elicit via IgE-mediated responses to a 33.2 kDa found in , flowers, and berries. Additionally, in uncooked parts may contribute to gastrointestinal upset, and elderberry's immune-stimulating effects could interact with immunosuppressant medications, such as cyclosporine, by enhancing production and potentially reducing drug efficacy. This immune activation may exacerbate symptoms in individuals with autoimmune diseases, including inflammatory bowel diseases such as colitis or Crohn's disease; reputable sources recommend consulting a healthcare provider before use, as elderberry may overstimulate the immune system and the potential risks may outweigh unproven benefits. Sambucus is toxic to many animals, particularly , where cyanogenic compounds in leaves and wilted foliage can cause fatal in cattle, goats, and sheep at doses around 2.0 mg/kg body weight. Birds, however, tolerate consumption of the berries, likely due to their rapid preventing significant HCN release, facilitating without apparent toxicity. Children and pregnant individuals are particularly vulnerable and should avoid raw Sambucus parts entirely, as insufficient safety data exist for use during or ; consultation with a healthcare provider is recommended. For supplements derived from processed elderberry, adhere to label dosages, typically up to 1200 mg daily for adults, but limit raw berry intake to under 100 grams to minimize exposure. Precautions include always cooking fruits and flowers thoroughly to neutralize toxins, discarding stems, seeds, leaves, and roots, and consulting healthcare professionals before using elderberry medicinally, especially with pre-existing conditions including autoimmune diseases or concurrent medications. As of 2025, the U.S. (FDA) considers cooked elderberry products (GRAS) for food use, though raw forms and some unprocessed supplements require warning labels about potential toxicity. Notable case studies include a 1983 incident in where 11 church members consumed raw elderberry juice, resulting in eight cases of moderate with symptoms of , , cramps, weakness, , and numbness resolving within 24 hours after medical treatment.

Human Uses

Nutrition and Culinary Applications

The parts of Sambucus species, particularly ripe fruits and flowers, contribute to dietary when properly prepared. Ripe elderberries ( fruits) provide notable amounts of at approximately 36 mg per 100 g, dietary fiber at 7 g per 100 g, and anthocyanins, which contribute to their capacity. Elderberry flowers are rich in and contain significant , supporting mineral intake in diets. Per 100 g of ripe elderberries, the nutritional profile includes 73 kcal, 18.4 g of carbohydrates, and 0.66 g of protein, positioning them as a low-calorie, nutrient-dense . Their high content is evidenced by an (ORAC) value of around 20,500 μmol TE per 100 g fresh weight, surpassing many common fruits. These attributes make elderberries a valuable addition to balanced diets, emphasizing their role in providing essential micronutrients and bioactive compounds through consumption. In culinary applications, ripe elderberries are commonly used to prepare jams, pies, wines, and syrups, such as elderberry cordial, which highlights their tart flavor when cooked. Elderflowers lend themselves to teas, fritters, and cordials, often battered and fried or infused for beverages. Recipes universally stress cooking or heating these parts to mitigate potential toxins present in raw forms. Processing methods enhance usability and preservation; for instance, elderberries undergo fermentation to produce wine typically reaching 10-12% alcohol by volume (ABV), yielding a full-bodied, fruit-forward product. Flowers are frequently dried for herbal infusions or syrups, preserving their delicate aroma and nutritional elements. Varietal differences influence nutritional and sensory qualities; fruits are generally sweeter than those of , affecting their suitability for direct culinary use or processing. practices for elderberries have been shown to increase nutrient density compared to conventional methods, potentially elevating levels of vitamins and antioxidants. In modern trends, elderberries have gained status, often incorporated into smoothies for their vibrant color and nutritional profile. Studies from 2020 to affirm their dietary role in supporting immune function through antioxidant-rich consumption, alongside benefits for gut and metabolic health when integrated into daily meals. As of November , the global elderberry market has expanded to over $1 billion annually, driven by demand for supplements and functional foods.

Phytochemistry

Sambucus species, particularly S. nigra, contain a diverse array of phytochemicals, including , phenolic acids, triterpenes, glycosides, and volatile compounds such as essential oils. These constituents contribute to the plant's bioactive profile, with concentrations varying by plant part, , and environmental factors. Flavonoids are prominent in S. nigra flowers and fruits, with key compounds including , , and , which can reach up to 1-2% dry weight in flowers. Anthocyanins, such as cyanidin-3-glucoside, predominate in black fruits at levels of 100-300 mg per 100 g fresh weight, imparting the characteristic pigmentation. Phenolic compounds encompass acids like and derivatives, alongside total phenolics quantified at 5-10 g per kg dry weight across leaves, flowers, and fruits. These phenolics exhibit structural diversity, with derivatives often comprising major fractions in leaf extracts, reaching 3-8 g/kg dry weight. Other classes include triterpenes such as α- and β-amyrin, identified in leaves, roots, and fruits at approximately 1% of secondary metabolites. glycosides are also present, contributing to the overall chemical complexity. Essential oils, primarily in flowers, yield 0.1-0.5% and feature as a key component, often at 30-33% of the oil fraction. Phytochemical content shows notable variation, with ripe fruits exhibiting higher levels compared to unripe stages due to increased accumulation during maturation. Species differences are evident, as S. nigra demonstrates elevated concentrations of specialized compounds like sambucusides A and B relative to other Sambucus taxa. Extraction of these compounds typically employs solvent methods, such as or hydroethanolic mixtures (e.g., 80% ), with yields assessed via (HPLC) protocols refined in 2023 studies for optimal recovery of and phenolics. Recent research from 2020-2025 highlights the neuroprotective potential of S. nigra polyphenols, particularly anthocyanins and flavonols, which activate antioxidant pathways like Nrf2 to mitigate oxidative stress in neuronal models.

Medicinal and Pharmacological Uses

Sambucus species, particularly Sambucus nigra, have been employed in traditional medicine for various therapeutic purposes. Flowers were commonly used to prepare diaphoretic teas for treating colds and flu symptoms, while berries served as laxatives and diuretics. Native American communities utilized elderberry for managing fever and rheumatism. In modern , elderberry extracts demonstrate antiviral activity by inhibiting replication of viruses such as H1N1 influenza and . studies show that black elderberry fruit extract blocks replication post-entry, with values around 1:200 to 1:800 dilutions across variants including . Additionally, elderberry modulates immune responses by altering production, reducing pro-inflammatory s like TNF-α and IFN-γ while promoting shifts toward Th2 responses. Clinical evidence supports elderberry's efficacy in reducing upper respiratory infection symptoms. A 2019 meta-analysis of four randomized controlled trials involving 180 participants found that elderberry supplementation shortened symptom duration by an average of 2 days overall, with greater effects for (effect size 2.074), using doses such as 15 mL syrup four times daily. Studies also indicate reduced flu duration by 3-4 days compared to in trials with elderberry syrup. For anti-inflammatory effects, elderberry has shown benefits in alleviating symptoms by reducing swelling, though larger trials are needed. Elderberry is available in forms including standardized extracts (15% anthocyanins), lozenges, and gummies, with typical adult dosages of 175 mg daily or 15 mL syrup four times daily for acute use. It is generally safe when cooked or processed, with no adverse effects reported in clinical trials at recommended doses. However, it may interact with medications due to potential hypoglycemic effects, requiring monitoring. Emerging research highlights neuroprotective potential, with a 2025 randomized in 24 patients showing elderberry juice (15 mL daily for 6 months) improved latency (p=0.049). in elderberry also contribute to cardiovascular benefits by enhancing endothelial function, as demonstrated in a 2023 study where extract (50 μg/mL) upregulated eNOS and reduced activity in human endothelial cells.

Other Applications

Sambucus species are widely utilized in ornamental due to their adaptability and aesthetic appeal. They are commonly planted as hedges or screens to create natural barriers, with varieties such as subsp. canadensis thriving in naturalized areas, woodlands, or along streams and ponds. The cultivar 'Aurea', featuring striking golden foliage, is particularly valued for adding visual contrast in gardens and is suitable for hedging, growing 6-12 feet tall in shadier locations. Additionally, Sambucus support gardens by providing for bees and shelter for birds, enhancing in landscape designs. In industrial applications, berries from Sambucus species serve as a source of natural dyes, producing shades ranging from light pink to deep purple on fabrics like and , depending on use and concentration. The wood of Sambucus, characterized by its light weight and straight grain with soft , is traditionally crafted into flutes and whistles, facilitating easy hollowing for musical instruments. Anthocyanin extracts derived from Sambucus berries function as natural pigments, designated as E163 in regulatory contexts, and exhibit stability in acidic environments, making them suitable for coloring applications as alternatives to synthetic dyes. Flower extracts of Sambucus are incorporated on a small commercial scale into , such as creams, toners, serums, and lotions, for their soothing and hydrating properties on the skin. The plants also contribute to in systems, where their extensive rooting systems stabilize soil in moist, flood-prone areas and filter runoff to prevent sediment entry into waterways. Recent studies from 2020 to 2025 have explored the potential of Sambucus nigra for phytoremediation, highlighting its tolerance and accumulation of heavy metals like zinc, copper, iron, and manganese in contaminated soils, particularly in ornamental and natural settings. Historically, Sambucus stems have been used in basketry, with berry juices applied as dyes to achieve deep black hues on woven materials.

Cultural Significance

Folklore and Symbolism

In , the elder tree (Sambucus) has long been associated with protective spirits and . In Danish tradition, it is home to Hylde Moer, the Elder-tree Mother, a believed to guard the tree and its surroundings; cutting it without permission was thought to invite haunting by this spirit, while using its wood for cradles could lead to children being taken by fairies. Planting elder near homes was a common practice to ward off the , witches, and evil influences, with twigs carried as charms against enchantments and negative forces. and Bohemians similarly invoked elder in spells to dispel evil spirits and fevers, reinforcing its role as a safeguard in rural life. Mythologically, elder is tied to themes of death, rebirth, and the underworld across Germanic and Slavic traditions. It is sacred to Holda (or Frau Holle), a Germanic goddess of winter, wisdom, and protection, often depicted in white and linked to the tree as a dwelling for souls; she oversees domestic hearth and spinning, embodying cycles of life and renewal. Superstitions warned against using elder wood for furniture or cradles, as it was believed to bring bad luck, early death, or fairy interference, stemming from legends like Judas Iscariot hanging himself from its branches, marking it as a tree of sorrow. Among some Native American tribes, elder holds sacred status as a of and . Various indigenous groups revered Sambucus species for their spiritual strength, using the in rituals to invoke wellness and ward off harm, viewing it as a conduit for restorative energies tied to the natural world. Symbolically, elder represents , renewal, and the dualities of . Its attributes embody empathy and rebirth, reflecting cycles of endings and new beginnings through its rapid growth and versatile uses. The white flowers signify purity and spring , often incorporated into beauty rites and protective wreaths, while the dark berries evoke sorrow and the , linked to in Christian-influenced tales but also to in pagan contexts. Proverbs and literary references underscore elder's ambivalent lore. The English saying "Elder is the lady’s tree, burn it not or cursed ye be" cautions against harming the , invoking its protective spirit. alluded to its cursed reputation in , calling it "the stinking elder" as a symbol of grief, and in , referenced the legend of Christ's cross being made from elder wood, blending sorrow with redemption.

Representation in Art and Literature

Sambucus, commonly known as elder, has appeared in literature as a symbol of , , and the , often drawing from its folkloric associations. In Hans Christian Andersen's 1845 fairy tale "The Little Elder-Tree Mother," the elder tree is anthropomorphized as a benevolent maternal spirit who comforts a sick child with stories and elderflower tea, embodying themes of nurturing and regeneration rooted in Danish traditions. Similarly, in J.K. Rowling's series, the Elder Wand—crafted from elder wood—represents unparalleled power and mortality, echoing ancient myths where the tree serves as a conduit between . In poetry, elder motifs evoke natural cycles and medicinal heritage. Elisabeth Bletsoe's poem "Elder (Sambucus nigra)" from her 2009 collection portrays the plant as a source of ancient energy and transformation, with imagery of "leprous crystals" and "hyaline" woods symbolizing renewal amid decay. Contemporary foraging-themed novels, such as those exploring wildcrafting, occasionally feature elder as a emblem of self-sufficiency and connection to the wild, though specific depictions vary. Visual arts have depicted Sambucus in both scientific and symbolic contexts since medieval times. Illuminated manuscripts like the 6th-century Codex Rossanensis employed elderberry-derived lake pigments to create vibrant purples, marking an early use of the plant in artistic production for religious texts. Later botanical illustrations, such as the copperplate engraving of common elder (Sambucus nigra) in Robert Thornton's 1812 The British Flora, highlight its form and berries for herbal reference, blending art with ethnobotanical knowledge. In the early 20th century, Giovanni Giacometti's 1911 oil painting Family Portrait Under the Elder Tree integrates the shrub into a domestic landscape, evoking Romantic ideals of harmony with nature. Elder wood's acoustic qualities have influenced musical representations tied to . Traditionally hollowed stems form folk instruments like the Slovakian , a long bass pipe reaching up to 180 cm, used in shepherding and rituals across . flutes crafted from elder, prevalent in Carpathian folk traditions, produce melodic tones for and songs, symbolizing the tree's mystical in oral histories. Ballads such as traditional "Elder Tree" songs in British and Scandinavian repertoires reference the plant's protective spirit, often sung to invoke warding against misfortune. In tattoo art, Sambucus designs symbolize , , and abundance, with berry clusters representing fertility drawn from herbal lore. In East Asian herbal traditions, Sambucus williamsii is valued for its medicinal properties related to bone health, reflecting its cultural significance.

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